AP Biology Exam Guide
AP Biology Fall Exam ReviewNote: The exam is not limited to the content in this handout. This is a just a study guide, to guide you through your notes, power points, and reading.Chemistry of Life Water is a highly polar molecule due to the electronegativity of oxygen: the oxygen side has a slightly negative charge while the hydrogen side has a slightly positive charge, which allows for hydrogen bonding, the strong hydrogen attractions between molecules of water.Characteristics of water –11582408953500Cohesion is due to hydrogen bonds holding water molecules together. Adhesion is the clinging of one substance to another. Capillary action results from their combined forces and is important in the movement of water up a tree.11582404572000Greater surface tension than most other liquids.11582408318500115824027368500115824046418500High specific heat results in a stable environmental temperature for marine organisms. High heat of vaporization: evaporating water requires relatively greater amount of heat. Ice is less dense than water, allowing fish and other organisms to survive beneath a frozen pond in the anic compounds are compounds that contain carbon. The four classes of organic compounds are as follows:11582405143500Carbohydrates: consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. A disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides joined through condensation (removal of water), with hydrolysis (addition of water) being the reverse of condensation. Polysaccharides include cellulose (structure, plants), starch (storage, plants), chitin (structure, animals), and glycogen (storage, animals).11582404889500Lipids: includes fats, oil, waxes, and steroids. All are hydrophobic. Most lipids consist of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid tails (saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at the end). Steroids are lipids with four fused rings.11582404826000Proteins: carry out many functions in the body, such as signaling and catalyzing chemical reactions. Smallest units are amino acids, which join together with peptide bonds to create a polypeptide chains. Be familiar with the four levels of protein structure: 1) linear sequence of amino acids, 2) alpha helices or beta pleated sheets, 3) interactions between side chains, such as hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, Van der Waals, hydrophobic interactions, or disulfide bonds, 4) optional, refers to proteins consisting of more than one polypeptide chain.11582405270500Nucleic acids: ribonucleic (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic (DNA), responsible for carrying heredity information. Made of nucleotides, which consist of phosphate, a 5-carbon sugar deoxyribose or ribose, and a nitrogen base: adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine (DNA), or uracil (RNA).AP Biology Exam ReviewThe first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred – otherwise known as the law of conservation of energy. The second law of thermodynamics states that in the course of energy conversions, the entropy (disorder) in the universe decreases. Gibb’s free energy equation: L'G = L'H – TL'S, where L'G represents free energy change, L'H represents change in heat content, T represents absolute temperature, and L'S represents entropy.An exergonic reaction results in a net release of free energy, with L'G being negative – the reactants have more energy than the products. This models a spontaneous or “downhill” reaction. An endergonic reaction absorbs free energy, storing it in products, resulting in a positive L'G – the reactants have less energy than the products. This is an “uphill” reaction. ATP, adenosine triphosphate, powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions. In other words, through phosphorylation, the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to another molecule, an otherwise endergonic reaction can become exergonic.Catabolism is the breaking down of molecules, while the building of molecules is anabolism. Enzymes are catalytic proteins that speed up reactions by lowering the energy of activation.Characteristics of Enzymes:11582409207500Enzymes are substrate specific. Only the active site of an enzyme will bind to the substrate(s).11582404889500The induced-fit model states that as substrates enter the active site, they induce the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so that the substrate fits better.11582404889500Enzymes remain unchanged during a reaction and are reused. They catalyze reactions in both directions.11582404762500Enzymes are affected by temperature and pH. Enzymes are inactive in low temperatures, with activity reaching a peak point at a certain temperature. After this peak, enzymes will begin to denature. Too low or too high pH levels can also denature an enzyme.11582404572000In competitive inhibition, compounds resembling the substrate compete with the substrate for the same active site. In noncompetitive inhibition, binding of one substrate to another active site may block the other active site, preventing the other substrate from binding. In allosteric inhibition, the enzyme will have two active sites: one for a substrate and one for an inhibitor. The enzyme will oscillate between an active form and an inactive form, with an activator/inhibitor stabilizing the respective form.11582405270500In feedback inhibition, the end product of a series of reactions serves as the allosteric inhibitor of an enzyme earlier in the pathway.The cell theory has three basic tenets: all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of all organisms, and all cells arise from preexisting cells.Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus or internal membranes. DNA is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane and is circular, concentrated in the region called the nucleoid. They are mainly unicellular, with small cells. Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex, with distinct organelles, DNA enclosed in the nuclear membrane and wrapped around histones into chromosomes.Cell membranes consist of a phospholipid bilayer. A phospholipid is ampipathic, meaning it has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic region. Membrane proteins include integral proteins, which penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer, and peripheral proteins, which are loosely bound to the surface of the membrane. They are important in transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, intercellular joining, cell-cell recognition, and attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix. Cholesterol molecules are embedded in the interior of the bilayer to stabilize the membrane. Carbohydrates attached to the external surface are important for cell-to-cell recognition.It is important to remember that animal cells do not have chloroplasts, a central vacuole/tonoplast, cell wall, and plasmodesmata. Plant cells do not have lysosomes, centrioles, or flagella (except in some plant sperm).Subcellular Organization:11582408636000Nucleus: contains chromosomes, surrounded by selectively permeable nuclear membrane.11582404572000Ribosomes: the site of protein synthesis, found free in the cytoplasm or attached to endoplasmic reticulum.11582405270500The Endomembrane System:Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Smooth ER lacks ribosomes, while Rough ER has ribosomes located on its outer surface. Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, and detoxifies the cell of drugs and poison. Rough ER makes proteins and membranes.Golgi apparatus: the “FedEx” of the cell, modifying, packaging, and directing products to the appropriate sites.11582406350000Lysosomes: sacs of hydrolytic enzymes, the principal site of intracellular digestion. Play a role in apoptosis, programmed cell death. Not found in plant cells.11582404762500Peroxisomes: contain catalase, which converts hydrogen peroxide into water with the release of oxygen atoms.11582404572000Mitochondria: double-membraned, site of cellular respiration11582408953500115824028003500Chloroplasts: double-membraned, site of photosynthesis Vacuoles: single, membrane-bound structures for storage.11582405207000Cytoskeleton: network of protein filaments that extend throughout the cytoplasm in order to give the cell its shapeMicrotubules: hollow tubes, made of tubulin, found in cilia and flagellaMicrofilaments (actin filaments): two intertwined strands of actin, found in pseudopodia, cell division, muscle contraction, and cytoplasmic streamingIntermediate filaments: fibrous proteins coiled into thicker cables, anchors organelles and found in the nuclear laminaMitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells, while meiosis occurs in sexually reproducing organisms and results in haploid cells. The cell cycle consists of five major phases: G1, S, and G2, which comprise interphase, and mitosis and cytokinesis, which make up the cell division phase.Meiosis results in genetic variation:11582408636000Independent assortment of chromosomes: homologous pairs of chromosomes separate depending on the random way they line up on the metaphase plate during metaphase I. There is an equal chance that a particular gamete will receive a maternal chromosome or a paternal chromosome.11582405016500Crossover: crossover produces recombinant chromosomes, combining genes inherited from both parents.11582405143500Random fertilization: any sperm can fertilize any eggCyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases are responsible for controlling the cell cycle. Density- dependent growth factors prevent cells from continuing to divide if there are no longer any sites upon which to anchor. Cancer cells do not exhibit such inhibition and have escaped form cell cycle controls.Cellular Energetics Cellular respiration involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the ETC/oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis is the conversion of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. The net energy yield from glycolysis is 2 ATP and 2 NADH. After glycolysis, pyruvate will be converted into acetyl coenzyme A (Acetyl CoA). The Krebs cycle will then decompose Acetyl CoA into carbon dioxide, producing 2 NADH per glucose molecule. For every glucose molecule, there are 6 NADH produced, 2 FADH2 produced, and 2 ATP produced. Any ATP produced so far has been through substrate-level phosphorylation. At this point, NADH and FADH2 will be shuttled to the electron transport chain for oxidative phosphorylation. The total of 10 NADH will enter the electron transport chain at the beginning, while the two FADH2 enter further along. Oxygen functions as the final electron acceptor. As the electrons release energy, this energy is used topump protons (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, resulting in a concentration gradient. H+ will only be able to diffuse back across to the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthases. In chemiosmosis, the H+ will pass through a channel in ATP synthase and cause the oxidative phosphorylation of ADP, creating ATP. Chemiosmosis is an energy- coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of an H+ gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work. A maximum of 38 ATP can be created from one glucose molecule in cellular respiration.Fermentation, anaerobic respiration, is an alternate pathway that will recycle NAD+ and create a minimal amount of ATP. Pyruvate is converted to ethanol in alcohol fermentation and is converted to lactic acid in lactic acid fermentation.Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy from the sun to chemical energy stored in sugar and other organic molecules. Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in plants, with the light reactions taking place in the thylakoid membranes and dark reactions taking place in the stroma.The purpose of the light reactions is to convert light energy to the chemical energy stored in NADPH and ATP. Photosystem II absorbs light at the same time that Photosystem I does.When Photosystem II absorbs light, an electron excited to a higher energy level will be captured by the primary electron acceptor. This electron will pass down an ETC to Photosystem I. Electrons excited in Photosystem I will be accepted by another primary electron acceptor and pass to a second ETC and finally, to NADP+ reductase, which creates NADPH. Electrons are replaced in Photosystem II through photolysis, the splitting of water. As electrons fall down the ETC, ATP will be created in noncyclic photophosphorylation, providing energy for the synthesis of sugar during the Calvin cycle. In some cases, cyclic electron flow, which uses photosystem I but not photosystem II, will be used to compensate for the large amount of ATP consumed in the Calvin cycle.The Calvin Cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 into sugar. Three molecules of CO2 are required for the net synthesis of one molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphage (G3P). First, CO2 is fixed by the enzyme rubisco to ribulose biphosphate (RuBP), creating an extremely unstable 6-carbon molecule that immediately splits into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA). Thus, there are now 6 molecules of 3-PGA. These molecules are then phosphorylated and given a pair of electrons each from NADPH, creating 6 molecules of G3P. However, only one molecule will be used to create glucose, with the other five being incorporated back into the cycle to create RuBP for future use.Alternate methods of carbon fixation exist to prevent excessive water loss in hot, arid climates. These are the C4 pathway and CAM pathway. The C4 pathway uses bundle-sheath cells as a confined environment for CO2 to be fixed, while CAM plants open stomata during the night. ................
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