AP Psychology
AP Psychology
Unit 7B: Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language
Thinking & Problem Solving
Key Topics and Terms:
Thinking and Reasoning
Cognition
Concept
Prototype
Algorithm
Heuristic
Insight
Confirmation bias
Fixation
Mental set
Functional fixedness
Representative heuristic
Base rates
Availability heuristic
Overconfidence
Framing
Belief bias
Belief perseverance
Thinking
Cognition
mental activity associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering
Cognitive Psychology
the study of these mental activities
concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgment formation
study of both logical and illogical thinking
Thinking
Concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people
Prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
Forming Concepts
Concepts: Mental categories for similar objects
Logical (artificial)
Natural
How are concepts represented in consciousness?
Thinking
Methods for Problem Solving
Trial and Error:
Try one solution after another in no particular order until one works
Applying Prior Knowledge:
Map information you already have onto the new problem
Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone use of heuristics
Heuristic
rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
sometimes we’re unaware of using heuristics
Unscramble
S P L O Y O C H Y G
Algorithm
all 907,208 combinations
Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations
other heuristics?
Insight
sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
Fixation
inability to see a problem from a new perspective
impediment to problem solving
Fixation-Deterrents to Problem Solving
Mental Set
tendency to approach a problem in a particular way
especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
Functional Fixedness
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
impediment to problem solving
Consider these:
Karen is a 46 year-old, single female. She is a democrat, enjoys folk music, and attends pro-choice rallies.
Is she most likely a bank teller or a bank teller who reads feminist literature?
Steve is meek and tidy, has a passion for detail, is helpful to people, but has little real interest in people or real-world issues.
Is Steve more likely to be a librarian or a salesperson?
Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic
Availability Heuristic
Overconfidence
to be more confident than correct
to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments
Framing
the way an issue is posed
how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
presenting outcomes in terms of gains or losses
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?
Belief Bias
the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
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