AP Psychology



AP Psychology

Unit 7B: Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language

Thinking & Problem Solving

Key Topics and Terms:

Thinking and Reasoning

Cognition

Concept

Prototype

Algorithm

Heuristic

Insight

Confirmation bias

Fixation

Mental set

Functional fixedness

Representative heuristic

Base rates

Availability heuristic

Overconfidence

Framing

Belief bias

Belief perseverance

Thinking

Cognition

mental activity associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering

Cognitive Psychology

the study of these mental activities

concept formation

problem solving

decision making

judgment formation

study of both logical and illogical thinking

Thinking

Concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

Forming Concepts

Concepts: Mental categories for similar objects

Logical (artificial)

Natural

How are concepts represented in consciousness?

Thinking

Methods for Problem Solving

Trial and Error:

Try one solution after another in no particular order until one works

Applying Prior Knowledge:

Map information you already have onto the new problem

Algorithm

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone use of heuristics

Heuristic

rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

sometimes we’re unaware of using heuristics

Unscramble

S P L O Y O C H Y G

Algorithm

all 907,208 combinations

Heuristic

throw out all YY combinations

other heuristics?

Insight

sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Confirmation Bias

tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions

Fixation

inability to see a problem from a new perspective

impediment to problem solving

Fixation-Deterrents to Problem Solving

Mental Set

tendency to approach a problem in a particular way

especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

Functional Fixedness

tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

impediment to problem solving

Consider these:

Karen is a 46 year-old, single female. She is a democrat, enjoys folk music, and attends pro-choice rallies.

Is she most likely a bank teller or a bank teller who reads feminist literature?

Steve is meek and tidy, has a passion for detail, is helpful to people, but has little real interest in people or real-world issues.

Is Steve more likely to be a librarian or a salesperson?

Heuristics

Representativeness Heuristic

Availability Heuristic

Overconfidence

to be more confident than correct

to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments

Framing

the way an issue is posed

how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

presenting outcomes in terms of gains or losses

Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?

Belief Bias

the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning

sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid

Belief Perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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