Brinjal (Solanum melongena L
Chapter Topical breakdown Page
1 Importance, scope and status of vegetable and spices production in Nepal 1
2 Solanaceous crops 7
Potato 7
Tomato 13
Brinjal 19
Chilli, Sweet pepper and Paprika 23
3 Leafy vegetables 27
Broad Leaf Mustard (Rayo) 27
Spinach 28
Cress 30
Swiss chard 30
4 Cole crops 32
5 Root vegetables 38
Radish 38
Carrot 41
Turnip 43
6 Peas and Beans 46
7 Cucurbitaceous crops 53
8 Bulb crops 59
Onion 59
Garlic 62
9 Okra 63
10 Spice crops 65
Ginger 65
Turmeric 67
Coriander 68
Fenugreek 70
Cumin 72
11 Minor and under exploited vegetables 74
Chayote 74
Amaranthus 75
Lettuce 75
Pointed gourd 77
Brussels sprout 78
Drumstick 79
Asparagus 79
Cassava 80
Taro 81
Sweet potato 82
Celery 83
Chapter 1: Importance, present status and scope of vegetable production in Nepal
Introduction and importance
Vegetables comprise of a large number of annual, biennial and perennial plants. Vegetable could be defined as an edible usually a succulent plant or a part of it consumed with staples as a main course or as supplementary food in fresh, cooked or processed form. The definition depends on the use of the crop. A plant may be a vegetable in one country but a fruit, a weed, an ornamental or any other purpose in another country depending on the crop. In some cases, a plant could be a vegetable at a certain growth stage, for example papaya and young bamboo shoots are used as vegetable in the green stage.
The principle use of spices is in flavouring food and drinks and the crops grown for such purposes are called spices. They are also used in perfumery, soap making, medicine and dyeing. Both vegetable and spice crop production improve the economy of the farmers and diet of the people.
Nutritional importance
Vegetables play an important role in the balanced diet by supplying protective nutrients like minerals and vitamins. Indian Council of Medical Research has given a recommendation that an average man needs daily a diet which can provide: 2,800 calories, 55 g protein, 450 mg calcium, 20 mg iron, 3000 (g (-carotene, 50 mg vitamin C, 100 (g folic acid, 1.0 (g vitamin B12, 1.4 mg thiamine, 1.5 mg riboflavin, 19 mg niacin and 5 (g vitamin D. The food materials which provide these nutrients are the main item of a balanced diet. There are five major nutrients, namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. Vitamins and minerals are required in small amounts for physiological processes and metabolic activities of our body. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are required in larger quantities and they all supply energy to keep the body going. Vegetables as a source of these substances are discussed hereunder.
1. Carbohydrates
Some vegetables such as legumes, potato, sweet potato, onion, garlic are the good sources of carbohydrates. The daily requirements of carbohydrate is 400-450 g. Every 100 g fresh weight of the following vegetables contains the given amount of carbohydrates:
Spinach 4.3 g
Cauliflower 5.2 g
Peas 14.4 g
Colocasia 21.1 g
Potato 22.6 g
Yam 24 g
Sweet potato 38 g
2. Proteins
Most vegetables are poor in protein content. The leguminous vegetables such as peas, beans and cowpeas are rich in protein and supply as high as 14% protein. The daily requirement for protein is 60-80 g per head.
3. Fats
Vegetables are poor in fat content which is less than 0.1% in most of them. Peas and beans are the richest crop in fat which contain 3% of the fresh weight. Thus vegetables are not the good sources of carbohydrate, protein and fat.
4. Calorie
Energy supply is measured in calorie. One calorie is the amount of heat required to heat 1000
g of water by 1oC. One gram of carbohydrate produces 3.75 calories while one gram of protein and fat produce 4.1 and 9.3 calories respectively. Generally one person needs 2000-5000 calories per day depending on the nature of his job. One kg fresh weight of the following crops supply the given amount of calories.
Peas, potatoes - 740-940 Kcal
Watermelon, cabbage, onion - 300-500 Kcal
Cucumber, tomato, spinach - 150-270 Kcal
Bread - 2000 Kcal
Fats - 8800 Kcal
Vegetable crops are poor in calorie content but they are comparable to cereals in productivity.
5. Vitamins
Vitamins are required in the small quantities and are essential for growth, reproduction and maintenance of health. Vegetables are main sources of Vitamins A (Provitamin A), Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid), Vitamin B1 (Thiamine), Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin), Vitamin B6 (Pyrodoxin), Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin), Vitamin PP (Nicotinic acid), Vitamin BC (folic acid), Vitamin E, Vitamin K, Vitamin P (rutin) and Vitamin D.
Vitamin A is produced in our body from carotene which is present in higher amounts in leafy vegetables carrot, pumpkin etc. Vitamin B is present in appreciable amount in pea, beans, garlic, tomato, colocasia etc. Vitamin C rich vegetables are sweet pepper, bitter gourd, broccoli, leafy vegetables etc. Consumption of 100 g of leafy vegetables can supply 60-140 mg of Vitamin C, 100 (g of folic acid, 4-7 mg iron and 200-400 mg of calcium and 15% or more of the total protein intake.
6. Roughages
A certain amount of bulky food is necessary for good health. Roughage promotes digestion and prevents constipation. It also helps in moving food through alimentary canal. Root and leafy vegetables are the good source of roughage.
7. Minerals
Vegetables contain over 50 elements. The function of the mineral nutrients in human body are:
- they compose the skeleton and make it strong.
- they maintain the acid – alkaline balance in the organism and regulate the functions of all systems of vital activity.
- they are the components of such compounds such as haemoglobin, enzymes, vitamins, hormones etc. Major elements which are obtained from vegetables are calcium, iron and phosphorus. Onion, okra, asparagus, tomato and sweet pepper are rich in iodine. Vegetables play key role in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty foods and also maintain the alkaline nature of the blood.
8. Medicinal use of vegetables
About 40% of the total drugs has been derived from the plant materials which include significant number of vegetable crops. White cabbage contains Vitamin 'U' (ulcus) which prevents ulcer. Bitter gourd is used for treating diabetes. The ash gourd is useful for patients with weak nervous system. Vegetables contain antioxidants and bioflavonoids which neutralize free radicals formed during metabolism of foods, or by smoking or exposure to pollutants. The cole crops particularly broccoli contain sulforaphane glucosinolates which have anti-carcinogenic properties.
9. Flavour compound
Vegetables increase attractiveness and palatability of the diet. They contain volatiles (aldehydes, ketones etc) and non-volatiles (organic acids, sugar, fatty acids etc) flavour compounds. These compounds enhance appetite.
An average person with vegetarian and non-vegetarian food habit should consume 125 g of green leafy vegetables, 100 g of roots and tubers and 75 g other vegetables.
B. Economic importance
Commercial vegetable production has following economic advantages:
1. Vegetable production makes more effective use of land. For example, rice-wheat-maize. Only three crops can be grown, while rice-french bean-cucurbits-maize, 4 crops can be grown when vegetable crops are included.
2. Provides more farm employment. Vegetable cultivation is labour intensive. In a study made in Taiwan, tomato cultivation required 8020 labour hours/ha while rice cultivation only 761 labour hours/ha. Vegetable production has great potential for employing seasonally under employed farm workers.
3. Increases net returns to the farmers. Vegetable growers earn higher income than most other farmers. Vegetable crops produce relatively higher yields and their market price is also higher than of the cereals. The productivity is 5-10 times higher than the cereals.
4. Stimulates sub-urban employment. Vegetable production creates employment opportunity in marketing, transportation, processing and manufacturing of the packages.
5. Promotes export. Off-season vegetables and seeds of the vegetable crops requiring chilling temperature have great export potential to the southeast and south Asian countries.
6. Assists to solve the food problems. Vegetable crops produce higher yield per unit time, area and inputs than the other crops. For example, potato can yield 2 times more calories than a ha of rice or wheat. Amaranth and Kang Kong yield 10 t edible leaves per ha in 20-30 days. Onion produces 941 kg protein/ha while rice produces 414 kg/ha.
7. Facilitates the establishment of agro-based industries. Vegetable production provides raw materials to the agro-based industries. For example,
Canning industries – tomato, peas, beans
Pickling industries – cucumber, cauliflower
Flouring industries – potato, sweet potato
Alcohol and starch extraction – potato, yams, taro
• Present status of vegetable crops, vegetable seeds and spices crops production
|Items |Last year of the 9th|First year of 10th |Last year of the five year plans |
| |five year plan, |five year plan, | |
| |2058/59 |2059/60 | |
| | | |10th 2063/64 |11th 2068/69 |
|1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |
|Vegetable crops | | | | |
|Area, ha |161,048 |1,64,926 |200,000 |2,30,000 |
|Production, mt |17,38,086 |17,80,074 |23,10,000 |28,82,000 |
|Productivity, t/ha |10.79 |10.8 |11.55 |12.53 |
|Vegetable seeds | | | | |
|Seed demand, mt |1390 |1447 |1700 |1955 |
|Private seed prodn, mt |715 |675 |1000 (Target) |1400 (Target) |
|Import and farmers to farmers supply |675 |772 |700 ! |555 ! |
|Foundation seed demand |86 |92 |108 |124 |
The total production of vegetable crops in the fiscal year 2059/60 is 17,80,047 mt. The estimated population is 2,42,00,223 in the year 2003. The general per capita consumption in the year 2059/60 is 73.5 kg. The amount of postharvest losses is 20% and by reducing this amount the per capita consumption is reduced to 59 kg. In the fiscal year 2031/32, the total amount of vegetable production was 4,10,000 mt and productivity was 5 t/ha.
Potato cultivated area, production and productivity.
Fiscal year 2057/58
Area, ha 1,43,848
Production, mt 13,92,378
Productivity, t/ha 9.7
57.5 kg per capita
Proposed production program of spices crop in fiscal year 2058/59.
|Crops |Area, ha |Production, mt |
|Cardamom |10,000 |4,700 |
|Spices |12,000 |89,800 |
|Ginger |7,251 |68,885 |
|Garlic |1,748 |9,000 |
|Turmeric |1,309 |7,715 |
|Chillies |1,692 |4,200 |
|Total: |34,000 |1,84,300 |
Cardamom, ginger and turmeric are being exported while black pepper, chillies, green cardamum, ajwan, cumin, clove, and garlic are imported regularly.
• Scope of vegetable and spice crop production
1. Presence of different agroclimatic regions. Nepal has most diversified agroclimatic regions where various vegetables and spices and their seeds can be grown.
2. Increasing demands for fresh vegetables, spices and their seeds within the country. The required annual amount of vegetables for each individual is 109.5 kg. The present available amount is 59 kg. About 50% of the demand have been fulfilled. Similarly the vegetable seed demand of the fiscal year 2059/60 is 1,447 mt while only the 675 mt has been produced. The majority of the spice crops are being imported from India.
3. Export potential: Vegetables and vegetable seeds have great export potential to China and the countries of South-East and South Asia in winter-spring and summer-rainy season respectively.
4. Availability of human resources.
• Present constraints of vegetable production
1. Inadequate market information and production planning.
2. Vegetable growing is a risky job.
3. High postharvest losses.
4. Low yields.
5. Agricultural loans and inputs are not available in time.
6. Inadequate transport and storage facilities.
7. Inadequate production problem oriented research works.
8. Lack of efficient link between extension and research activities to provide farmers with new findings.
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Chapter 2: Solanaceous crops
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)
Origin
Potato originated in the Central Andean region of Peru and Bolivia. Potatoes were cultivated for centuries by South American Indians and the tubers were used as a common article of food. The Spaniards brought the potato from Peru to Spain in 1565. Within a few decades it became a valuable food crop of Italy, France and Ireland. An epidemic of potato blight resulted in a great European famine in 1845-46. In Ireland alone about one million people died of hunger and about the same number migrated to America to avoid starvation and death. It was introduced to India from Europe in the beginning of the 17th century, probably by Portuguese. Evidences show that potato was in cultivation in Kathmandu valley at the end of 18th century.
Area and production
Potato is one of the four major food crops of the world. The other three crops being rice, wheat and maize. The global area under potato during 1998 was about 18 million ha with a total production of 295 million tones. Among the major potato growing countries of the world, the top fives are China, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Poland and India. In Nepal, the area under potato is 1,43,848 ha in fiscal year 2057/058 B.S. Potato ranks sixth position in area after rice, maize, wheat, millet and oil crops and fourth position in production after rice, maize and wheat. It is cultivated in all 75 districts of Nepal. In 1972,National Potato Development Program has been established.
Food value and other uses
Potato produces more dry matter food, well balanced protein and more calories from unit area of land and time than other major food crops. Potato is a nutritious food. It is one of the principal cash crops. Every 100 g of fresh potato contains: moisture – 74.7 g, protein – 1.6 g, carbohydrates – 22.6 g, Ca – 10 mg, P – 44 mg, iron – 0.7 mg and vitamin C – 17 mg. It also contains good amount of amino acids like leucine, tryptophane and isoleucine. Solanine is a group of alkaloids found in foliage, roots and tubers. Solanine content ranges from less than 10 mg per 100 g to more than 30 mg per 100 g. Potatoes containing more than 20 mg per 100 g are unfit for food.
Botany
Plant is perennial but cultivated as an annual. The tuber is an enlarged underground modified stem produced at the end of a stolon. The stem is herbaceous, round and angular, pubescent or glabrous, green or purplish. The leaves arise along the stem in a spiral arrangement. The root is adventitious, arising from the base of a sprout. The leaves are alternate and compound.
Climate and soil
Deep alluvial soils with almost neutral or alkaline soil reaction are most suitable. The soil reaction between 4.8 to 5.2 can control the disease potato scab.
Climate
Potato is basically a cool season crop. Potatoes have different temperature requirement for different growth stages. For the period emergence to tuber initiation the optimum temperature is 25oC. For the period tuber initiation to early stage of tuber development low temperatures (15 to 18oC are) are favourable. For the period tuber enlargement and maturation higher temperatures (29oC) are favourable. Good crop growth is observed when days are sunny and nights are cool. Most potato genotypes do not tuberize when the night temperature is more than 23oC. Long days promote vine growth, while short days stimulate the production of tubers. Tubers develop most rapidly when day temperatures are 20-21oC and night temperatures are below 14oC.
Cultivars
1. Local Red Round: Plant erect, fruitless, tuber- medium, round, red and has good storability, susceptible to the disease.
2. Magnum Bonum: Plant erect, suitable to grow during rainy season, tuber– large, white, elongated and popular in high hills.
3. Up to Date: Popular in hills, plant- tall, tuber- white, smooth, egg shaped, has good storability, susceptible to the diseases.
4. Beate: Plant tall, erect, medium maturity; tuber- red, egg shaped, resistant to late blight.
5. T-0012: Plant erect, tuber- large, red, round, tolerant to rain and hail.
6. Kufri Chandramukhi: Suitable for Terai, tuber- white egg shaped, early maturing good storability.
7. N.P.I. 106: Medium maturity, tolerant to blight, wart and slow rate of degeneration.
8. N.P.I. 108: Tuber- large, round, smooth, tolerant to the diseases as N.P.I. 106
9. Cardinal: Medium maturity, tuber- large, red, egg shaped. Some extent tolerant to blight and resistant to wart.
10. Desiree: Matures in 90-120 days, the average yield is 18 t/ha, the cultivar is recommended for high hills, mid hills and Terai.
11. Kufri Jyoti: Medium in maturity, suitable for mid and high hills, tuber- large, smooth, white, egg shaped, resistant to late blight and wart.
12. Kufri Sindhuri: Suitable to Terai, very late, plant erect, tall, tuber- light red, round, smooth, susceptible to late blight.
13. Janak Dev: Matures in 100-120 days, average yield 23 t/ha, recommended for mid hills and Terai.
14. Khumal Rato: Very early (90-100 days), high yielder, suitable for low hills, inner Terai and Terai.
15. Khumal Seto: Medium maturity (100-120 days), very high yielder, suitable for mid hills and high hills.
Cultivation practices
Planting time: Potato is grown in autumn, winter and spring seasons in the southern plains and during summer, rainy and autumn seasons in the hills. The best time of planting is when the maximum and minimum temperatures are between 30-32oC and 10-20oC. The planting time in different altitudes is given below.
| |Geographical regions |Crop type |Planting time |Harvesting time |
|1. |Terai (below 300 m asl) |Early crop |Aug-Sep |Nov-Dec |
| | |Main crop |Oct |Feb |
| | |Late crop |Nov-Dec |Mar |
|2. |Mid hills (300 – 1500 m asl) |Winter crop |Aug-Nov |Nov-Feb |
| | |Spring crop |Dec-Feb |Apr-Jun |
|3. |High hills (1501-3000 m asl) |Summer/rainy |Feb-Mar |Jul-Aug |
|4. |Very high hills (above 300 m asl) |Summer/rainy |Mar-Jun |Aug-Oct |
Seed, seed rate and spacing
Potato is propagated through tubers. Potato tubers have a dormancy of nearly 8-10 weeks. The multiple sprouting stage is the best stage for planting. Storage of seed tuber under diffused light is a good way for obtaining numerous, vigorous green sprouts that emerge rapidly and uniformly. Only well sprouting seed tubers are planted. Tuber is planted either whole or cut pieces having 2-3 buds, 40-50 g weight and 40-50 mm diameter. The seed tubers taken from cold storage are spread in shade for 8-12 days with one or two turning daily. This will encourage sprouting. The dormant tubers are treated with 1 ppm GA for one hour and dried in shade. The tubers can be treated with 0.2% solution of Bavistin for 20 minutes to avoid soil borne diseases.
Spacing: 45-60 x 15-25 cm
Seed rate: 10-15 q/ha, a stem number of 30 main stem/m2 have been found to be optimum.
Soil preparation
First ploughing is made at the depth of 20-35 cm and clods are broken. Additional 2-3 harrowings are made to make the soil fine and levelled.
Planting method
The usual methods of planting are three. They are:
a) Planting potatoes on ridges. Ridges are made at a distance of 45-60 cm with the help of spade. Planting of well sprouted seed tuber is done on the ridges at the depth of 10-15 cm.
b) Flat method. Seed tubers are planted in shallow furrows and the furrows are filled with soil. Ridges are made when the plants attain 10-12 cm height.
c) Planting potatoes on flat surface followed by ridges. Shallow furrows are made on the flat surface. Potatoes are planted in the furrows and immediately after planting small ridges are made.
Manures and fertilizers
Potatoes are heavy feeder. Very high dose of N reduces starch content and quality of the tubers, delays maturity and makes tubers more susceptible to skinning and braising during harvest. Phosphorus increases tuber yield by increasing the yield and number of medium size tubers whereas potassium increases the number of large size tubers. Potato has high response to manuring. 20-30 t FYM is applied 3-4 weeks before planting. As a basal dose, 80:80:80 NPK kg/ha is applied in the furrows. Crop is side dressed with 40 kg N/ha just before the first earthing up. Application of fertilizers in the furrows 5 cm below or far from the seed potato is most effective.
Irrigation
Potato is a shallow rooted crop and needs frequent irrigation at the dry conditions. The critical stages for water requirements are pre-planting, stolonization, initiation of tuber formation and tuber development. Light and frequent irrigations are better than heavy and less frequent irrigations.
Hoeing
The weeds should be removed as soon as they appear by hoeing and keep the soil loose.
Earthing up
After 30-35 days of planting tuberization starts, this is the stage when the plants should be earthing up. Second earthing up is done after 30 days from the first.
Mulching
Mulch helps in conserving soil moisture, reducing soil-temperature, inducing quick germination and suppresses weed growth. Mulching is more essential for spring-summer crop.
Harvesting
Crop becomes ready for harvest when the plants become yellow and start to dry. The irrigation should be stopped before dehaulming. The crop should be harvested about 15 days after cutting the haulms. Digging is done with spade. Spraying of maleic hydrazide at 500-2500 ppm one to two weeks before harvest prevents sprouting in the storage.
Yield
Average yield of potato in Nepal is 9.7 t/ha. With recommended package of practices, an yield of 30 to 40 t/ha can be obtained.
Postharvest, handling and storage
After harvesting potatoes are kept in heaps in cool places for 10-15 days for curing. Curing is done at 15-20oC and 85-95% relative humidity to permit suberization and wound perioderm formation. Before grading all the cut, damaged, rotten and green tubers are removed. The tubers are graded according to sizes e.g. small (below 25 g), medium (26-50 g), large (51-75 g) and extra large (above 75 g). The graded potatoes are packed in 50 kg jute bags. The seed potatoes are treated with 3% boric acid solution for 30 minutes against soil borne pathogens, e.g. black scurf and common scab.
Storage
Potato being a semi-perishable commodity and needs proper storage facilities. The potatoes are stored in pits, diffused light storage rooms, thatched mud wall rooms, etc up to the month of June-July. Potatoes are stored at 2.2 to 3.3oC and 75-80% relative humidity in cold store.
Seed plot technique for seed tuber production
The high hills are the traditional sources of healthy seed tuber as population of aphids remain low due to low temperatures and incidence of viruses was low in hill grown tuber. The 'seed plot technique' consists of raising the healthy seed tuber crop during low aphid period in Terai during October-January and cutting of haulms and harvesting the crop before they cross damaging level. The essential components of the technique are:
1. Use of disease-free seed only.
2. Blind earthing up of crop before crop emergence.
3. Planting, dehaulming and harvesting of crop based on aphid appearance.
4. Application of granular systemic insecticide at planting/earthing up and
5. Removal of off-types and diseased plants from the crop. The low hills and the plains have now emerged as the major producer of healthy seed potatoes.
True potato seed (TPS)
TPS is free from most of the degenerative diseases and can serve as an alternative source of seed. The potato seed resemble the tomato seed. TPS technology has many advantages over seed tuber technology:
1. Low disease transmission,
2. High resistance to many diseases,
3. Low incidence of viruses,
4. Less amount of seed (150 g/ha) is required,
5. Low transport and storage cost,
6. TPS can be grown in all potato growing regions,
7. TPS can produce equal to or more than the seed tubers,
TPS can be used in two-ways for commercial potato production.
1. Transplanted seedling method:
Nursery production.
- About 60 m2 nursery area is enough to produce seedlings for transplanting a hectare of land.
- Seed rate: 150 g/ha
- Sowing time: October
- Transplanting: at 50 x 10 cm spacing (other practices as in the seed tuber)
2. Seedling tuber method:
Seedlings tubers are produced by transplanting seedlings in nursery beds at 10 x 15 cm spacing or direct seeding of TPS at the same distance. About 40 g seed (TPS) and 160 m2 nursery bed can produce tubers for planting one ha.
The yield of tuberlets is 5 kg/m2 or about 500 tubers/m2.
Tuberlets of above 5 g weight can be used as seed for raising the commercial crop.
Spacing: 50 x 20 cm for 20-40 g weight tubers and 50 x 15 cm for 10-12 g tubers.
Diseases and their control
1. Late blight (Phytophthora infestans): Spray Dithane M-45 @ 2.5 g/litre of water at 10-12 days interval.
2. Early blight (Alternaria solani): As in late blight.
3. Black scurf (Rhizoctonia solani): Dipping of seed tubers in 0.5% Agallol solution for 10 minutes and soil treatment with Brassicol @ 20-30 kg/ha.
4. Bacterial wilt and brown rot (Pseudomonas solanacearum): The most common symptoms are sudden wilting of the plant, browning of vascular bundles in the stem and tubers show a brown ring inside. Use of disease free tubers, keeping cut tubers at 12oC for 4 days to harden the cut surface and tuber treatment with Agallol.
5. Wart disease (Synchitrium endobioticum): The disease is recognised by appearance of tumours on tubers, stems and stolons. Use disease free tubers and wart immune cultivars.
6. Mosaic: Use of healthy seed tubers, regular field inspection and spray the crop with Rogor @ 600-700 ml/500-600 litres per ha at 10-15 days interval.
7. Leaf roll: The control measures recommended for mosaic disease are effective for leaf roll disease also.
Insect pests and their control
1. Epilachan beetle (12 and 28 spotted): The grubs and adults both damage the crops. Spraying with 0.2% Sevin 50 wp @ 1000 litres of water/ha.
2. Cutworms (Agrotis ipsillon): The caterpillars cut the twigs, leaves or entire potato plant. Flooding and soil treatment with Temik 10G @ 8-10 kg/ha or Carbafuran 3G @ 30 kg/ha at the time of planting.
3. Aphids (Myzus persicae): Spray Rogor 30EC @ 600 ml/1000 litres water/ha.
4. Leaf hoppers (Empoasca spp.): The nymphs and adults suck the cell sap. Application of Carbafuran 3G, Temik 10G or Thimet 10G at the time of planting.
5. White grub (Phyllophaga spp.): The grubs feed on roots, stems and tubers. Apply Heptachlor 5% or Aldrin 5% dust @ 45-60 kg/ha or Carbafuran 3G or Thimet 10G @ 30 kg/ha or Temik 10G @ 15 kg/ha at the time of planting.
6. Potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella): The caterpillars mine the leaves and make tunnel in the potato.
• Store in cold stores.
• In ordinary store a 2.5-5 cm thick sand layer should be spread below and above the heap of potato.
• Spray 1% Malathion on and around the heap of seed potato
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill)
Introduction
Tomato as a popular vegetable crop ranks second in importance to potato in many countries. The fruits are eaten raw or cooked. Tomatoes are also used to produce soup, juice, ketchup, puree, paste and powder. Tomatoes adds colours and flavours to the curries and other foods. They are also used for pickles and preserves. Altogether 25,000 ha of land is under tomato cultivation in Nepal.
Food value
According to Chatfield (1949 and 1954) 100 g of edible portion of tomato contains 94.1 g water, 1.0 g protein, 0.3 g fat, 4.0 g carbohydrates, 0.6 g fibre, vitamin C 23 mg, potassium 268 mg, iron 0.6 mg, and phosphorus 27 mg. It is very useful in bronchitis and asthma.
Origin
Majority of the evidences favour Mexico as the region of origin for cultivated tomato that was first transported to the old world. Peru and Ecuador are also rich in the wild and cultivated forms of tomato. Bailey (1949) classified tomatoes into two species, L. esculentum and L. pimpinellifolium, with 5 botanical varieties in L. esculentum, namely var. commune (common tomato), var. grandifolium (large-leafed tomato), var. validum (upright tomato), var. cerasiforme (cherry tomato) and var. pyriforme (pear tomato). The immediate ancestor of cultivated tomato was probably L. esculentum var. cerasiforme found throughout tropical and subtropical America.
Botany
Tomato is a herbaceous annual plant with bisexual flowers. The fruit is true berry. A number of lateral branches develop from the axil of the leaves on main stem resulting in a bushy plant. Numerous hairs and oil glands are found on the stem. Leaves are alternate and compound. The tomato plants have determinant and indeterminate types of growth habit. In indeterminate type, the stems terminate in the vegetative bud. Indeterminate type, the stem terminates in the flower bud. The in determinate type bear flower cluster at every third internode separated by three leaves (Dhesi and Nandpuri, 1968). The determinate have flower cluster at every internode. Maximum pollen germination and fruit setting are reported at around 21oC.
Soil
Tomatoes thrives best on fertile and well drained sandy loam to clay soil with pH between 6.0 to 7.0. Deep fertile sandy loam is considered best for high yields. Winter crop thrives better on light to medium textured soils while the main season crop performs well on medium to heavy soils.
Climate
Tomato is a warm season crop, sensitive to frost and requires an average temperature of 18-27oC for proper growth, development and fruiting. It is highly susceptible to frost. Critical factor in setting of fruit is the night temperature. The optimal range was 15 to 20oC. Fruits failed to set at 13oC or below. When the average maximum day temperature is above 32oC and average minimum night temperature is about 21oC, fruit set is low. Ranges between 30 and 45oC causes marked reduction in fruit set. At temperature below 10oC tomato does not develop red or yellow colour. At temperature between 10-25oC red and yellow pigments are produced. Red colour development is suppressed above 30oC. At temperature above 40oC, lycopene is destroyed and red colour development does not occur.
Cultivars
1. Pusa Ruby (Released in 1989): It is an early variety. Fruits mature for first harvest in 60-65 days after transplanting. Plants are semi-determinate and stem colour purple at cotyledon stage. Plants hardy and vigorous; leaves comparatively narrow; flowers in truss. Fruits are flattish round, initially light green turning red when ripe, very light furrowing, multichambered, seed content comparatively high.
2. Monprecos (Released in 1994): It is an early to mid-season variety and seed is mostly produced in mid-hills valley during spring/early summer. Fruits mature for first harvest in 80-90 days after transplanting. Stem colour red at cotyledon stage, light purple plants, indeterminate, erect, tall and vigorous. Fruits are globe shaped, smooth, 5-6 cm in diameter, whitish green initially turning uniformly red when ripe, fruit chambered with firm flesh.
3. Roma (Released in 1994): It is a mid-season variety with very good keeping quality, which makes it popular for long distance transportation. Fruits are ready for first harvest in 60-70 days after transplanting. Stem colour at cotyledon stage purple, plants determinate, bushy, good foliage cover. Leaves are broader and resemble potato leaf. Fruits are elliptical, smooth, initially light green and becoming uniformly red when ripe, bi-chambered fruits with tick and firm flesh.
4. NCL-1 (Released in 1994): Initially introduced from Asian Vegetable Research and Development centre, Taiwan as CL 1131, it has now been released by variety release sub-committee as NCL-1. It is a heat resistant variety, fruits ready for first harvest in 65-75 days after transplanting. Stem at cotyledon stage is light green, plants are semi-determinate and vigorous. Fruits are plum shaped to flattish round, thick skinned and firm; initially greenish white turning yellowish red with a slight green shoulder when ripe. This variety is field tolerant to bacterial wilt, suitable for rainy season and autumn harvest. It is suitable for long distance transportation.
5. Pusa Early Dwarf: Early variety, fruits ripe in 60-65 days after transplanting, flattish round, uniformed, smooth surface, seed content comparatively higher, determinate growth habit.
Various other open-pollinated and hybrid cultivars are being cultivated in Nepal.
Sowing time
In the mid hills, low hills, inner terai and terai of Nepal where winter is frost free and mild and the minimum and maximum temperatures range between 5 to 25oC tomato is sown in August-September and harvested in November-March. For spring-summer crop sowing is done in January-March and harvest is done in April-June in the above regions. For rainy season crop, sowing is done in April-May and harvesting is done in June-September in the middle and high hills of Nepal. This is known as off-season crop.
Seed rate:
500-600 g seeds of open pollinated and 125-175 g of hybrid will be sufficient to plant one ha. Seeds are treated with Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed.
Nursery raising
Nursery should be at a sunny location and should have better irrigation and drainage facilities. About 100-125 m2 area will be sufficient for raising the seedling to plant one ha. Soil should be prepared well by repeated harrowing. Beds one meter wide and 5 meter long should be prepared and leveled. Ten kg of FYM/bed should be mixed thoroughly. The nursery bed is drenched with 0.2% Brassicol or Captan. One cm deep furrows are made at 10 cm distance and seeds are sown at 1 cm distance. Cover the furrows with soil and light irrigation is given. Then the beds are covered with a thin layer of dry grass. Weeding, hoeing and irrigation should be done as per requirement. Seedlings are sprayed with Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% and Metasystox @ 0.1% at 10 days interval. Seedlings become ready for transplanting after 4 to 6 weeks of seed sowing. The seedlings 5 mm in diameter and 15 cm in height are found better for field settings.
Field preparation
Field is prepared by first ploughing with soil turning plough and afterwards 4-5 harrowings. Ploughing is followed by levelling. Tomato is planted in raised beds of 60 to 75 cm width.
Manuring and fertilization
Application of 15-20 tonnes of FYM and 100 kg N, 60 kg each of P2O5 and K2O will produce better yield per hectare. The whole amount of FYM, P2O5, and K2O and ½ of N be added at the time of land preparation and rest N in two splits be side dressed first split after 20-25 days of transplanting and the second at pre-flowering stage. Sometimes the crop suffers due to boron deficiency which may cause cracking in fruits. This can be corrected by spraying the crop with Borax at the rate of 0.3% at 15 days interval. Apply 50 kg of zinc sulphate per hectare as a basal dose when tomato follow an exhaustive crop rotation like wheat-paddy.
Transplanting
The seedling should be transplanted in the evening hours to avoid mortality. Indeterminate varieties are transplanted at the distance of 75 cm between the rows and 60 cm within rows while determinate at a distance of 60 cm between the rows and 45 cm within the rows. A light irrigation should be given immediately just after transplanting the crop.
Irrigation and drainage
In hot condition, crop should be irrigated at weekly interval while during winter crop should be irrigated at 15-20 days' interval. Fluctuation in soil moisture from complete dry to heavy moist may cause cracking of fruits. During rainy season, permanent drainage system should be made in the field.
Weed control
The crop should be free from weeds from very beginning till the crop is over. The number of weedings and hoeings depends upon the reason of crop. The crop requires less weedings in winter while maximum number is required in rainy season.
Staking
Staking has proved to be very useful in the cultivation of tomato. Staking not only increases the yield and improve its quality but also reduces the infection by fungal diseases. Wood sticks can be used for staking the tomato plants.
Mulching
MulZching checks the crop from touching the ground. Mulching is done about one month after transplanting.
Use of growth regulators
A spray of 2,4-D solution (5 ppm) at 30, 45 and 60 days after transplanting or dipping of seeds in 5 ppm solution of 2,4-D for 24 hours before sowing increases the fruit set and reduces the effect of virus in the crop. Similarly spray of GA 5 ppm increases the percentage of fruit set in the crop.
Pruning, twisting and training
The main stem is allowed to grow but each auxiliary shoot is pruned as soon as it appears. The string tied vertically between the horizontal string at the base and horizontal stick at the top is twisted around the plant clockwise such that it keeps the plant straight. When the plant grows up to a height of 1.5-1.8 m, the plants are lowered gently so as to avoid the breaking of the main stem. All the leaves below the cluster to be picked up should be removed.
Harvesting
During summer season, fruits should be harvested at turning stage while during winter season, fruits at more mature stage should be harvested. For canning and processing, completely ripened fruits should be harvested to get better colour in the product. The different maturity stages of tomato are immature green, mature green, breaker (turning) pink, hard ripe and over ripe. Red ripe tomatoes are preferred for local market and processing use and fruits at matured green and pink are preferred for long-distance market and storage. Ethrel treatments (1,000 ppm) of harvested fruits enhance the ripening. Fruits are normally picked at an interval of 4-5 days in summer and at weekly interval in winter.
Yield
Open pollinated varieties: 15-25 t/ha
Hybrid varieties may yield up to 50 t/ha.
Handling and marketing
Unripe, less coloured and damaged fruits are discarded. Tomato is graded for specialized city markets. Large heap of fruit should be discouraged at farmers' field and should be kept undershade. Wooden, plastic or iron boxes/crates should be used to transport the produce to the distance market. Pre-cooling of tomato after harvest and prior to storage and transportation are reported to prolong their storage life. Tomato fruits at mature green stage could be stored successfully at 12-13oC in polythene bags of 100 gauze thickness for 4-5 weeks. The ripe tomatoes can be kept for ten days at 4.5oC.
Seed production
Tomato is a self-pollinated crop and an isolation distance of 50 and 25 m should be maintained for foundation and certified seeds. The best time for planting the seed crop is January to mid February in plains since it is not affected by the viruses due to low temperature.
The crop should be inspected thrice, first at before flowering, second at the time of flowering and the third at fruit ripening. The plants affected by viruses and other diseases should be removed whenever observed in the crop. The ripened fruits are harvested, crushed in wooden boxes and allowed to ferment for 24-72 hours. Seeds are washed with water through a sieve and dried in the sun. Seed yield 110-200 kg/ha.
Diseases and their control
1. Damping off (Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium and Phytophthora sp.): Seed treatment with Ceresan @ 2-3 g/kg seed and sterilize the nursery bed by formaline.
2. Early blight (Alternaria solani): Spray the crop with Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% solution at weekly intervals. Seed treatment with Ceresan and follow proper crop rotation.
3. Late blight (Phytophthora infestans): Control measures as in early blight.
4. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium sp.): Control measures are use of resistant varieties (Marglobe, Pant T1), follow crop rotation and use healthy seeds.
5. Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas sp.): Plant start wilting suddenly and do not recover. Use resistant varieties and treat the seed with Ceresan @ 2 g/kg seed.
6. Fruit rot (Phytophthora lycopersici): Brown spots are formed on the fruits. Staking and proper drainage are essential.
7. Leaf curl: The leaves start puckering, curling and get reduced in size. It is spread by white fly. Spray Metasystox @ 0.15% at 10 days interval and remove affected plants.
8. Sun injury: Use varieties having abundant foliage.
Insect pests and their control
1. Cut worm: They cut the plants from the ground level in the night. Soil application of Aldrin 5% or Heptachlor 5% dust @ 25 kg/ha.
2. Jassids (Empoasca devestan): They suck the sap from the leaves and cause curling. Spray Metasystox @ 0.15% at 15 days interval.
3. Epilachna beetle (Epilachna vigintioctopunctata): Both larvae and adults feed on the leaves and the plant becomes leafless. Spray with Sevin @ 0.2% at 10 days interval.
4. Fruit borer (Heliothis armigera): Serious attack is observed in the April and May. Spray Sevin @ 0.2% at 10 days interval.
5. Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita, M. arenaria, M. javanica): Knot like irregular swellings are formed on the roots of affected plants. The plants become dwarf, start yellowing and finally start wilting. Proper crop rotation, use of resistant varieties (S-120), use sawdust in the soil @ 1.5-2.0 t/ha 3 weeks before planting and 6-7 litres Nemagon/ha.
Disorders
Blossom end rot: This disorder occurs due to reduced soil moisture especially at fruit development stage. This disease also occurs due to calcium deficiency. Any cultural practices which conserve soil moisture and spraying of calcium help in controlling the disease.
Cracking: Radial cracking is more damaging as compared to concentric cracking. Genetical factors as well as environmental factors are responsible for cracking. Use of resistant varieties (Sioux, Manulucie) and picking of fruit before full ripening reduces the incidence of cracking.
Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.)
Introduction
Brinjal is a popular warm season vegetable crop. The unripe fruits are used as vegetable alone or with potatoes and tomatoes or in curries. The fruits are an excellent remedy for those suffering from liver troubles. White brinjal is said to be good for diabetic patients. The presence of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic and lenolenic) and magnesium and potassium salts drops cholesterol level in blood.
Origin: Brinjal is a native of Nepal, India and China.
Botany
The plant is erect, semi-erect or prostrate and herbaceous. Stem is wooly, spiny or non-spiny with or without pigmentation. Leaves are opposite, large ovate or oblongish-ovate. Flower is pentamerous and hermaphrodite, solitary or in 2-7 flowered cyme. Brinjal flowers are divided into four types, namely (i) long styled (ii) medium styled (iii) pseudo-short styled and (iv) short styled. The fruit setting of long and medium styled flowers ranged between 70% and 86% and between 12.5% and 55.6% respectively. There is no fruit setting in pseudo-short and short styled flowers. Ovary is two locular with multi-ovules. Fruit colour may be nearly black, different shades of purple or violet-purple, uniformly green, variegated green or variegated purple. Fruit shape may be long, oblong, oval, round, obvoid ellipsoid, egg shaped, spherical, cylindrical or elongated. On maturity the fruit becomes brown or yellow to bright orange. Fruits are small to large in size.
Soil
Sandy soils are good for an early crop production while clay-loam are good for heavy production. The best pH range of soil is 5.5-6.6 for better growth development of crop.
Climate
Brinjal is susceptible to frost. A long warm growing season with temperature range of 21-27oC is most favourable for its successful production. It is hardier than tomato in the sense that it can tolerate drought and heavy rain.
Cultivars
1. Pusa Purple Long: Early variety, fruits ready for first harvest in 50-60 days and seed crop mature in 80-100 days after transplanting. Plants are semi-erect and bushy, leaves and stem are light green with some spines but no spines on calyx. Fruits are 25-30 cm long and 4 cm in diameter, smooth, glossy light purple in colour borne singly and touch the ground.
2. Sarlahi Green: Medium season variety, fruits ready for first harvest in 60-70 days and the seed crop mature in 100-110 days after transplanting. Plants are bushy, vigorous and green without any pigmentation. Fruits are 20-25 cm long, thick, light green with spineless calyx and borne singly.
3. Purple Round: Early variety, fruits ready for first harvest in 55-65 days after transplanting. Fruits round dark purple colour, plants medium tall, spreading spineless.
4. Pusa Kranti: Medium season variety, fruiting in 60-70 days after transplanting, fruits oblong, dark purple coloured plant bushy dwarf, spreading growth habit, suitable for both spring and autumn planting.
5. Nurki: Plant medium, stem and leaves pinkish in colour, thronless leaves and stem but thrones are in fruit petiole. Fruit 15-20 cm long, 4-5 fruits in a bunch. Maturity 60-70 days.
6. Pusa Cluster: Plant is violet, leaf and stem spiny, fruits small (10 cm length and 3-4 cm diameter). First harvest in 50-60 days after transplanting.
Raising of nursery
Winter sowing takes 6-8 weeks for the seedlings to be of size while summer sowing takes 4 weeks. Normally twelve beds of 5 x 1 m size are required to raise the seedling for one hectare. One centimetre deep furrows are made at 15 cm distance and the seeds are sown one centimeter apart in these furrows. The furrows are filled with fine soil. Light irrigation is given. Then the bed is covered with a thin layer of dry grass or rice straw. When the germination is completed the mulch is removed. For safeguarding, the seedlings are sprayed with Dithane M-45 @ 2 g/litre of water.
Seed rate
Normally 600-800 g of common varieties and 200-300 g of hybrid varieties will be sufficient to raise the seedlings for planting one ha of land.
Sowing time
Regions Sowing/transplanting Harvesting
1. In hills and Terai February-March-April May-September
2. In low hills and Terai July-August-September October-April
Field preparation
Brinjal is a long duration crop and is a good yielder. Soil is prepared to fine tilth by giving 4-5 ploughings. Poor soils should be heavily manured.
Transplanting
Seedlings having a height of 10-12 cm with 3-4 leaves are selected and transplanted. Four spacings are generally recommended, 60 x 45 cm, 75 x 60 cm, 75 x 75 cm and 45 x 45 cm. Highly vigorous bushy and late bearing cultivars need wider distance as compared to dwarf, upright and early cultivars.
Manure and fertilizers
Application of 20-25 t FYM/ha and 50:50:50 NPK kg/ha as basal dose. Side dressings are given after 30 and 60 days of transplanting each with 25 kg N/ha. An amount of 7.6 kg N, 1.4 kg P and 17.3 kg K are required to produce one ton of brinjal fruits. A starter solution of nitrogen (2.5 kg N in 500 litre water/ha) improves yield. Soil application of ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha and CuSO4 @ 12.5 kg/ha also improves yield.
Interculture and weed control
Brinjal is a slow growing crop and it can not compete with fast growing weeds. Shallow inter-cultivation is practiced to control the weeds. Three to four hoeings are needed for an effective control of weeds, proper aeration and good growth of the plants.
Mulching
It is not common in brinjal but it has beneficial effects. Mulching with black polythene film reduces weed growth, accelerates crop growth, induces early bearing and increases yield.
Irrigations
Brinjal requires several irrigations for successful cultivation. High yields are obtained under optimum moisture conditions. Irrigation is applied every 3rd, 4th day during hot weather and 10-15 days in winter.
Earthing up: In some areas, plants are earthed up at each side dressing.
Use of growth substances
Some growth substances have beneficial effects on fruit set. Application of 2,4-D (2 ppm) at flowering induces parthenocarphy, increases fruit set, advances fruit maturation and significantly increases the yield. A significant increase in yield (50%) can be obtained by whole plant spray of 2,4-D at 2 ppm at intervals of one week over a period of 60-70 days from commencement of flowering. Spraying of 2,4-D (2.5 ppm), 4 CPA (20 ppm), NAA (60 ppm) alone or with BA (30 ppm) improved fruit set in brinjal.
Harvesting
The first harvest starts from 55-60 days after transplanting. The tender fruits having good size and attractive glossy shine and freshness in appearance can fetch good price in the market. When the fruits look dull it is an indication of over maturity and loss of quality. The fruits are picked with the help of a small pruning shear or sharp knife at 7-10 days interval. The fleshy calyx and a short piece of the stem are left attached with the fruit. Small sized fruits are harvested more frequently than bigger ones.
Yield
Early crop: 20-30 t/ha,
Long duration crop: 25-40 t/ha,
F1 hybrids: 40-80 t/ha
Postharvest handling
Postharvest treatments of brinjal with 200 ppm NAA in combination with 900 ppm prochloraz retards fruit senescence and decaying.
Packing and transport
The fruits are harvested towards evening hours for distance market. The fruits are cleaned under sprinkler. Then they are graded. Superior quality fruits are individually wrapped in the tissue paper and arranged in suitable carton for transport.
Storage
The brinjal fruits can be stored for 1-2 days in summer and 3-4 days in winter. They can be stored for 7-10 days in a fairly good condition at 8-10oC and 85-95% relative humidity.
Diseases and their control
1. Damping off (Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium): Control measures are: seed treatment with Thiram or Ceresan @ 2 g/kg of seed before sowing; drenching nursery bed with Thiram or Captaf @ 2 g/litre of water at 10-15 days interval and removing the affected seedlings will control the disease.
2. Phomopsis blight and fruit rot (Phomopsis venans): Circular brown spots with light coloured centre are appeared. Fruit gets dry rot. On the fruits, soft water decayed portions are observed which later on turn black. Control measures are: seed treatment with Thiram or Captaf @ 2.5 g/kg of seed, and spray with Dithane Z-78 at 0.2% at 7-10 days interval.
3. Sclerotinia blight (S. sclerotiorum): Attacks mainly at stem, affected plants wilt. Sclerotia may be seen. Control measures are flooding and spray Bavistin.
4. Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum): Bacterial ooze is present. Use of resistant varieties (Nurki is tolerant).
Insect pests
1. Brinjal shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis): Bore and feed on young shoots and fruits. Spray Sevin @ 0.2% at 15 days interval.
2. Jassids (Empoasca sp.): Suck the from the leaves. Spray Metasystox @ 0.15% at 15 days interval.
3. Epilachna beetle (Epilachna sp.): Spray Sevin @ 0.2% at weekly interval during early stage.
Seed production
Isolation distances of 100 200 m in certified and foundation seeds are maintained respectively. Field inspections are made at the stages of before flowering, flowering and fruiting. Plants affected by viruses and phomopsis blight should be removed. The fruits are pressed by sticks to make the flesh loose, cat into pieces and washed in clean water.
Chilli, Sweet Pepper and Paprika (Capsicum Annuum L.)
Chillies, sweet pepper and paprika belong to Capsicum annuum L. Chilli is one of the important spices used mostly in cooking of all vegetables, pulses, pickles, chutneys and other salty preparations. The pungency is due to the presence of capsaicin. In small chillies the capsaicin is found more as compared to larger chillies. Against cholera it is very useful when used with asafoetida and camphor.
Food value:
Normally 100 g of chilli fruit contains 85.7 g moisture, 2.9 g protein, 0.6 g fat, 1.0 g minerals, 6.8 g fibre, 3.0 g carbohydrates, 30 mg calcium, 111 mg Vitamin C and 11 mg calcium. Paprika is very rich in Vitamin C and the carotenoid pigments-capsaithin, carotene, xanthophyll etc. Paprika has therapeutic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxident properties. It is being anti-obesity agent because of its cholesterol lowering property. Capsaicin protects the stomach from gastric irritation and ulcer.
Sweet peppers are less or non-pungent, mild, thick fleshed and consumed as vegetable or pickle. It is mostly consumed fresh in green mature form or in red ripe form in salads, cooked, mixed and stuffed vegetables.
Dry chilli, chilli powder and green chillies are used every day to impart pungency, colour and flavour to food items. They are widely used in the manufacture of curry powder, curry paste and preparing sauces, soups, salads etc. In South East Asian countries, no dish is complete without chilli. The fresh green as well as fried fruits are used during meal.
Paprika is used as raw material for the oleoresin extracting unit and grinding which has a great demand in the international trade. The various forms are widely used as vegetable, salad and valued for its red colour, aroma anddifferent grades of mild pungency or non-pungent. Paprika powder is used to flavour and garnish foods like cheese, eggs, fish, dishes, salads, sauces and rice.
The food processing industries use paprika powder and oleoresin in meats, sausaces, ketchup, etc where rich colour is desired.
Origin and distribution:
The Capsicum annuum L. is the most popular species domesticated in Mexico. Columbus introduced peppers into spain on his return trip in 1493. The Portuguese brought capsicum from Brazil to India during 1584. There are five domesticated capsicum species and their differential characters are given as follows:
|Species |Calyxteeth |Corolla colour |Flowers per node |Seeds |
|C. annuum |present |white large |1 |smooth |
|C. baccatum |present |white with yellow/green spot |1 |smooth |
|C. chinense |absent |dull white |2-3 |smooth |
|C. pubescens |absent |purple |1 (2-3) |rough |
The species C. annuum L. is domesticated in Mexico and includes commercially important sweet peppers and spice, types; C. frutescens is grown throughout Latin America and Carribean countries for exteme pungency and oleoresin extraction; C. chinense is wide spread in Latin America, West Indies and Anden region; C. baccatum is popularly gown in Peru, Bolivia and Brazil and C. pubescens is cultivated in high lands of middle America.
Paprika belongs to the genus Capsicum and species annuum var. paprika. The fruits vary from roughly cherry shape to long conical shaped. Plants are annual upright spreading habit with profuse branching.
Soil and climate:
Well drained loam soil rich in organic matter is best suited for chilli cultivation. Chilli crop does not withstand waterlogged conditions for more than a day. The best soil pH is 6.0 to 7.0. Chilli plant is not very sensitive to soil pH but highly susceptible to oxygen deficiency in the soil. The crop grown in heavier soils suffers from blossom-end-rot.
Chilli can withstand heat and moderate cold but is highly susceptible to frost. It can tolerate extremes of climate better than sweet pepper, tomato and brinjal. Chilli crop performs well in warm humid tropical and subtropical regions extending from equator to 45o latitude on both Northern and Southern Hemisphere. A frost-free period of about 130-135 days with temperature range of 15-35oC is optimum for chilli cultivation. Temperatures beyond 40oC result in poor fruit set as well as severe fruit drop. In sweet pepper, fruit set does not occur below or above the range of 16-32oC and the optimum range is 16-21oC. Hot dry winds cause blossoms drop.
Cultivars:
1. Pusa Jwala: This is the chilli cultivar, very similar to NP-46A but less affected by virus. The pods are light green in colour, less pungent, more curved at the end and good for salad. The length of the pod varies from 15 to 18 cm. The pods start ripening 120 to 130 days after transplanting. Yield 7.0-8.0 t green chillies/ha.
2. Long (Hattisunde): Plants bushy, fruits 11-13 cm long, 2-3 cm diameter, shape like elephant trunk, light yellow and green very attractive and mildly pungent.
3. Californe: Most popular variety of sweet pepper, plants erect, some what bushy, leaves entire broader than normal chilli, dark green with pointed tip, fruits are 3-4 lobed. Yield 25-30 t/ha.
4. Yatsufusa: Plants short, small; fruits are short and borne in cluster (10-12) at upright position.
Growing season:
In Terai, sowing/transplanting is made in August-September for autumn-spring crop (November-March harvest). And November-February sowing/transplanting for spring summer crop (February-June harvest). In the mid and high hills, sowing is made in February-April for spring-summer-rainy season crop (April-September harvest).
Field preparation:
The land is ploughed 3-4 times to get a fine tilth. Farm yard manure is incorporated during the last ploughing.
Nursery raising:
An area of 50-60 m2 is required to grow seedlings for transplanting one hectare of land. Several 5 x 1 m sized beds are prepared.
Manure and fertilizers:
Application of 20-25 t FYM, and 100:60:60 NPK kg/ha produces good yield of chilli, sweet pepper and paprika. Half dose of N and the full dose of phosphorous, potash and FYM are applied once at the time of field preparation. The remaining half dose of N in two split doses are applied at 30 and 60 days after transplanting.
Transplanting:
Healthy and disease free seedlings are transplanted in the evening hours and at light irrigation should be given immediately after transplanting. The seedlings 3-4 weeks old are most suitable because these are vigorous in vegetative growth and come in flower and fruiting earlier.
Irrigation:
The first irrigation is given at the time transplanting and the subsequent irrigation are given once in a week or 10 days depending on the soil moisture condition.
Hoeing and weeding:
In rainy season, 2-3 shallow hoeings are practiced while in spring 1 or 2 hoeings will be sufficient.
Growth regulators:
Flower and fruit drop is a common problem in chilli which can be controlled by foliar spraying of NAA @ 20-40 ppm twice or 2,4-D @ 2-4 ppm at bud stage or planofix @ 1 ml per 4.5 litres of water.
Harvesting:
Green chillies are harvested when they have reached full size. They are picked normally twice a week. If the crop is grown for spice the fruits are harvested at red ripe stage. Picking is done manually. For canning purpose, they are allowed to develop red colour before picking. The picking continues for two months. There will be 5-6 pickings for green chillies and 3-4 for red ripe fruits. Sweet peppers are harvest at matured green stage.
Yield:
Green chillies 10-12 t per ha. Dry chillies 1.5-2.5 t per ha. Green chillies yield 3-4 times higher than fresh red ripe, and 6-10 times higher than that of dry chilli. Sweet pepper yields 15-20 t/ha. Paprika are harvested at fully red ripe stage. The chilli fruits lose 60-75 percent of their weight during drying. Drying may take 15-20 days depending upon climate. The dried fruits after removing the seeds and pedicels are ground into paprika powder.
Preparation for market:
Green chillies are sent to the market in baskets or in gunny bags. In case of dry chillies, they are kept in a heap for two days to get a uniform colour and they are spread on the floor for drying. Complete drying takes place in 15-20 days in sunlight while drier they are kept at 55oC for 2-3 days only. Later on they are packed in gunny bags and to the market or store. Sweet pepper are packed in crates, cartons or baskets.
Storage:
Green chillies can be kept for 2-3 days at room temperature while in cold store they can be kept for 40 days at 0oC with 95-98% relative humidity. Sweet peppers can be stored for two weeks at 7-10oC and 90-95% relative humidity.
Diseases and insect pests are as in brinjal.
Seed production:
Chilli is an often cross-pollinated crop and requires 200 and 400 m isolation distance for certified and foundation seed production respectively. Three field inspections are made, first at before flowering, second at flowering and the third at fruit ripening stage. Ripe fruits are harvested dried and then seeds are extracted from the dry chillies.
Seed yield: 300-500 kg/ha chillies, 100-200 kg/ha sweet pepper.
Chapter 3: Leafy vegetables
Broad Leaf Mustard (Rayo) (Brassica juncea var. rugosa)
Rayo is the most popular leafy vegetable in Nepal. It belongs to the family Brassicaceae. This crop is rich in Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Ca, P, Fe and other minerals. It is used after light cooking. Rayo is native to central and near Eastern Asia.
Botany:
It is annual, herb, produces large broad rosette leaves.
Soil and climate:
Loam soils with ample humus and high water holding capacity are the best for this crop. It is cool season crop. High temperature accelerates seed stalk and reduces yield and quality.
Cultivars:
1. Khumal Broad Leaf (1989): Medium early, first harvest in 40-50 days after transplanting, leaves dark green, fleshy, puckered, non-hairy, 40-50 cm long and 25-30 cm wide.
2. Marpha Broad Leaf (1994): Late bolter, first harvest in 55-65 days after transplanting, leaves – light green, puckered, non-hairy, fleshy, 40-50 cm long and 20-25 cm wide with flat petioles.
3. Khumal Red Leaf (1994): Late variety, first harvest in 60-70 days after transplanting, leaves – green with purple-red pigmentation and are curved to a cup shape, fleshy, 25-30 cm long and 20-25 cm wide.
4. Tankhuwa Selection: Early variety, first harvest in 33 days after transplanting, leaves – light green with cream white vein, very smooth, and leaf margin wavy.
Growing seasons:
Regions Sowing/Transplanting time Harvesting time
High hills February-August March-October
Middle hills July-November September-March
Terai September-November November-March
Field preparation:
Two to three ploughings are made and then the field is levelled to facilitate uniform irrigation and to avoid water stagnation. One-month-old seedlings become ready for transplanting.
Manure and fertilization:
20 t FYM and 40:40:40 kg NPK/ha are applied as basal dose. The crop is side dressed thrice: first in 25-30 days, second in 45-50 days and the third in 70-80 days after transplanting, each with 10 kg N/ha.
Seed rate: 500-600 g/ha.
Spacing: 30x10-15 and 45x30 cm depending on the cultivar and season of growing.
Irrigation:
Frequent (5-7 days interval) and light irrigations are effective for high yield and quality.
Interculture: 3-4 hand weedings are adequate throughout the crop period.
Harvesting:
Leaves become ready for harvest in 20-25 days onwards after transplanting. Harvest is made with sharp knife.
Yield: 30-40 t/ha.
Seed production:
Minimum isolation distances for certified and foundation seed production are 1000 and 1600 m respectively. A minimum of three field inspections shall be conducted. Seed yield 400-600 kg/ha.
The major diseases are downy mildew, leaf spot, sclerotinia rot, white rust, powdery mildew, blackrot etc and the major insects are aphids and catterpillars.
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)
Introduction:
Spinach is a leafy vegetable. It is a rich source of vitamin A, iron and calcium. It is used as a cooked vegetable. It had originated from South-West Asia and was first cultivated by the Arabs.
Botany:
It is herbaceous annual and it belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. There are four types of spinach plants with reference to sex expression:
1. Extreme males (Plants are smaller and bloom earlier)
2. Vegetative males (Larger male plants)
3. Female plants (Plants larger in size and bloom latter)
4. Monoecious plants (Different behaviours of bearing male and female flowers)
Cultivars are divided into (i) prickly seeded and (ii) smooth seeded on the basis of seed type and they are divided into (i) smooth leaved, (ii) savoy-leaved and (iii) semi-savoy-leaved on the basis of leaf type.
Soil and climate:
This crop is susceptible to injury by high acidity. Good drainage system is essential. The optimum soil pH is 6.0-7.0. It is a cool season crop. Ample rainfall enhances yields. Spinach is a long day crop. Maximum yield is obtained under short day and moderate under warm temperature condition. Long days and warm weather are very favourable for quick bolting of the crop.
Cultivar:
Patane Selection: Plants ready for harvest in 50-60 days after sowing, leaves erect, smooth, vigorous green to dark green, petioles and lower base pinkish. Suitable for autumn and spring sowing.
Manure and fertilizers:
20 t FYM and 40:40:40 kg NPK/ha are applied as basal dose. Two side dresses are applied each with 10 kg N/ha, first in 20-25 days and second 40-50 days from emergence.
Sowing time:
In high hills sowing is done in February-July; and August-March in mid hills and Trai.
Seed rate and spacing: 10 kg seed/ha; 20x5-7 cm.
Irrigation:
It is a shallow rooted crop. Frequent (8-10 days interval) and light irrigations are effective for high yield and quality production.
Weed control:
After 2-3 weeks of crop emergence weeding is essential. 3 to 4 hand weedings are adequate throughout the crop period.
Harvesting:
The crop becomes ready for harvest in 4 weeks after sowing. It gives about 3-4 cuttings at the interval of 25-30 days. After each cutting crop is side dressed and irrigated.
Average yield:
20-25 t/ha. Leaves are tied in small bundles for easy handling and marketing. The crop can be stored for 14 days at 0oC and 90-95% relative humidity.
The common diseases are leaf spot, white rust and downy mildew. This crop is not damaged severely by insect pests.
Seed production:
Spinach is a cross-pollinated crop. Monoecious and hermaphrodite plants produce seeds. Seed yield is 750-1000 kg/ha.
Cress (Lepidium sativum L.)
Cress is a popular leafy vegetable in Nepal. Young plants before the bolting stage are used as vegetable. Cress is rich in Vitamin C, B and K, iron and iodine. Cress is a long day plant. High temperature and long day conditions induce bolting and flowering. It is a native of Europe. It is a cool season crop. In Terai and middle hills cress is grown during winter season. In high hills it can be grown round the year. Sowing is made at the interval of 10-15 days for regular supply.
Cultivar:
Local is popularly cultivated. Plants are small, erect with spreading lower leaves. Leaves are light green to dark green, serrated, pungent in taste, ready for harvest after 40-50 days of sowing.
Seed rate: 10 kg/ha.
Spacing: 20x2-3 cm.
Field is prepared thoroughly. Manure @ 10-15 t/ha and 40:40:40 kg NPK/ha are applied as basal dose. One side dress is applied with 10 kg N/ha after 20-25 days of emergence. Sowing is made in shallow furrows of 0.5-1.0 cm depth. The furrows are made at 10-20 cm apart. Continuous sowing is made and thinning is practiced to maintain the optimum population of plants. 2-3 irrigations and 1-2 hoeings are sufficient during the crop period. Harvest may starts in 20-25 days and completes in 40-50 days of sowing. Yield of green vegetable is 6-10 t/ha. Cress is a highly cross-pollinated crop. The minimum isolation distances for certified and foundation seeds are 1000 m and 1600 m respectively. Field is inspected thrice. The seed yield is 600 kg/ha. No serious diseases and insect pests are recorded.
Swiss Chard (Beta vulgaris var. cicla)
Swiss chard is a leafy vegetable, newly cultivated in Nepal. This crop is rich in iron, calcium, Vitamins A and C and protein. It is a cool and warm season crop. The range of 15-35oC temeprature is optimum for its growth. In the middle and high hills, this crop can be cultivated round the year. It grows well in various types of soils. Loam soils with high organic matter content are generally preferred. The cultivar Susag is popularly cultivated in Nepal. It has dark green leaves with white and broad potioles, become ready for harvest in 60-70 days after transplanting. This is a selection of Fordhook Gaint variety. It was originated in Mediterranean region and Canary Islands.
Field is prepared by ploughing 2-3 times. Manure 20 t and 40:40:60 kg NPK/ha are applied as basal dose. Three side dresses are given. First side dress in 25-30 days, second in 50-60 days and third in 80-90 days from transplanting. The practice of growing seedlings in nursery bed is as in Rayo. The one-month-old seedlings become ready for planting. In the Terai sowing and transplanting is done in September-December and harvesting is done in October-April.
Seed rate: 2 kg/ha.
Spacing: 30-45 x 20-30 cm.
Irrigation and interculture:
Irrigations are given immediately after transplanting and side dressing. Subsequent irrigations are given at the interval of 7-10 days.
Harvesting: Harvest starts in 40-50 days from transplanting.
Yield: 15-20 t/ha.
Serious diseases and insect pests are not recorded.
Swiss chard is a cross-pollinated crop. The minimum isolation distance is 1600 m and 1000 m for foundation and improved seed production respectively. The seed yield is 1000 kg/ha.
Chapter 4: Cole crops
Introduction:
The cole means a group of ighly differentiated plants originated from a common wild species Brassica oleracea var. oleracea, known as wild cabbage, cole worts from which the name cole is derived. Cauliflower, cabbage and broccoli are the most important commercially cultivated cole crops.
The name cauliflower has originated from the latin words 'caulis' and 'floris' which mean cabbage and flower, respectively. Cauliflower originated in Cyprus and around the Mediterranean coast. Cabbage is one of the oldest vegetables used by the Greeks and Romans. Cabbage originated in Western Europe and North Shore of the Mediterranean region. The name broccoli refers to the young shoots which develop in spring on some species of the genus Brassica. It originated from the eastern Mediterranean region. Kholrabi is the german name for cabbage turnip. Kohlrabi originated from the coastal countries of Western Europe. Knol khol refers to the above ground turnip. At first cabbage and Kohlrabi were introduced into cultivation. Cauliflower became widely known in the 18th century and the broccoli in the thirties of the 20th century. At present, cole crops are grown all over the world from tropical to the Arctic regions. Cole crops are primarily used as cooked vegetable. They may be used in curries, soups, pickles and salad. Cole crops are the rich source of Vitamins A and C. They also contain carbohydrate, proteins and minerals like Ca, P, K and Fe.
Botanical characteristics:
Cauliflower plant is annual and cross-pollinated. The root system is adventitious. The curd consists of a short system, with short internodes, branch apices and bracts. The curd is prefloral fleshy apical meristem. Cabbage is biennial. Leaves are petiolate and sessiles. The cabbage head consists of leaves and inner stalks with short internodes. The head is formed by the development of densely packed leaves about the growing point.
Broccoli is annual. The plant forms a kind of head consisting of gtreen buds and thick fleshy flower stalks. The sprouts in the axils of leaves develop extensively after the removal of the terminal bud.
Kohlrabi is annual. Leaves are petiolate. The fleshy edible portion is an enlargement of the stem tissue above the cotyledous. The tuber develops entirely above the ground.
Soil and climate:
Fertile loam soils, having good water holding capacity and high amount of organic matter are the best for cole crops. The optimum pH is 6.0 to 6.5.
The temperate cultivars of cauliflower remain vegetative and continuously develop new foliage at high temperature condition. Tropical cultivars in lower temperature button quickly and show severe riceyness. The optimum temperature range for curd formation in tropical cultivar is 20-27oC, in mid season cultivars 16-19oC and in late cultivars 10-16oC.
Flower stalk development before the formation of head occurs in temperate region. Cabbage prefers cool moist climate. If two months old plants (( 1 cm stem diameter) are exposed to the temperature of 5-6oC for 1½ - 2 months, they directly inter into the bolting stage, without head formation. Mature plants exposed to 9-14oC temperature produce flowers and seeds. The optimum temperature for growth and head formation is 15-22oC. The tropical hybrid cultivars are heat resistant.
Broccoli has similar climatic requirements as cauliflower. The optimum temperature for tuber formation of Kohlrabi is 10-20oC. The tuber becomes tender and juicy at low temperature but at high temperature tuber becomes tough and woody.
Cultivars: Cultivars are of three maturity groups.
Cauliflower: Early cultivars are Pusa Deepawali, Katki, Punjab Kunwari which mature in 60-70 days after transplanting. The mid season cultivars are Kathmandu Local, Early Snowball, Aghani, Poosi, Manghi which become ready for harvest in 90-110 days after transplanting. The late cultivars are Snowball-16, Snowcap, Kibo Giant which mature in 110-120 days.
Cabbage: The early cultivars are Pride of India, Golden Acre, Copenhagen Market, K.K. Cross, Green Express which mature in 80-100 days. Copenhagen Market is also used as main season cultivar. The late cultivar is the Large Late DrumHead.
Broccoli: Decicco is the early cultivar and Calabresse is the main season cultivar.
Kohlrabi: White Vienna and Purple Vienna are the main season cultivars, and they become ready for harvest after 50-60 days of transplanting.
Sowing, transplanting and harvesting time:
|Crops/cultivars |Sowing-transplanting |
| |harvesting time |
| |Terai |Mid hill |High hill |
| |(300 m) |(300-2000 m) |(2000-2700 m) |
|1. Cauliflower | | | |
| Early cvs. |Jun-Jul |May-Jun |- |
| |(Sep-Oct) |(Aug-Sep) | |
| Mid and late cvs. |Aug-Oct |Jul-Nov |Mar-May |
| |(Nov-Feb) |(Nov-Mar) |(Jul-Oct) |
|2. Cabbage (Early, mid and late cvs.) |Aug-Dec |Jul-Nov |Mar-Jun |
| |(Nov-Mar) |(Oct-Mar) |(Jun-Oct) |
|3. Broccoli (Early and mid cvs.) |Aug-Sep |Jul-Sep |Mar-Apr |
| |(Nov-Jan) |(Nov-Jan) |(Jul-Oct) |
|4. Kohlrabi |Aug-Sep |Jul-Sep |Mar-Apr |
| |(Nov-Jan) |(Nov-Jan) |(Jul-Oct) |
Nursery raising:
The nursery growing period for early crop is not favourable because of high temperature and low humidity. The nursery should be protected from over moisture heavy rains and high temperature. Seeds are sown thinly 15-20 seeds per 30 cm in shallow drills 1.5 to 2 cm deep and about 7 cm apart.
Seed rate and spacing:
|Crops | |Early cultivars |Mid and late cultivars |
|Cauliflower: |Seed rate |800 g/ha |500 g |
| |Spacing |45 x 45 cm |60 x 45 cm |
|Cabbage: |Seed rate |800 g/ha |600 g/ha |
| |Spacing |45 x 45 cm |75 x 60 cm |
|Broccoli |Seed rate |600 g/ha |- |
| |Spacing |45 x 45 cm |- |
|Kohlrabi |Seed rate |1.0-1.5 kg/ha |- |
| |Spacing |40 x 15 cm |- |
Field preparation:
First ploughing is made deeply, with the help of soil turning plough. The manure and fertilizers should be applied as basal dose while preparing the soil. Two-three disking or harrowing are essential after ploughing in order to make the soil with a fine structure. Plant residues, plastics and stones are removed.
Manure and fertilizer:
Cole crops are heavy feeders and need high amount of fertilizers. In Nepal 100 kg N, 80 kg P2O5, 50 kg K2O and 20-30 mt FYM are applied. Half dose of N and full dose of P2O5, K2O and FYM are applied as basal dose. The remaining half dose of N is divided into two equal parts which are given as side dress. The first side dress is given 2-3 weeks after transplanting and the second before starting the formation of productive organ. Cole crops often show boron and molybdenum deficiency symptoms in highly acidic or alkaline soils. In such cases 10 to 15 kg borax and 1-1.5 kg sodium molybdate/ha are applied to the soil.
Irrigation:
Cole crops are shallow rooted, have low water absorbing capacity and can not use water efficiently. Therefore soil moisture at the tillage layer should be maintained at 70-80% of the field capacity. Frequent irrigation at the interval of 5-10 days should be given. Irrigation is avoided at the time of maturity.
Interculture:
Frequent shallow cultivation is practiced to control the weeds and earthing up are also practiced. Interculture should not be done deeper than 5-6 cm and closer than 5-6 cm to the plant. Mulching is essential for early crop. Black polythene and paddy husk had beneficial effect on yield. For early crop, the bed should be raised. In cauliflower, blanching is an essential practice to protect the curd from sun burning and yellowing. It is done by tying the tips of the leaves or by placing a cauliflower leaf newspaper over the curd.
Harvesting and yield:
Cauliflower is harvested when the curds attain the proper size and before they start to rice, become discoloured and loose. Plant is cut off below the curd with a sharp knife. The large leaves are trimmed off and the jacket leaves are remained to protect the curd. Yield: early tropical cultivars 10 t/ha; while the late and mid season cultivars yield 15-20 t/ha.
Cabbage is harvested when the head becomes compact. The heads are cut off with some wrapper leaves. Yield varies 20 to 50 t/ha. Early cvs. yield 12-15 t/ha while mid and late season cvs. 20 to 50 t/ha.
In broccoli the central head is harvested when the head is well grown and compact and before the buds open. The head may be 15-25 cm in diameter and 250-600 g in weight. The average yield is 5-10 t/ha. In addition to the terminal head, small axillary heads are also developed and harvested later.
Kohlrabi tubers are harvested at the well-grown stage before they become tough and woody. Generally tubers of 5-8 cm diameter are appreciable in the market. Individual tuber may weigh 200-250 g. The average yield is 10 t/ha. The root is cut off and the plants with few leaves and tuber are tied together in bunches.
Grading, packing and storing:
Cole crops are graded according to the size, colour, compactness, absence of defects and damages. They are packed in big nets, jute bags, and bamboo baskets or directly loaded in trucks and transported for local market. For distant market, they are packed in wooden crates, paper or fibre cartoons. Tight packing is essential to prevent shifting and bruising. Generally cole crops except cabbage are not stored. They can be stored for a month or over in the condition of 0oC temperature and 85-95% relative humidity. At room temperature broccoli becomes yellow in about 3 days. Spray with 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid prevents yellowing for about a week. Kohlrabi is graded according to the size and is generally not stored.
Disorders in cauliflower:
Buttoning: Formation of a small curd like button is called buttoning. The causes are transplanting of over age seedlings, poor nitrogen supply, unadapted cultivars, root injury and others. Any check in vegetative growth of the seedlings may induce buttoning.
Riceyness: A premature initiation of floral buds is characterized by riceyness in cauliflower and is considered to be of poor quality for marketing. It is caused by over nitrogen fertilization, over maturity and by genetical cause.
Fuzziness: It is velvety in appearance and formed when the flower pedicels elongate. This type of curd may result due to hereditary factor or when plants are gown under unfavourable conditions and heads are over matured.
Leafiness: Curd becomes leafy due to the growing of small green leaves between the curd segments. They may appear in poor and sometimes in good stains also when growing conditions are unfavourable.
Blindness: Blind cauliflower plants are those without terminal buds. The leaves that develop are large, dark green, thick and leathery. In some cases, axillary buds may develop, but the plant does not produce a marketable head. The terminal buds may be damaged during handling of the plants or eaten by insects or rodents.
Nutritional disorders:
Browning (Brown rot): The first sign of the boron deficiency is the appearance of small water soaked areas in the centre of the curd. In later stages, the stem becomes hollow with water soaked tissues surrounding the walls of the cavity and appearance of rusty brown areas on the surface of the curd and hence it is known as brown rot or red rot. Affected curds develop a bitter taste.
Control:
1. Application of borax or sodium borate @ 10-15 kg/ha.
2. In case of acute deficiency spray 0.3% (0.25 to 0.50%) solution of borax at the rate of 1 to 2 kg/ha would give a satisfactory control.
Whip tail: Cauliflower responds severely to the deficiency of molybdenum. In the young cauliflower plants, the leaf margins become chlorotic and may turn white. In well grown plants, the leaf lamina of the young leaves become irregular in shape, often consists of a large bare mid rib and hence the common name 'whiptail' is originated.
Control: Apply 1 to 1.5 kg of sodium modybdate/ha.
Diseases and their control measures in cole crops:
|Name of the diseases and pathogens |Symptoms |Control measures |
|1. Black leg (Phoma lingam) |Stem of the affected plants, when split vertically |Hot water seed treatment (50oC) for 30 |
| |shows severe discolouration of sap stream. The whole |minutes. |
| |root system decays from bottom upwards. The sap stream |Spray with organomercuric compound (2-3 |
| |in the stem of the affected plant becomes discoloured. |g/litre of water). |
| | |Use of resistant cv. (Pusa |
| | |Drumhead-tolerant). |
|2. Downy mildew (Peronospora |Discolouration in young seedlings, black patches on |Spray 1% of Bondeaux Mix. spray Dithane |
|parasitica) |seed stalk. Purplish or yellow brown spots appear on |M-45. |
| |the upper surface of the leaf, while downy fungus | |
| |growth is found on the lower surface. | |
|3. Black spot (Alternaria |Small black, circular to elongated spots appear on |Spray Thiram (2-3 g/litre) as Downy mildew. |
|brassicicola, A. brassicae) |plants. | |
|4. Yellows (Fusarium oxysporum f. |The lower leaves turn yellow, die and drop off. The |Resistancy: Type A (governed by single, |
|conghitinans) |vascular tissues become yellow to dark brown. |dominant gene; Copenhagen market) |
| |Type B: is governed by a number of gene. e.g. Decicco, | |
| |calabnese. | |
|5. Club root (Plasmodiophona |Irregular galls appear on the roots. The lateral roots |Liming the soil to increase soil pH up to 8.|
|brassicae) |take the shape of spindle. Leaves become yellowish and |Root treatment with 4% calomel paste before |
| |wilt on hot days. |training. |
| | |Spray 0.05-0.1% Mercuric chloride. |
|6. Watery soft rot (Sclerotinia |Cottony mycelium appear near the soil on the stem. The |Fooding for two months. |
|sclenotiorum) |seed stalks can break, within and die. Black sclerotia |Spray with Bavistin. |
| |may be seen. | |
|7. White rust (Albugo candida) |Raised white shiny postules appear on leaves. |Spray Blitox-50 (2-3 g/litre) |
|8. Black rot (Xanthomonas |Yellowing of leaves in V shape which extend from margin|Crop rotation (2 years) |
|campestris) |to mid rib associated with black veins. |Seed treatment (52oC to 30 min.) |
| | |Soil drench with bleaching power. |
|9. Soft rot (Erwinia carotovora) |Affected plants show a soft, slimy, bad smelling rot |Bleaching powder 10 kg/ha. |
| |which under favourable condition spreads rapidly. | |
Insect pests and their control measures:
|Name of the insects |Marks of identification |Nature of the damage |Control |
|Cabbage Butterfly |Butterfly has yellowish white |The caterpillars start feeding |Metacid 50EC (1 ml/lit) |
|(Pieris brassicae) |wings with black markings along |from the margin to the centre. |Nuvan 100 EC (0.5 ml/lit) |
| |the top of the forewings. The | |Thiodan 35 EC (2 ml/lit |
| |caterpillars are green with black| | |
| |spots and yellow lines (3 cm | | |
| |long). | | |
|Diamond Back Moth |Name is derived from the white |Caterpillars tunnel inside the |do |
|(Plutella maculipennis) |markings along the back of the |leaf tissues. | |
|(P. xylostella) |forewings, which when folded form| | |
| |a diamond shaped pattern. Moth | | |
| |greyish brown. Caterpillars are | | |
| |light or brown green, when | | |
| |touched they make jumping motions| | |
| |(1 cm long). | | |
|Aphids |Light green aphids without wings |Suck the cell sap from young |Metasystox 25 EC (1 ml/lit) |
|Turnip aphid | |leaves stems and petioles. |or |
|(Lipaphis erysimi) | | |Nuvan 100 EC (0.5 ml/lit) |
| Cabbage aphid |Whitish green aphids appear in | | |
|(Brevicoryne brassicae) |cluster. | | |
| Green peach aphid |Green with three strips on the | | |
|(Myzus perricae) |abdomen. | | |
|Flea Beetles |Blue or black small beetles jump |Adult feeds on leaves and larva |do |
|(Phyllotreta crucifenae) |like fleas. |on roots. | |
|Mustard saw fly |Fly body is yellow with smoky |Larvae feed on the leaf and |do |
|(Athalia proxima) |wings. Larva with five black |skletonize the plants. | |
| |strips. | | |
|Cut worm |Moths are smoky dark and |Caterpillars cut down the stem |Malathion 5% dust (20 kg/ha) |
|(Agrostis ypsilon) |caterpillars are black. 3-4 cm |just above the ground and drag |or |
| |long, grey or brown to almost |them to their holes. |Thiodan 35 EC (2-3 ml/lit) |
| |black with various markings. | | |
Seed production:
Cole crops except some broccoli and cauliflower need cold temperature for the transformation from vegetative to the reproductive stage. The average chilling temperature is 7oC for 1-2 months. Chilling at the temperature of 5oC for 3-4 weeks is equivalent to the chilling treatment at 12oC for 24 weeks. Cold treatment become effective only after juvenile phase.
Cole crops are highly cross-pollinated crops. The minimum isolation distance for breeder seed production is 1600 m while for certified seed is 1000 m. The off-type and undesirable plants are removed four times: before the formation of productive organ, at harvest maturity, at bolting stage and the next at flowering and fruiting stage. The seed crop becomes ready when 70-80% of the buds become yellow in colour. After harvest curing is done in shade for 4-5 days and then after they are dried in the sun. The seed crop is threshed, dried, cleaned and again dried to the 8-10% moisture content and graded. The seed is stored in cool and dry place.
Yield:
Cauliflower early cv. yields 500-600 kg/ha while the mid and late cvs. 250 to 400 kg/ha. Cabbage cvs. (Golden Acre) 500-600 kg/ha, Kohlrabi yields 700 kg/ha; and Broccoli 600 kg/ha.
Chapter 5: Root vegetables
Radish (Raphanus sativus L.)
Importance and utility:
Radish is cultivated either only for fleshy roots or for both roots and leaves. It is a popular vegetable crop in Nepal and abroad. Each 100 g of fleshy root contains 94 g water, 0.7 g protein, 3.4 g carbohydrate, 50 mg calcium, 22 mg phosphorus and 15 mg Vitamin C. Pink radishes are generally rich in Vitamin C than the whites. The pungent flavour of radish is due to the presence of volatile Isothiocyanates (Trans-4 methyl thiobutenyl isothiocyanate) and the pink colour is due to anthocyanin pigments. Roots and leaves are eaten raw as salad or cooked as a vegetable. Roots are used for making pickles, sinki, and dried slices for off-season use. Radish has cooling effect, prevents constipation and increases appetite.
Origin and taxonomy:
Radish is probably a native of Europe or Asia. The area from the Eastern Mediterranean to the Caspian Sea is the origin place of European cultivars. The radish having conical roots of white or pink colour have been originated from the costal regions of Japan (Sino-Japanese) and derived from R. sativus f. raphanistroides. There are two types of popularly cultivated radishes:
a) Raphanus sativus var. radicula (Small cool reason radishes).
b) R. sativus var. niger (Large radishes with wider range of temperature adaptation).
Botany:
Radish root is developed from epicotyl (stem), hypocotyl (modified stem) and radicle (primary root). Root varies in shape size and colour. Leaves are lobed or entire.
Climatic requirements:
Radish is a cool season crop however Asiatic types can tolerate high temperature than temperate ones. High quality roots are produced at cooler temperature range of 10-15oC. Long day and high temperature enhance bolting. The roots become hard, pithy and pungent during hot weather. Short day and low temperature conditions are best for quality roots.
Soil:
Radish can be grown nearly all types of soils but better results are obtained in light friable loam soils.
Cultivars grown in Nepal:
1. Mino Early (1989): It is an early variety. The root crop becomes ready for market in 45-50 days after sowing. The seed crop is produced in mid hills. Leaves are spreading with spiny petiole. Roots are 35-40 cm long, pure white, medium in pungency.
2. White Neck (1994): Mid-season variety and roots are ready for market in 60-65 days after sowing. Leaves are upright, light green, lobbed, petioles smooth and non-hairy. Roots are 30-35 cm long, pure white, smooth stump with abrupt end, mild in pungency.
3. Chalis Dine (40 days) (1994): Very early variety and roots ready for market in 35-40 days after sowing. Leaves are upright, entire, light green and non-hairy. Roots are 13-15 cm long and shinning white.
4. Pyuthane Rato (1994): Late season variety, roots ready for market in 70-80 days after sowing. Leaves are upright and green. Leaf petiole, midrib and veins are red. Roots are 30-35 cm long, slightly tapering, outer skin red with white flesh, mild in pungency. Flowers are pinkish white.
5. Tokinashi: Extremely late and warm season variety. Suitable for planting from November to Febraury for fresh vegetable. Seed crop is produced in high hill. The roots become ready for market in 50-55 days after sowing. Leaves are dull-dark green, hairy, deeply serrated. Roots are white, pungent 20-30 cm long slightly tapering towards the root tip.
6. Pusa Chetki: Early, root crop matures in 40-45 days of sowing. Roots are pure white, mildly pungent, tender and medium long. It has tolerance to high temperature. Seed crop can be grown in Terai.
The early (20 to 40 days) and round rooted temperate cultivars are White Icicle and French Breakfast.
Sowing time:
In southern Terai, Asiatic types are sown in August to January. The European types are sown in September to March. In middle hills, sowing can be made in August to March, while in the high hills sowing is made in March to August.
Seed rate: 8-10 kg/ha.
Spacing: 45x6-8 cm (Asiatic type)
10-20x3-6 cm (European type). Sowing depth is 1.5-3 cm.
Field preparation:
The soil should be deeply ploughed and harrowed to make it friable and free from clods.
Manures and fertilizers:
Application of 20 t FYM and 60:60:80 kg NPK/ha are applied before sowing. One or two side dresses are given each with 20 kg N/ha after 3 weeks of emergence.
Irrigation and interculture:
Frequent irrigations at 5-7 days' interval are applied. Two hoeings at the early stage and later one earthing up are practised to keep the field clean and to improve the quality of the roots.
Harvesting:
The rots of whole field are harvested as and when they reach full size for the market. A light irrigation has to be given before harvest. The roots should be washed, graded and packed. The yield varies 15-20 t/ha in Asiatic types and 5-7 t/ha in small European varieties.
Storage:
Under ambient temperature radish roots can be stored only for 2 days. But at 0o-1oC and 90-95% relative humidity they can be stored for even two months.
Diseases:
1. Alternaria blight (Alternaria raphani): Spray Blitox-50 @ 2-3 g/litre of water.
2. White rust (Albugo candida): Spray Dithane-Z-78 @ 0.2-0.3%.
3. Black rot (Xanthomonas campestris): Follow crop rotation, hot water seed treatment and soil drench with bleaching powder @ 10 kg/ha.
Insect pests:
1. Aphids: Spray Malathion 50EC @ 2 ml/litre of water.
2. Mustard saw fly (Athalia proxima): Spray crop with 0.2% Sevin (50 W.P.) or Endosulfan 35EC 0.2%.
Disorders:
1. Hollow root: High temperature during 16-30 days of sowing inhibits the formation of secondary meristem in the centre of roots leading to development of intercellular spaces. This results in the hollow root formation.
2. Wart is a physiological disorder which is a white protrusion of white inner root tissue through splits in skin mainly found where there is soil moisture deficit.
3. Pithiness: of root is more in summer crop than spring or autumn. It is more correlated with high temperature 3 weeks before harvest. Excess application of NPK also results in pithiness; soil moisture stress also results in pithiness.
Seed production:
The seed crop of the tropical variety can be grown in the Terai of Nepal. The seed crops of other cultivars are grown either in the middle or high hills depending on the chilling requirement of the cultivar. There are two methods of seed production:
1. Seed to seed method: this method is used to produce improved seed.
2. Root to seed method is used to produce foundation seed. In this method selection and rouging are made on the basis of foliage characters, root characters and bolting time. Off-types and undesirable roots are discarded. Two-thirds tops and one-third roots of the selected roots are cut off and transplanted in the furrow. 500-1000 kg seed/ha can be harvested.
Carrot (Daucus carota L.)
Carrot is gradually becoming a popular vegetable crop in Nepal. Carrot roots are used as salad, cooked vegetable and in preparation of soups, stews and sweet foods. A sweet preparation called Gazar Halwa is a very famous dish of Indian kitchen. Carrot juice is a rich source of carotene. It is also canned. Fresh edible 100 g carrot contains 88.6% water, 1.1% protein, 0.2% fat, 9.1% carbohydrates, 1.0% fibre and 12000 I.U. Vitamin A.
Origin and history:
It is said to be a native of Europe, South-West Asia and North Africa and possibly North and South America. South-West Asia especially Afghanistan is considered to be the main centre of origin of this crop as the largest morphological variation has been found to occur in this region.
Botany:
The carrot belongs to the family umbelliferae. Carrot has two types which are categorised as Asian and European types. The Asian type can produce seeds in the tropical regions. But the European type produces seeds only in the temperate region or high hills. Carrot is an annual herb for root production and a biennial for flowering and seed set. The European types need low temperature of 5-8oC for 40-60 days before emerging the seed stalk.
Soil and climate:
A deep well drained loose loamy soil would be very ideal for the growth and development of carrot roots. The best soil pH would be 6.5. In clay soils, rough ill shaped roots with a number of small fibrous laterals are formed. The optimum temperature for root growth is 18-22oC. At higher temperatures foliage growth is more with poor root development. Tropical type can form root at higher temperature of 25oC.
Cultivars:
1. Nantes (1989): It is a temperate type. The root production takes 90-100 days and the seed crop matures in 125-135 days after transplanting of roots. The leaves are dark green and upright. Roots are 15-20 cm long, cylindrical, blunt tipped, orange coloured with scarlet medium core.
2. New Kuroda: Roots mature in 80-100 days after sowing and the seed crop is ready for harvesting in 120-130 days after transplanting of roots. Leaves are dark green, vigorous and upright. Roots are 12-15 cm long, with conical flat shoulders with few deep eyes, skin bright orange coloured. Green shoulder may appear during high temperature.
3. Chantaney: It is a European type having attractive deep reddish orange coloured roots. The roots are tender, sweet and fine textured. Roots are 11-15 cm long, 3-5 cm broad with tapering to blunt end. The cortex is deep orange.
Sowing time:
In Terai sowing is done in October-December. In the mid hills, carrot is grown round the year. In the high hills, sowing is made in March-June. For regular supply sowing is done at 15 days interval.
Seed rate:
6-8 kg/ha. Soaking of seeds in water at 20oC for 24 hours and then drying at 20oC improves germination.
Spacing: 20-30x10 cm. Seeds should be sown not deeper than 1 cm.
Field preparation:
The soil should be deeply ploghed and harrowed to make it friable and free from clods. Otherwise it will result in deformed roots. The seeds can be mixed with sand and drilled along the line.
Manure and fertilizers:
Application of 20 t FYM, and 40 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O are applied before sowing. A side dress after thinning out the extra plants, is made with 20 kg/ha.
Irrigation and drainage:
Pre-sowing irrigation is essential for uniform germination. First irrigation should be given 10-12 days after seed sowing when germination is completed. Light irrigations should be given at 10-12 days interval. Excess water should be drained out after irrigation.
Weed control:
Carrot seeds germinate in 10-12 days and at the same time a light hoeing should be done carefully. Three to four hoeings will be required during the crop season.
Harvesting:
Carrot can be harvested by spade or pulling them out by hand if sufficient moisture is available. A light irrigation before harvest facilites harvesting.
Yield: 10-20 t/ha.
Market preparation:
When the roots dug out by hand, they are washed in running fresh water to remove the adhering soil. Side roots and foliage is completely removed. Roots are bunched in a fixed number, such as half a dozen or one dozen, together and sold in the market. The selected roots are packed in baskets or gunny bags and then send to the market.
Storage:
The selected roots are kept in basket or wooden trays. They can be stored at room temperature for 3 to 4 days and at 0-4.4oC with a relative humidity of 93-98% the roots even can be stored for 6 months.
Diseases and their control:
1. Damping off (Pythium aphinidermatum): Give light irrigation and use the treated seed with Captan @ 3 g/kg of seed.
2. Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora): Stop side dressing with N fertilizer and drain off excess water.
3. Carrot yellow: It is a viral disease transmitted by the six-spotted leafhopper. Spray with 0.2% solution of Thiodan to check the spread of disease.
Insect pests and their control:
1. Cut worm, White worm and White grub: They eat and bore the roots and reduce their market value. Apply Heptachlor dust @ 25 kg/ha.
Seed production:
It is a cross-pollinated crop. About 1600 m and 1000 m isolation distance should be maintained for foundation and improved seed respectively. Two-third of the tops and one-third of lower root portion are cut off. Such roots are transplanted in the well prepared field at the distance of 60x60 cm. Seed yield 300-500 kg/ha.
Turnip (Brassica campestris var. rapa)
Importance and utility:
It is also a important root vegetable. Its roots are used as vegetables, salad and for making pickles and leaves are used for vegetables and as green fodder for feeding cattle. European varieties are better in quality than the Asian types. Its 100 g edible roots contain 91.1% water, 7.6% carbohydrates, 0.5% protein and 0.6% mineral matters.
Origin and history:
Turnip is said to have two main centres of origin. The mediterranean region is thought to be the primary centre of European types, while eastern Afganistan with adjoining area of Pakistan is considered to be another primary centre with Asia minor, Transcaucacus and Iran as secondary centres. The parents of cultivated turnip are found wild in Siberia of Russia and Scandinavia.
Boany:
The fleshy thickened underground portion of turnip is hypocotyl. The colour of below ground portion may be white or yellow, while that of above ground portion may be red, purple, white yellow or green. The leaves and petioles are hairy and coarse and yellowish-green in colour.
Soil and climate:
Soils with high clay and high sand should be avoided. A moderately deep, friable, fertile, well drained soil is ideal. The optimum soil pH is 5.5-6.8. The crop requires cool or moderate climate. It can tolerate frost and mildly freezing temperature. In hot weather, the roots become woody, tough and bitter in taste. Temperature below 10oC induces flowering. The most favourable weather for the development of root is 10-13oC air temperature and 18-23oC soil temperature.
Cultivars:
1. Purple Top: It is temperate type and seed crop is produced in mid hills and high hills. The root crop matures in 55-60 days after sowing and the seed crop matures in 110-120 days after transplanting of roots. Leaves are dark green with deep serration. The roots are globe shaped, purple at the top and white below.
2. Kathmandu Red: Early maturing local selection. The root crop matures in 40-55 days after sowing and seed crop matures in 100-110 days after transplanting of roots. Leaves are light green, petiolated and spreading. Roots are globe to flattish in shape. Skin colour red with white flesh. It has a strong turnip flavour.
Field preparation:
Field should be prepared well by repeated harrowings and planking. Crop residues of previous crops and stone pieces should also be removed.
Sowing time:
Region Sowing time Harvesting time
1. High hills May-July July-September
2. Mid hills August-October October-December
3. Terai September-October November-January
Seed rate: 3-4 kg/ha. Seeds are sown at a depth of 1.5-2.5 cm.
Spacing: 30-45x7.5-15 cm, sowing is done either by hand or by seed drills.
Irrigation and drainage:
The first irrigation is given just after the germination. The subsequent irrigations are given every 5th-8th day during growth period. At the time of maturity the interval can be increased to 10-12 days. Excess water is drained out immediately.
Weed control:
One or two hoeings are made to control the weeds. The plants are thinned to a spacing of 7.5-15 cm within the row. The plants are earthed up in 25-30 days after sowing at the time of side dressing.
Harvesting: The roots can be harvested when they are 7 to 10 cm in diameter.
Yield: 20-45 t/ha.
Preparation for market:
The roots are washed in running water. The tops are cut off near the surface of the crown. The selected roots can be packed in baskets for market.
Storage:
At root temperature the roots can be kept for 2-3 days while at 5oC to 10oC the roots can be stored for 10-15 days.
Seed production:
The temperate type of turnip produces seed in the hills while the Asiatic type can produce in the Terai. The method of seed production is as in radish.
Yield: 500-600 kg seed/ha.
(Diseases and insect pests as in radish).
Chapter 6: Peas and beans
Pea (Pisum sativum L.)
Pea is an important legume vegetable. This crop is rich in protein, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus and Vitamin A. There are two types of cultivated peas, the garden pea and the field pea. Garden peas are harvested at immature seed stage to be cooked as green or to be canned or frozen. Field peas are grown as a forage crop or as a green manure crop or as a cover crop or as a mature seed crop.
Origin and taxonomy:
The pea is native to the Mediterranean region of Southern Europe and to Western Asia. Small seeded (Pisum arvense) and large smooth seeded peas (P. sativum L.) having pods with developed lining membrane in the pod walls are field pea while wrinkled seeded peas without or with very thin lining membrane are garden peas.
Botany:
Pea is a herbaceous, annual plant. Stem is slender, circular, weak and climbs by tendrils. Leaves are pinnate with up to 3 pairs of leaflets and terminal branched tendril. Stipules are large. The flowers are single or up to 3 per raceme.
Soil and climate:
Well drained loam soils are the best for pea cultivation. The optimum pH is 6.5. Light soils for early crop and heavy soils for high yields are preferred. Pea is highly sensitive to water logging condition. Peas require cool growing season and moderate temperatures. High temperatures are more injurious to pea crop than frost. The optimum monthly temperature for its growth is 13-18oC. Pea can tolerate frost at the early stage. Optimum temperature for germination and initial growth is 19-20oC and for flowering and podset is 12-15oC. The wrinkled seeded are highly sensitive to high temperature.
Cultivars: The popular cultivars grown in Nepal are given below:
1. Sarlahi Arkel: Early variety, plants are dwarf 35-45 cm tall, bear double pods on few lower nodes and single pod at upper nodes; pods – attractive, deep green, 7-8 cm long, 7-8 seeds/pod, seeds – wrinkled, first picking in 60-65 days of sowing, yield 5-7 t green pods/ha.
2. Bonneville: Mid-season variety, medium tall in growth, prolific bearer, pods– light green, 8 cm long, 6-7 seeds/pod, seeds wrinkled on drying. Yield 6-8 t green pods/ha. First picking in 80-85 days after sowing.
3. New Line: Mid to late season variety, plants medium tall and vigorous in growth, leaves– dark green and broader, double podded, pods– green staight, 7-8 cm long, 6-7 seeds/pod, first picking in 85-90 days of sowing and seeds wrinkled on drying.
4. Sikkim: Late variety, flowers in 80-85 days, first picking in 105-110 days after sowing, plants tall and vigorous, leaves – light green with very wide leaflets, pods – light green, seeds – bold, creamy whitish, smooth on drying, suitable for rainy season in high hills.
Field preparation:
One deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowings and planking or 3-4 cross ploughings with local plough are made for fine tilth.
Manuring and fertilization:
Apply 20 t FYM and 20-30 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O are applied as basal dose before sowing. At flowering stage, crop may be side dressed with 15 kg N/ha.
Growing period:
Regions Sowing time Harvesting time
High hills March-April June-October
Mid hills and Terai September-October November-February
Sowing is done when daily maximum temperature is below 30oC and the daily minimum temperature comes down to 20oC.
Seed rate: Early cultivars: 100-120 kg seeds/ha
Mid season and late cultivars: 80-90 kg seeds/ha.
Spacing: Early cultivars: 30 x 5 cm
Main season: 45 x 5 cm
Late cultivars: 60 x 5 cm
Sowing is done behind the plough or by dibbling or drilling.
Irrigation:
Light irrigations may be applied at an interval of 10-15 days. Flowering, fruit set and grain filling periods are the critical stages for water requirement. A presowing irrigation may also be given.
Interculture:
One or two hoeings are made at the early stage of crop growth. Semi tall and tall cultivars need staking.
Harvesting:
The market maturity is indicated by the change of pod colour from dark green to light green when the grains are well filled up. Picking is done manually by giving a simple jerk to the pedicel. Tenderness and sweetness are the quality characters of peas. Usually 3-4 pickings are mde at 7-10 days interval. The range of shelling percentage is 35-45.
Yield: Early cultivars: 2.5-4.0 t/ha
Mid season cultivars: 6.0-7.5 t/ha
Late cultivars: 8.0-11.0 t/ha
Market preparation:
The over matured, diseased and damaged pods are removed. The pods can be packed in gunny bags.
Storage:
Peas can be stored 2-3 days at ordinary room condition and 15-20 days at 0oC and 85-90% relative humidity.
Seed production:
Self-pollinated crop needs isolation distance 50 m and 25 m for foundation and improved seeds respectively. Field is inspected thrice. Seed yield 1500-2000 kg/ha.
Major diseases and their control:
1. Wilt and root rot (Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani): Seed treatment with 2 g Captan per kg of seed before sowing and avoid early sowing.
2. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni): It is a serious disease of pea crop. Avoid late planting, burn the infected plants. Spray Sulfex @ 3 g/litre of water. The first spray after appearance and the second spray 14 days after the first spray.
3. Rust (Uromyces fabae): After harvest, the affected plants should be burnt. Spray Dithane M-45 @ 2 g/litre of water.
Insect pests and their control:
1. Pea stem fly: The maggots damage the internal tissues of the stem. Apply 30 kg Furadon/ha in the soil. Spray Thiodan when plants attain 10-15 cm height.
2. Leaf miner: Spray Dimecron 100 EC @ 1 ml/litre of water.
3. Pea aphids: Spray 250 ml Dimecron 100 EC in 1000 litres of water/ha.
4. Pod borer: Spray crop with 1.25 litres of Thiodan 35 EC in 1000 litres of water/ha.
Broad bean (Vicia faba L.)
Broad bean (Vicia faba L.) is cultivated for immature pods green shelled beans and dry beans. It is a herbaceous, annual plant. Stem is straight, four angular, solid up to 150 cm in height. Mediterranean region and southwest Asia are the native place of this crop. It is a cool season crop and can with stand light frost. Sowing is made in March-April in high hills and in August-October in mid hills and Terai.
Spacing: 50-70 x 20-35 cm.
Seed rate: 100-150 kg/ha. It is a deep rooted crop. Irrigations are given at longer intervals. One earthing up is practised at early stage. Pods are picked once in 10-12 days. Harvest starts in 80-90 days of sowing.
Yield: 4-6 t green pods/ha or 1000-1500 kg seeds/ha. The crop is often cross-pollinated.
French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
French bean is the important vegetable crop grown either for tender pods, green shelled seeds or dry seeds. Green immature pods are used as vegetable and are also used as canned and frozen products.
Origin and taxonomy:
Southern Mexico and Central America are the primary centre of origin and Peru-Ecuador-Bolivia are the secondary centres. P. aborigineus is the progenitor of P. vulgaris.
Soil and climate:
French bean does well in various soils ranging from light sandy loam to clay soils. It can not with stand water logging. The optimum pH range is 5.3-6.0. It is a cool season crop. It thrives well in the temperature ranging between 15oC and 25oC. The crop is sensitive to the frost, high temperature and heavy rainfall. The plants shed their blossoms or young pods in very hot or rainy weather.
Classification of the cultivars:
Cultivars are classified
(i) on the basis of plant characters and cultivar type:
A) Bush type: (a) Green podded (b) Wax podded
B) Pole type (a) Green podded (b) Wax podded.
(ii) on the basis of use:
French bean: (A) Snap bean
(B) Green shelled beans
(C) Dry shelled beans
Cultivars in Nepal:
1. Trishuli Ghiu Simi (Kentucky Wonder): Pole type, pods – 20-25 cm long, green, fleshy, stringless at picking period, seeds – light to coffee brown with purple eye ring, yield 10-12.5 t green pods/ha, suitable for autumn and spring crop.
2. Jhange Simi-1 (Contendor): Bush type, resistant to common bean mosaic, first picking in 50 days from sowing, pods-dark green and 15 cm long, seeds – buff colour, yield 5-6 t green pods/ha. Flowers - purple.
3. Giant stringless: Bush type, first picking in 50-55 days, pod – green, fleshy, large, long, flower – white and seed – brown.
4. Charles Favourite: Bust type, first picking in 70-80 days, pod-kidney red, seed – black.
Growing season:
Regions Sowing time Harvesting time
High hills: (a) April-May July-August
Middle hills: (a) February-April April-August
(b) August-September November-December
Terai: (a) September-November November-March
Spacing and seed rate:
Cultivar type Spacing Seed rate
Bush type 45x10-15 cm 80-100 kg/ha
Pole type 100x15-20 cm 20-40 kg/ha
Field preparation:
The field is ploughed once to a depth of 25 cm. The clods are broken and the weeds are removed. The soil is brought to a fine tilth by shallow cultivation.
Nutrient requirement:
About 25-30 t FYM is applied at the time of final land preparation. Application of 50 kg N, 75 kg P2O5 and 75 kg K2O/ha produces good yield. Half of the N and entire dose of P and K are applied at the time of sowing. Remaining half of N is applied at the time of earthing up after 3rd week of sowing.
Water management:
It is a shallow rooted crop. Flowering and pod development periods are the critical stages. About 6-7 irrigations are required during the crop period.
Weed control: At least two weedings are required to control weeds at the early stage.
Staking: Single stick of about 2 m length is fixed near each plant for the support.
Harvesting:
The first picking can be made in 45 days after sowing. It takes 7-12 days after flowering for the pods to be ready for picking. About 3 pickings in bush beans and 5 pickings in pole beans are taken during the crop period. The green immatured pods are picked.
Yield: Bush type: 8-10 t green pods/ha;
Pole type: 12-15 t green pods/ha.
Seed production: Self-pollinated as in pea.
Seed yield: 800-1000 kg/ha.
Insect pests:
1. Thrips and stem fly: Spray Dimethoate @ 2 ml/litre of water.
2. Mites: Spray of Kelthane @ 2.5 ml/litre of water.
Diseases:
1. Yellow mosaic: White fly control by spraying Monocrotophos @ 1.25 ml/litre of water.
2. Rust: By spraying Sulfex 2 g/litre of water.
3. Root rot: By drenching Captan @ 2 g/litre of water.
4. Anthracnose, phytophthora pod rot, angular leaf spot by spraying Blitox @ 2 g/litre of water.
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata var. sesquipedalis)
Cowpea is also used as snap bean, green shelled beans or dry beans. It is rich in protein, carbohydrate Ca, P, Fe, Vitamin A and Vitamin C. The native place of cowpea is central Africa.
Botany:
Cowpea plants are climbing or bush type. Pod- long and fleshy cowpea can be grown almost all types of soil. Optimum pH is 7 to 8 for cowpea. It is warm season crop and does well at the temperature between 21 to 35oC. Cultivars grown for their immature pods are variously known as yard long bean, asparagus bean, bodi bean and snake bean.
Cultivars: Pole type
1. Kathmandu Local: First picking becomes ready in 60-70 days of sowing, pods 45-60 cm long, light green, seeds – red in colour. It is renames Khumal Red.
2. Sarlahi Local: First picking in 50-60 days of sowing, pods 25 to 30 cm long, light green, seeds-black. It is renames Sarlahi Black.
3. Bush type:
a) Prakash: extra early, once over harvest, bean mosaic virus resistant high yielding, plant height (40-50 cm), yield 1500 grains/ha. Average 700-800 kg seed/ha.
b) Akash: high yielding, resistant to mosaic virus. Average yield 900-1000 kg/ha. Both are recommended for Terai and inner Terai regions of Nepal.
Fertilizers: 20:40:20 kg NPK/ha.
Sowing time: Regions Sowing time Harvesting time
High hills March-April June-August
Mid hills a. January-April April-July
b. July-August October-November
Terai August-September October-November
Bush type:
1. July sowing in order to match in the crop rotation maize-bodi-tori.
2. April sowing to match in the crop rotation wheat-bodi-rice.
Seed rate and spacing:
Pole type 40 kg/ha 120 x 20 cm
Bush type 40-50 kg/ha 45 x 10-15 cm
Cowpea is sensitive to water logging condition. Irrigation is essential during spring-summer period. One hoeing should be done about 4 weeks after sowing for controlling weeds and soil compaction.
Harvesting:
Cowpea becomes ready for harvest after 60-70 days of sowing. Yield 5-8 t green pods/ha.
Seed production:
The cultivation practices are similar to those for fresh vegetable production. In self-pollinated crops isolation distances for foundation and improved seed production are 50 m and 25 m respectively. Broad bean is often cross-pollinated and the isolation distances are 500 m and 400 m for FS and IS production. Removal of off-type and diseased plants are made three times: before flowering, flowering and fruiting and harvest stages.
Yield: 800-1200 kg/ha.
Chapter 7: Cucurbitaceous crops
Cucurbits are either used as salad (cucumber) or for cooking (all the gourds) or for pickling (cucumber) or as dessert fruits (melons). Cucurbits are not the good sources of calorie, minerals and vitamins. But bitter gourd is rich in vitamin C (88 mg/100 g) and carbohydrate (4.2 g/100 g) while pumpkin is rich in carotene (50 (g/100 g) and carbohydrate (4.6 g/100 g). Seeds are rich in protein and oil content and are used in baking industries.
Taxonomy and origin: All the following crops belong to the family Cucurbitaceae.
1. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus): The place of origin is the south-east part of Himalayas in Nepal and India. A small bitter cucumber (Cucumis hardwickii), found wild in the foot hills of Himalayas, is more likely a progenitor of the cultivated cucumber.
2. Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris): is the native of Kalhari dessert of Africa. Citrullus colocynthoides is known as the probable ancestor of watermelon.
3. Musk melon (Cucumis melo): is said to be a native of tropical Africa, more especially, south of the Sahara dessert. Central Asia (southern Russia, Iran, Afganistan, Pakistan and North west India) may be regarded as a secondary centre of origin.
4. Pumpkin and squashes (Cucurbita moschata, C. maxima and C. pepo): were selected by American Indians long before the European colonists.
These crop species have been domesticated independently: Moschata in Mexico and south America; maxima in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru; and Pepo in the hilly regions of Mexico. In Nepal C. moschata is popularly cultivated.
5. Gourds:
a) Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) was independently domesticated in both old and new worlds. So the bottle gourd has bihemispheric distribution and the fixed place of origin is not known.
b) Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) is a native of tropical Asia (China, Japan, South-east Asia), Africa and South America. There is no systematic study on the origin of this crop.
c) Sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica) and ridged gourd (Luffa acutangula): These crops have a long history of cultivation in the tropical countries of Asia and Africa. The wild species L. graveolens has given rise to these two cultivated monoecious species.
d) Snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina): The centre of origin is not precisely known but most of the authors agree India or Indo-Malayan region as the original home of this crop.
Botanical characteristics: Plants have long tape root, branched climbing stem, 3 to 5 lobed leaves and tendrils on the axils of leaves. Some squash cultivars are of bush type. Plants are monoecious (staminate and pistillate) flowers borne separately on the same plant.
Sex ratio and modification: In monoecious plants the sex ratio (male flower : female flower) ranges from 25-30:1 to 15:1. Sex expression is influenced by agro-climatic conditions. Under long days, high light intensities and higher dose of N male flowers predominate, while under short days and low light intensities female flowers predominate. The improved cultivars under normal conditions bean predominantly female flowers. They are referred to as gynoecious cultivars.
The application of plant growth regulators can alter the sex ratio and sequence of flowering. Generally they are applied at 2 to 4 true leaf stage. This is the critical stage at which the suppression or promotion of either sexes is possible. Methods of promoting staminate and pistillate flowers are as follows:
A. Promotion of staminate flowers in gynoecious plants:
1. Three applications of GA3 at 1000 ppm are made at the interval of 15 days. The first is applied at the two true leaf stage. or
2. Three applications of GA3/GA7 at 50 ppm as GA3 are made. or
3. A single application of silver nitrate solution (600 mg/litre) before the opening of the first flower.
B. Promotion of pistillate flowers in androecious plants:
1. Two applications of Ethrel (250 ppm) are applied at first true leaf stage and the second at fifth true leaf stage. or
2. Spray of maleic hydrazide at 50-100 ppm at 2-4 true leaf stages.
Soil and climate: Well drained loam soils with 6.0 to 7.0 pH are preferred. Cucurbits are sensitive to acid soils (below 5.5 pH). They require long growing season with average monthly temperature of 25-30oC and ample sunshine. Cucumber and squash prefer slightly lower temperatures while melons do well even at 35 to 40oC.
Cultivars:
1. Cucumber
a) Poinsett: Fruits are dark green, 20 to 25 cm long. Resistant to the diseases downy mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnose and angular leaf spot.
b) Japanese Long Green: Extra early, fruits 30 to 40 cm long. Flesh light green in colour.
c) Bhaktapur Local: Fruits- milky white coloured, cylindrical, cultivated in both spring-summer and rainy seasons. The consumers highly preferred the milky white most attractive fruits.
d) Kusle: Early, leaves- dark green, fruit colour- light green and white towards distal end, basal end is greenish.
2. Water melon
a) Asahi Yamato: First picking in 95 days, average fruit weight 6 to 8 kg. TSS is 11 to 13% seeds are large.
b) Sugar Baby: First picking in 85 days. Fruit 3 to 5 kg per fruit, round with bluish black rind and deep pink flesh. TSS 11 to 13% seeds are small.
3. Musk Melon
a) Honey Dew: Fruit-creamy white, flesh-thick, green, juicy and very sweet.
b) Honey Ball: Fruit-white, net-fine, flesh-salmon orange, firm and very sweet.
4. Punpkins – the cultivated species are:
a) Cucurbita moschata: Stem and peduncle-slightly ridged, peduncle is spreaded over the fruit. Leaves 5-7 lobed, white patches appear in the lamina between veines. Seeds are brown.
b) Cucurbita maxima: Stem and peduncle are cylindrical, leaves- 5 lobed, seeds white or creamy and large.
c) Cucurbita pepo: Stem and peduncle highly ridged. Leaves- 5 lobed. Seeds yellowish white.
5. Summer squash
a) Grey zucchini: Plant bushy, no lateral vines, fruits- cylindrical, golden yellow when ripe. It is renames as Asare.
b) Black zucchini: Plant bushy, dark green, fruits- cylindrical and green.
c) Black beauty: Plant bushy, leaf lamina with white marks, fruits- cylindrical and dark green.
6. Bottle gourd
a) Pusa Summer Prolific Long: Suitable to spring summer sowing, prolific fruiting, fruits 40-50 cm long and pale green. It is renamed as Summer Long.
7. Bitter gourd
a) Green bitter gourd: First harvest in 90-100 days after sowing. Suitable for spring-summer and rainy seasons cultivation. Fruits- dark green, long and medium thick, 7-8 continuous ridges.
b) Coimbatore Long: Suitable for rainy season cultivation. Fruits- long, tender and white in colour. First harvest in 110-120 days after sowing. Growing shoots moderately hairy.
8. Sponge gourd
a) Pusa Chikni: Suitable for both spring summer and rainy season sowings. Fruits- smooth, dark green more or less cylindrical. It is renamed as Chillo Dark Green.
b) Kathmandu Local: Fruits- very long and pale green in colour. It is a late variety. First harvest in 110-120 days after sowing. It is renamed as Kantipure.
Growing period: Mostly cucurbits are sown directly in the field. For early harvest, seeds can be sown in Alkathane bags under green house or plastic house or in hot beds. The seedlings with soil balls are transplanted at 2-3 true leaf stage. Sowing and harvesting time is as:
Regions Sowing time Harvesting time
High hills April-May July-August
Mid hills/Terai January-June April-October
Mid hills/Terai October-March under plastic tunnel or plastic house.
Field preparations: Two to three ploughing followed by levelling of land is necessary. Cucurbits are deep rooted crop and ploughing should be done deeply. There should be a channel in between two beds.
Seed rate and spacings:
|Crops |Seed rates (kg/ha) |Spacings (cm x cm) |
|Cucumber |2.5 |200 x 100 |
| | |200 x 50 (in spring) |
|Water melon |3-6 |200 x 100 |
|Musk melon |3-6 |200 x 100 |
|Pumpkin |4 |250 x 100 |
|Squash |5 |100 x 75 |
|Bottle gourd |3-6 |200-300 x 100-150 |
|Bitter gourd |4 |150 x 75 |
|Sponge gourd |4.5 |200 x 100 |
Manuring and fertilization: Cucurbits have good response to the application of FYM. High dose of N under high temperature condition promotes maleness in flowering and then the number of fruits per vine is reduced. Fertilizers should be applied at the planting time by band placement method i.e. 5-8 cm below and 5-8 cm to the side of the seeds – or by mixing with the soil below the place where the hill is to be made. FYM is applied @ 20-30 t/ha. The tentative basal doses of fertilizers for different crops are: 60:60:50 NPK kg/ha which are applied at the time of final field preparation. Number of side dresses depends on the length of the crop period. Each side dress with 10 kg N/ha are applied about 15-20 cm far from the base of the plant. The first one is applied at the vining stage and the succeeding ones at the interval of 10-15 days.
Staking: It is essential for higher yield of better quality, especially during rainy season.
Mulching: It is essential for quality fruit production, weed control and moisture conservation, especially during spring-summer season.
Training in water melon: When the plants attain 50-60 cm long vines the main vine is cut off and only the four branches are allowed to grow.
Irrigation: During spring summer season, frequent irrigation is important. Mulching is given to prevent moisture loss and crust formation. Irrigation is given once in 5-6 days.
Interculture: Field should be kept free from weds especially before vining. During side dressing weeding and earthing up are also practised. Vines have to be trained over supports.
Harvesting: Summer squash, bitter gourd and small cucumber fruits attain edible maturity within a week or slightly later. In gourds, picking is done 15-20 days after fruit set while in melons in 30-40 days. In water melon maturity is judged by applying following methods:
a) Thumping with fingers: dull sound indicates the harvest maturity while the metallic sound immaturity.
b) Withering of the tendril at the fruit axil indicates the maturity of the fruit.
c) Yellowing of the ground spot is also the sign of fruit maturity. Ground spot is the part of fruit which touches the ground.
d) Uniform pink colour and sweetness from centre to rind are also important maturity characters. Cucumber for slices is harvested at young stage before the formation of cavity in the center. In bottle gourd, tenderness is judged by pressing the fruit skin with the finger nail. The flesh should not be fibrous in sponge and ridged gourds. Bitter gourd is picked at green stage. Ripe pumpkin fruits are harvested when the vines start drying. The musk melon is harvested at full slip stage.
Yields:
Cucumber 8-12 t/ha
Water melon and pumpkin 20-25 t/ha
Squash and bottle gourd 10-15 t/ha
Sponge and ridged gourd 8-12 t/ha
and bitter gourd 6-12 t/ha
Storage: Cucumber can be stored at 10oC and 85% RH for two weeks, water melon for 15-20 days in wet and shade conditions, ripe pumpkin fruits- for longer period at ordinary conditions and squashes and gourds are not stored.
Seed production: Major features of seed production are:
1. Minimum isolation distances: 1600 m for Foundation seed and 1000 m for improved seed.
2. Rouging is the removal of the undesired plants from the seed field. The rouging stages are: before flowering, flowering, fruit developing and harvesting.
3. Harvesting: Fully matured fruits are harvested. The fruits are cut in halves longitudinally and the seeds with pulp are scraped out into a container.
4. Seed extraction:
a) Dry seed extraction is practiced in sponge and ridged gourds.
b) Wet seed extraction is made by two different ways: (i) Fermentation method: the pulp with seeds are kept into a nonmetallic pot and is allowed to ferment for 1-2 days. After fermentation the seeds are washed and dried (e.g. cucumber), (ii) Mechanical method: Fruit is cut in two halves, then the pulp with seeds is crushed and then washed by a running water (water melon, pumpkin, squash and bitter gourd).
Seeds are dried to the 10% moisture content for storage in ordinary bags; to the 5% MC for storage in sealed containers. Average seed yield: 100-200 kg/ha.
Diseases:
1. Anthracnose: At first light brown spots appear on leaves, later the spots turn dark brown. Control: crop rotation, use of healthy seed, seed treatment with Thiride @ 2-3 g/kg of seed and spray Bavistin @ 1 g/litre of water.
2. Downy mildew: Yellow reddish brown spots appear on the upper surface and purplish downy growth on the lower surface of the leaf. Control: spray Dithane M-45 @ 2-3 g/litre of water or Blitox-50 @ 2.5 g/litre of water.
3. Powdery mildew: Appear tiny white to grey spots on foliage and stem later the white powdery mass covers the plant. Control: Spray Karathane 2 ml/litre of water.
4. Cucumber mosaic: Leaves become mottled plants become dwarf, yellow and bear little or no fruit. Control: control of aphids and beetles, eradication of other hosts and use of resistant cvs.
Insect pests:
1. Red pumpkin beetle: Adults feed on the leaf lamina. Control: spray Malathion 50 EC @ 2 ml/litre of water or Metacid 50 EC @ 1 ml/litre of water.
2. Pumpkin fruitfly: Female punctures the young fruit with its ovipositor and lays eggs inside. Control: spray Malathion 50 EC 1 ml + 10 g sugar/litre of water.
3. Aphids: Suck the cell sap from the young leaves and stem. Control: Spray Thiodan 35 EC @ 1.5 ml/litre of water.
Chapter 8: Bulb crops
Onion
In Nepal, per capita consumption of onion is 7.7 kg per annum in 1995. Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops grown in Nepal. Green leaves, immature bulbs and mature bulbs are eaten raw as salad or used as condiment in the preparation of curries, pickles, chutneys and sauces. Onion powder and dried flakes are also prepared for market. Onion bulb is rich in phosphorus, calcium and carbohydrate and also contains protein and vitamin C. The pungency in onion is due to the volatile oil allyl-propyl disulphide. Nepal imported 9,200 t and 12,700 t in 1988-89 and 1992-93 respectively.
Origin and taxonomy: It is cultivated since ancient times. The primary centre of origin is central Asia and Mediterranean region is the secondary center for larger types of onion. Some of the important Alliums are as follows:
1. Allium cepa (bulb onion): bulb is a dormant stage of the plant, which is adopted to drought.
2. Allium sativum (garlic): The leaf base do not store food. Bulb-much divided consisting of several cloves, plant is sterile and diploid.
3. Allium ascalonicum (shallot): produces bulb in cluster on the soil surface.
4. Allium aggregatum (potato onion): produces underground bulbs in cluster.
5. Allium fistulosum (welsh onion): produces edible tops and long leaf bases, perennial, bunching type, common in China.
6. Allium porrum (leek): is grown for pseudostem composed of long leaf bases (10-60 cm long).
7. Allium ameloprasum (large garlic): bulbs are larger than garlic, leaves are similar to that of leek, produces inflorescence.
8. Allium schoenoprasum (chive): hardy, bunching type, perennial, grown for green leaves, tolerant to extreme cold and drought.
The only one genus of importance in Amaryllidaceae family to vegetable producer is Allium. The total area under cultivation is 8000 ha. The average productivity is 13.15 t/ha.
Botanical characteristics: Onion bulb is an annual crop. The bulb consists of leaves, leaf bases, stem and buds. Inflorescence is the umbel with numerous flowers. The number of seed stem may vary from 1-20 and the number flowers per umbel varies from 50 to 2000. The flowers are protandrous, white to bluish and cross-pollinated. There are two types of cytoplasms: normal cytoplasm produces functional pollen and sterile cytoplasm with recessive gene of male sterility (msms) produces sterile pollen. The sterility factor is inherited through mother plant. Plants must have both genetic (ms) and cytoplasmic factors to be male sterile.
Soil and climate: Loam soils rich in organic matter and water holding capacity with 5.8-6.5 pH are preferred. The plants at early stage can withstand freezing temperature. Lower temperatures and short photoperiod promote vegetative growth while higher temperatures and long photoperiod promote bulb development. It requires 13-21oC for vegetative growth and 15-25oC for bulb development. Temperatures of 25-30oC are effective for rapid bulb growth.
Cultivars:
1. Red Creole: Short to intermediate day type, leaves dark green, bulb- dark red, pungent, flattish in shape, 80-120 g weight per bulb, neck- thin, keeping quality good.
2. Nasik-53: Short day- type, bulb- light red, pungent, round leaves- light green, keeping quality low.
3. Pusa Red: Short day type, bulb- red, flat, less pungent, leaves- light green, keeping quality low.
4. Nuwakote Local: Short day type, bulb- small, fattish, round, pungent, chocolate colour, leaves- light green, low yield, keeping quality good.
5. Agrifound Light Red and Agriflund Dark Red are promising cultivars.
Date of sowing and harvesting:
Regions Sowing time Harvesting time
High hills March-April August-September
Mid hills and Terai 1. September-November May-June
2. August (sets and seedlings) November-December
Sowing for set production: 15 January to 15 February; set size 1.5-2.0 cm diameter are selected. Bolting was highest in large sets over 2.5 cm.1000 kg set of 1.5-2.0 cm diameter is enough to plant one ha.
Early sowing produces more number of direct bolters, large bulbs and high yields of low keeping quality. But late planting produces no direct bolters, small bulbs and low yields of good keeping quality. In off-season, august-December crop senescence of the top does not occur, vegetative growth continues which affect the storage quality. Generally in off-season sets (small bulbs grown in spring) or well grown seedlings are planted in August and the crop becomes ready for harvest in December. The cv. N-53 is suitable for growing in off-season. To plant one ha 5 to 8 kg seeds is enough to produce sets in 200 sq.m. of land. In off-season bulb production the problem faced are pre-mature bolting, non-bulbing, bulb splitting and lack of bulb dormancy.
Seed rate: 10 kg/ha, seedlings became ready for transplanting in about two months.
Field preparation: One ploughing with soil turning plough, 2-3 harrowings and levelling are made for thorough preparation of soil.
Spacing: In Nepal 15 x 10 cm or 15 x 15 cm is in practice. Generally for large scale production multiple row beds and a path of 30 cm between them are made.
Manure and fertilizers 20-30 t FYM and 40:40:50 kg NPK/ha are applied as basal dose during field preparation. First side dress in 30-35 and second in 80-90 days after transplanting are applied @ 10-25 kg N/ha.
Interculture: 3-4 hoeings are essential to prevent weeds and soil compaction during crop period. Compact soil causes in the splitting of the bulb. The most critical stages for irrigation are after transplanting, bulb formation and bulb enlargement. For spring-summer crop, 15-20 irrigations are essential. Irrigation should be stopped 15-20 days before the harvest.
Use of growth substances:
1. Bulb treatment with GA3 at 100-300 ppm increases flower initiation.
2. Application of NAA, IAA or IBA at 100-300 ppm increases leaf number and bulb weight.
3. Spray of Maleic hydrazide at 2500-3000 ppm before harvest to prevent sprouting in storage.
Harvesting: Neck fall is the indication of maturity. Harvesting starts when 25-50% top falls. The plants are hand pulled. The tops at the neck and roots at the base are cut off.
Curing: Curing is done to remove excess moisture from outer skin and neck of the bulbs for reducing disease infection. The cured bulbs have tight neck and dried outer scales. Onions are cured either in field or in open shades.
Yield: 25-30 t/ha.
Storage: Well ventilated rooms with racks having 2-3 layers of bulbs would be desirable for proper storage. Periodical turning of bulbs and removal of rotten and sprouted bulbs should be done.
Diseases:
1. Purple blutch (Alternaria): seed treatment with Thiram and spray Dithane M-45.
2. Downy mildew (Peronospora sp.): spray Dithane M-45.
3. Basal rot (Fusarium sp.): follow crop rotation and use of resistant cultivars.
4. Onion smut (Urocystis sp.): seed treatment with Thiram and nursery bed with formaldehyde.
Pests:
1. Onion thrips: sucks sap and results in small white patches. Spray Malathion 50 EC 1 ml/litre.
2. Head borer (Heliothis sp.): larva feeds on leaves and heads.
Seed produciton:
1. Isolation distances: 1600 m for FS and 1000 m for IS production. Keeping 2 bee hives per ha gives good yield.
2. Methods:
(a) Seed to seed- seedlings are transplanted in August and seed crop is produced directly.
(b) Bulb to seed- bulbs are planted for seed crop.
3. Bulb storage: the opt. temperature for storage is 12oC, ¼ of the unsprouted bulb is cut off for quick sprouting.
4. Bulb treatment: Bavistin solution @ 20 g/10 litres of water. Dip the cut bulbs in the solution.
Bulb size: 51-60 g bulbs with a diameter of 2.5 to 3.0 cm are selected.
Seed rate: 1500 kg bulbs/ha.
Spacing: 45 x 30 cm.
Planting: Planting is made in September to October.
Rouging: is practised before bulb harvest, after harvest and before planting.
Harvesting: When 10% heads have exposed black seeds the seed crop is ready for harvest. The umbels are cut off with 10-15 cm stem, cured for few days and threshed. Seds are cleaned and dried to 8% or 6% moisture content for ordinary or air tight container.
Yield: 800-1000 kg seeds/ha.
Garlic (Allium sativum)
Garlic is used in several food preparations such as chutney, pickles, curry powder, vegetables, meat preparations, ketchup etc. In Nepal it is grown throughout the country. It is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, and phosphorous. The true garlic flavour is due to presence of daillyl disulphide.
Garlic is native to central Asia and Mediterranean region. Allium longicuspis, endemic to central Asia is the wild ancestor.
Garlic is frost hardy. The bulbs are composed of a disc like stem, thin dry scales and cloves. Each clove consists of a protective cylindrical sheath, a single thickened storage leaf sheath and a small central bud. Leaf- leaf blade is linear, flat, solid, and folded length wise.
Cultivars: Marpha Local and Khumal Selection.
Planting time: October-November.
Spacing: 15 x 5-10 cm.
Seed rate: 500-600 kg cloves/ha.
Harvesting: Yellowing of leaves and bending of the speudostem are the sign of bulb maturity.
Yield: 5-12 t/ha (Cultural practices as in onion).
Chapter 9: Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
Importance and utility:
Okra is an important vegetable crop of summer as well as rainy season. Its pods are used for vegetable in curries, stewed with meat, cooked into soups and also canned and dried. Each 100 g edible part of the fruit contains: 88% water, 7.7% carbohydrates, 2.2% protein, 0.2% fat, 1.2% fibre and 0.7% mineral matters.
Origin: It is a native of Africa but a few wild types are found in South-East Asia.
Botany:
Herbaceous annual with bisexual flowers. Erect with or without branches. Fruit is a capsule, green, light green or sometimes red in colour. Fibre formation increases from 5th day and attains maximum from 9th day onwards.
Climate and soil:
Okra requires warm humid weather for best growth and production. It can withstand hot climte also. The optimum temperature range for growth is 20o-30oC. High yields are obtained in loose friable, well manured loam soils. The optimum soil pH ranges between 6.0 to 6.8.
Cultivars:
1. Parvati (Released in 1994): Early variety, first fruits are ready for harvest in 50-60 days and the seed crop matures in 90-100 days after sowing. Plants are 150-200 cm tall and erect. Lobbing of leaves start after 8-10th node moderately hairy, purple pigmentation at the base of leaf nodes. Fruits are dark green, smooth with 5 ridges and 20-25 cm long. this cultivar is highly resistant to yellow vein mosaic.
2. Pusa Sawani: The pods are edged, smooth and dark green in colour. The pods are 10-15 cm long at the marketable stage. It is a high yielding variety and is suitable for summer as well as rainy season cultivation. The average yield is 8-10 t/ha. First picking in 45-50 days after sowing.
3. Arka Anamika: It is resistant to yellow vein mosaic. The plants are 100 cm tall, slightly pigmented on stem, petiole and lower leaves. Fruits are dark green with 5 prominent ridges. It takes 50 days to first flowering. Yields around 12.5 t/ha. It takes 55 days to first picking.
Seed sowing:
In Terai and low hills, sowing is done in February-March for summer crop and in May-June for rainy season crop. In the hills. sowing is done in April-June for summer-rainy season crop.
Seed rate: 18-22 kg/ha for summer crop.
8-10 kg/ha for rainy season crop.
Spacing: 60x30 cm for rainy season crop
30x15 cm, 45x30 cm, 45x20 cm for spring summer crops.
Field preparation:
The soil should be ploughed 3-4 tiems and levelled properly. Seed is sown at a depth of 2.5 cm.
Manure and fertilizers:
Generally 20 t FYM and 100:60:60 kg NPK/ha are applied. Full dose of FYM, P2O5 and K2O and half dose of N are applied before sowing. The half dose of N is splitted in two parts and applied as side dress one and two months after sowing.
Irrigation and drainage:
In summer season, crop should be irrigated at every. 5th day while in rainy season, crop needs irrigation if rains are irregular.
Weed control: Three to four weedings should be done at 10 to 15 days interval.
Harvesting and yield:
Harvesting every alternate day is advisable. Harvesting in the morning for local market and in the evening for distant market are made. 8 t green pods/ha from spring-summer crop and 12.5 t/ha from rainy season crop. Ten to fifteen pickings are made during the crop period. 8-10 cm long pods are the best.
Storage:
At room temperature, the pods can be stored for 2-3 days. At 7oC to 9oC and 60 to 75% relative humidity can be stored for 8-10 days.
Seed production:
Okra is an often cross-pollinated crop and isolation distance of 400 and 200 m should be maintained for foundation and improved seeds respectively. Rainy season crop is good for seed. Seed crop should be inspected thrice. When pods are brown they become ready for harvest. The average seed yield is 1000-1500 kg/ha.
Diseases and their control:
1. Yellow vein mosaic: It is a viral disease in which the leaves show yellowish veins. Grow resistant varieties and spray Metasystox @ 0.1% to control white flies.
2. Powdery mildew: Spray Karathane @ 0.06% at 12 days interval.
3. Cercospora leaf spot: Spray Blitox @ 0.3% at 15 days interval.
Insect pests and their control:
1. Shoot and fruit borer: The dirty brown spotted caterpillars damage the shoot and fruit. Spray the crop with Thiodan 35EC @ 0.2% at weekly interval or spray Sevin @ 0.2%.
Jassids, Red cotton bug and Aphids: Spray Sevin @ 0.2%.
Chapter 10: Spice crops
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rose)
Ginger is the principal spice crop grown in the country. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. It is cultivated for aromatic rhizomes which are used as spice and medicine. Ginger is widely used in food, beverages, confectionery, etc.
Origin: Ginger is native of South-Eastern Asia.
Botany:
Ginger is a perennial herb, forms rhizome covered with scale leaves. Leaf is lanceolate acuminate. Fruit is thin walled capsule, containing a number of black seeds.
Climate:
It thrives well under partial shades, though it is also cultivated on a large scale in open areas. It thrives well in hot, moist climate and can be grown successfully up to an elevation of 1500 m. It does well at the average day temperature of 28oC to 35oC.
Soil:
A well drained, friable, fertile loam soil, rich in humus with pH 6.5-7.0 is ideal. Prior to planting, about 20 to 25 t FYM/ha is applied.
Seed rate: 1.5-2.0 t seed rhizomes/ha. 2-3 eyes in each piece weighing 25-30 g.
Field preparation:
Field is prepared after 2-3 ploughings and repeated harrowings. Residues of the previous crops must be removed. Beds of about 1-2 m width, 15 cm height and of any convenient length are prepared at an inter space of 50 cm between two beds.
Spacing: 30x20 cm at the depth of 3-4 cm.
Planting time: May-June.
Manure and fertilization:
Application of 40-50 t FYM and 100:50:50 kg NPK/ha produces good yield. Half dose of N and entire dose of FYM, P2O5 and K2O are applied as basal dose. The rest part of N in two equal splits are side dressed after 2 and 4 months of planting. Ginger should not be grown on the same land for 3-4 years.
Mulching:
It is done with cow dung @ 10-15 t/ha or dry leaves @ 5-6 t/ha or green leaves @ 10-12 t/ha. Mulching is to be repeated @ 5 and 2.5 t/ha green and dry leaves respectively at 40th and 90th day after planting.
Irrigation:
Frequent irrigations at 7-8 days interval in early stage and at 12-15 days interval in later stages are given.
Hoeing: Hoeing or hand pulling of the weeds is practiced to keep the field clean.
Earthing-up:
Two earthing-ups should be done, first after 50 days and second after about 75 days of planting.
Harvesting:
The rhizomes are harvested at green immature and green mature stages for the manufacture of preserved ginger. The maturity of the crop is indicated by yellowing of foliage and their drooping down. Ginger rhizomes get ready for harvest in November-December. The rhizomes are uprooted by spade or the ginger field is ploughed with turning plough then the healthy rhizomes are collected. The seed rhizomes are allowed to remain in the field for 3-4 weeks more than the dry ginger.
Dry ginger:
The rhizomes are kept soaked in water overnight. The rhizomes are then rubbed well to clean them. The peeling of rhizomes is done manually. The peeled rhizomes are washed and dried in sun for one week. The dry rhizomes are rubbed together to clean them. Peeled rhizomes are soaked in 2% lime water for six hours and dried thereafter.
Yield: 20-30 t/ha.
Curing: The rhizomes are kept under shade in thin layer for 5-6 days.
Trimming: Stems, roots and other undesirable portions are removed.
Grading:
The rhizomes are graded on the basis of shape, size, number of fingers, colour, scales etc.
Packaging:
Various grades viz. green mature, green immature, ripened and dry ginger are packed in 60 kg jute bag and are marketed.
Storage:
Ginger can be stored for 4-5 months under ordinary conditions or in pits. One quintal of seed ginger can be stored in one cubic meter pit. The pit size varies and can store up to 50-100 quintals. Take out the seed ginger from the pits 20-25 days before planting.
Local cultivars:
Two types: (a) Seto Bose (White Strand), the core of the rhizome is white (b) Kalo Bose (Black strand), the core is black.
Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
Turmeric belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. Rhizomes are used as condiment, dye, snuff, drug and in cosmetic preparations. It is also used in ceremonial and religious functions. It contains protein, fat, fibre, carbohydrates, Vitamin A and minerals. It is rich in crystalline colouring matter curcumin. It is used as stomachic, tonic and blood purifier, antiperiodic alternative, antiparasitic and skin affections.
Origin and botany:
It is native of South or South-East Asia. The plant forms rhizomes with short blunt fingers. Outside of the rhizome is brown and scaly while the inside is bright orange. The leaves are broad, lanceolate and bright green.
Soil:
Turmeric thrives well under fertile sandy or alluvial loam soils rich in humus. It is very sensitive to water stagnation and alkalinity. Soil pH should be 5.0-7.5.
Climate:
This crop requires warm and humid climate. A temperature range of 30-35oC during emergence, 25-30oC during tillering and rhizome initiation and 18-20oC during bulking stage have been found optimum.
Seed rate: 1500 kg rhizome cuttings (each weighing 25 g with 2 buds)/ha. The seed rhizomes are treated with 0.25% solution of Agallol for 30 minute.
Planting time: May-June.
Land preparation:
Two-six deep ploughings are done so as to get the fine tilth. Beds of 1 to 1.2 m width, 15 cm height and convenient length are prepared. The spacing of about 40 cm between the beds is kept. Planting is done in the furrows. Turmeric should not be planted in the field of solanaceous crops to avoid nematodes.
Spacing: Dwarf cultivars: 30-45x20 cm
Tall cultivars: 45-60x20-30 cm
Manure and fertilizer:
Turmeric requires heavy manuring. The crop requires 25 t FYM, 30 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 600 kg of K2O per ha. Whole P2O5 and ½ K2O are applied at the time of planting. Apply 20 kg N 40 days after planting and the balance 10 kg N and 30 kg K2O 3 months after planting.
Irrigation: Turmeric is cultivated as a rainfed crop.
Interculture: Hoeing, mulching, and earthing up are made. Generally 3 to 4 hoeings are done depending on the nature of soil and the intensity of the weed growth.
Harvesting:
Completed drying of leaves and pseudo-stem indicate the maturity of the crop. Leaves are cut close to the ground and fields are irrigated two days before harvest. Crop becomes ready for harvest in 7-9 months after planting.
Yield: 25-35 t/ha.
Curing:
The harvested rhizomes need to be cured for dry turmeric. Processing involves boiling of rhizomes in water. Stop boiling when typical smell comes out. The boiled rhizomes are dried in the sun for 10-15 days till they produce metal like sound. The dry product is about 20% of the fresh turmeric. If the water is acidic then add sodium bicarbonate to make it slightly alkaline. The dried rhizomes are cleaned and polished.
Storage:
The rhizome heaps are covered with turmeric leaf and plastered with the mixture of soil and cow dung and is stored for 2-3 months in the ventilated room.
Diseases:
1. Leaf spots (Taphrina maculans and Colletotrichum capsici): Spray with 0.2% solution of Blitox at 15 days interval.
2. Root rot (Pythium graminicolum): Treat seed rhizomes with 0.3% Agallol.
Insects:
1. Shoot boring caterpillar: Spray with 0.2% solution of Sevin.
2. Thrips: Spray the crop with 0.1% solution of Metasystox.
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
Coriander previously belonged to the family Umbelliferae. The entire plant of coriander when young is used in preparing chutney and sauces and for flavouring curries and soups. The fruits are used in the form of condiments in cooked foodstuffs, pickling spices and important ingredient for salads. The oil of coriander is used in perfumes and also in preparation curry powder, pickling sauces and for seasoning. Both leaves and fruits have high nutritive and medicinal values. Now this crop belongs to the family Apiaceae.
Origin: Coriander is a native of Mediterranean region.
Botany:
It is an annual herb with small white or pinkish purple flowers borne in umbels. The fruits are globular and ribbed, yellow brown in colour and when pressed get separated into halves each containing a seed.
Climate:
Moderately cool and dry weather during grain formation stages favours both yield as well as quality of seed. The optimum temperature for normal growth for this crop is 20-28oC. High temperatures and heavy rains hamper the growth of the crop. It is susceptible to frost particularly during flowering and grain formation stages.
Soil:
It can be grown in various types of soils. The soil pH should be 6.0-7.0. Rich loam soils free from water-logging are best suited for it.
Seed rate: 10-15 kg/ha.
Sowing time:
Crop sown in October, matures in January. The best time for seed crop is October while for leaf crop the best sowing time is September.
Spacing: 25x15 cm.
Sowing:
The fruits are split into halves by gentle rubbing them against an iron pan or with a stone and soaked in water overnight to hasten germination.
Promising cvs: Plant Haritma and Jaipur Local.
Manure and fertilizer:
Apply 30 t FYM, 50 kg N, 25 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O/ha. Apply 20 kg N and entire dose of FYM, P2O5 and K2O at the time of land preparation. Crop is side dressed twice, first at 30 days after emergence and second at the flowering stage each with 15 kg N/ha.
Irrigation: It needs irrigation at an interval of 8-10 days depending moisture in the soil.
Hoeing and weeding:
First hoeing is done after the completion of germination. One of two hoeings are made. The crop is thinned 20-30 days after sowing.
Harvesting:
Nipping should be done when the plants are 30-35 days old and 15 cm in height fully grown but tender. Number of cuttings depends upon the cultivars. Dual purpose cultivars give more number of cuttings and quality produce. The seed crop becomes ready for harvest in about 100-120 days. Harvesting is done by pulling out the plant. Keep the plants tied in bundles and dry in the shade. When fully dry, spread the plants on floor and thresh by beating and clean the seeds. Store seeds in a dry place after proper sun drying.
Yield: Green leaves: 6-12 t/ha
Fruit yield 4 t/ha.
Insect-pests and diseases:
Coriander is free from insect pests. It is susceptible to the following diseases:
1. Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. coriandrii): The drooping of the plant is following by the withering and drying of the leaves. Use resistant varieties or seed treatment with Agrosan.
2. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe poligoni): Dust the crop with fine sulphur powder (300 mesh) @ 10-12 kg/ha.
3. Tumor (Protomyces macrosporus): Tumor like swellings occur on flower stalks, leaves, petioles and green parts of the stem. Uproot and burn the infected plants.
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
The dried seeds, the fresh and dried leaves and the tender shoots are consumed and are valued as food, flavouring agent and medicine. The seeds are mainly used as spice for the preparation of different tasty dishes.
Origin: Fenugreek is a native of South-East Europe and West Asia.
Taxonomy:
There are two species of the genus Trigonella which are T. foenum-graecum, the common Methi and T. corniculata, the Kasuri Methi. The later one is a slow growing type and remains in rosette condition during most of the vegetative growth period.
Botany:
Fenugreek is an annual herb reaching to a height of about 0.9 m. Leaves are light green and are pinnately trifoliate. The flowers are white or yellow in colour. The pods mature within 60-70 days of sowing.
Climate:
Fenugreek is both a tropical and temperate crop. The plants grow better at 15o to 18oC. This crop is grown from sea level up to an altitude of 2000 meters. The crop requires a cool climate and is capable of tolerating frost or freezing weather.
Soil:
The crop is adapted to all types of soil, but its performance is good in well drained loamy soils. The optimum soil pH lies between 6-7.
Season:
The sowing time is so adjusted that the pod development and seed maturity phase coincide with a fairly dry period free from rains. In high hills- March-April, in mid hills and Terai- September-November.
Seeds and sowing:
20-30 kg/ha; a spacing of 20-30x10-15 cm is given. A sowing depth of 2-3 cm is normally adopted. Seeds germinate in 6-7 days of sowing.
Pre-sowing seed treatments:
Seeds are soaked in water for 2 days prior to sowing to enhance germination.
Land preparation:
The field is ploughed repeatedly to bring to a fine tilth. Clods are broken and stones are removed.
Manures and fertilizers:
About 20-30 t FYM/ha should be added to the field during field preparation. Fifty kg nitrogen, 40 kg phosphorus and 40 kg potash per ha should be added at the time of last harrowing. Crop is side dressed with 15 kg N/ha after each cutting.
Irrigation and drainage:
Frequent and light irrigations are necessary for quick growth and better yield. Crop should be irrigated at 7 to 10 days interval.
Weed control:
First weeding should be done 15-20 days after sowing. Later on the cropplants supress occasional weeds which come out.
Harvesting:
The first cutting is done in 55-65 days after sowing. The subsequent cuttings are made at intervals of 15-20 days.
Yield: Green leaf yield 10-12 t/ha
Seed yield 500-800 kg/ha.
Preparation for marketing:
The picking of leaves is done by nipping at the ground level. Small bundles of about 250 g in weight are prepared and sent for marketing.
Storage:
Fully dried leaves can be stored for one year and the seeds can be stored for two years.
Seed production:
It is a self-pollinated crop. The seed crop matures in about 150-170 days after sowing. Seed yield 800-1000 kg/ha.
Cultivars growin in Nepal:
1. Kasuri: Plants are bushy and erect and growth is very slow during early stage. Leaves are light to dark green, trifoliate, thinly serrated, internodes elongate during bolting and plants become tall. Flower branches appear from the base of leaf with 5-12 flowers per bunch. Pods are small and sickle shaped. Seeds are small and yellow in colour. The seed crop becomes ready in 120-130 days after sowing. The seed crop can be produced both in mid hills and Terai. Pods- small sickle shaped.
2. Early Bunching: Early variety, the fresh vegetable becomes ready for harvest in 40-45 days and the seed crop matures in 90-100 days after sowing. Leaves are light to dark green and stem is succulent at young stage. Pods are long slender, beak shaped, 7-8 cm long and straw coloured when ripe. Pods bear 9-15 yellowish brown seed.
Diseases and insect-pests:
Powdery mildew, downy mildew, root rot and leaf spot and aphids are the major diseases and insect pest, respectively.
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum)
Cumin belongs to the family Umbelliferae. The fruits of cumin are used as an ingredient in curry and in native medicine. The green leaves and tender stalks are used as herb like coriander leaves for culinary purposes. Seeds are very rich in an essential oil which varies from 2.5-4.5%. It has manifold medicinal uses as anthelmintic against hookworms and also antiseptic. Cumin fruits produces strong and heavy flavour due to an alcohol, cuminol and is slightly bitter in taste.
Origin and botany:
It is believed to be native of Egypt, Syria, Turkestan and the eastern Mediterranean region. It is annual herb, stem - much branched, lower leaves with longer leaf stalk, upper leaves nearly sessile. The flowers are small, rose or white colour and borne in umbel. The seeds – small, elongated or oval grayish brown in colour.
Climate and soil:
Cumin requires warm and dry weather, particularly at the time of seed maturity. Loamy, medium to heavy soils with high fertility level are most suitable.
Seed rate: 10-15 kg/ha. The promising cv. is RZ 19. It is a high yielding variety with bold, dark grey and pubescent seeds. It takes 130-140 days to mature and yields 0.47-0.57 t seed/ha.
Sowing time: Mid hills and Terai- September-October.
Field preparation:
Soil should be prepared well into a better tilth. Line sowing or broadcasting method is followed.
Seed treatment: Seed is treated with Bavistin @ 2 g/kg of seed.
Spacing: 30 x 10-15 cm.
Rows are made 30 cm apart and seeds are sown in line and the furrows are filled up with soil.
Manure and fertilizer:
Application of 10-15 t FYM, 30 kg N, 20 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O/ha is made at the time of final land preparation. Crop is side dressed twice, first after one month and second after two months of sowing, each with 15 kg N/ha.
Interculture and irrigation:
The first hoeing and weeding should be done when the plants are 5-6 cm high. Weeding is done regularly. First irrigation in 22-25 days, second in 45-50 days and the third in 70-80 days of sowing are applied.
Harvesting:
The cumin crop matures in 85-100 days. The maturity of the umbels is indicated by browning of seeds. The crop is harvested with sharp sickle in the morning hours to avoid shattering. The harvested crop is collected and spread on the threshing floor in the open sun for drying in thin layer. The seeds are separated by beating with wooden sticks. The cumin fruit is dried in the sun till it is left minimum moisture content.
Yield: Seed: 800-1000 kg/ha.
Pests:
1. Aphids: By spraying with 0.05% water emulsion of phosphamidon, Dimethoate or Methyldemeton.
2. Leaf eating caterpillar: Spary with water emulsion of 0.1% Methyldementon or 0.05% Phosphamidon.
Diseases:
1. Wilt (F. oxysporum f. cuminii): Seed treatment with a mixture of Carbendazim+Captan (1:1) @ 4 g/kg of seed, summer ploughing of the field, use of neem cake and three years crop rotation sequence to accommodate cumin once in three, as the control measures.
2. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni): Dusting sulphur fungicide @ 25 kg/ha or spraying of wettable sulphur or Dinocap (0.25%) twice at an interval of 15 days.
Chapter 11: Minor and under exploited crops
Chayote (Chow Chow) (Sechium edule Swartz)
Chayote is mainly cultivated for fruit vegetable and the young shoot and tubers root crops also harvested. It is native of Mexico and Central America. It is commercially cultivated in the upper mid hills of the Eastern and Central Development Regions of Nepal.
Botany:
Chayote belongs to family Cucurbataceae. It is perennial vine crop. Flowers are monoecious. Male flowers are peduncled in clusters and female flowers solitary, rarely 2 in number produced on the axils of leaves. The fruit colour varies greatly viz. light green, green, medium green, dark green, creamy white and white. The fruits vary in shape, size and in the presence of spines and furrows. The fruit has deep cleft at the blossom end. The fruit is vivipary in nature, i.e. the seeds of mature fruits start to emerge immediately.
Climate and soil:
The crop does well at a temperature range of 18-22oC, which is commonly prevalent at higher altitudes of 1200-1500 m above sea level. In the Terai, the crop is cultivated during winter when the temperature is moderate. It is highly sensitive to frost. A rich well drained loamy soil with sufficient moisture, high organic matter content and pH value 5.5-6.5 will be ideal to grow chayote.
Cultivars:
There is no any named variety in Nepal. The most commercially grown high yielding Nepalese landraces produce large sized, light green coloured, oblong or broadly oblong shaped, thinly spined and slightly or partially furrowed fruits. The Chayote Research Program of IAAS/USAID greatly enriched the chayote germplasm resources in Nepal by introducing various chayote germplasms collected from commercial farms, homegardens and markets of Mexico and Costa Rica. At present chayoe phenotypes producing spineless, furrowless light green fruits; spineless, furrowless, creamy white fruits and spiny or spineless, furrowed or furrowless dark green fruits are exotic and being cultivated in Nepal since 1993 AD. Now mid hills of Nepal can be considered as a secondary centre of chayote germplasm resources.
Propagation: Sprouted fruits are used for planting.
Spacing: 2.4 m x 1.8 m; 3 m x 1 m; 2 m x 1 m are in practice.
Planting time: In the hills: April- May
In the Terai: July-August
Fruiting time: In the hills: July-December
In the Terai: November-February
Manure and fertilizers:
Pits of 45x45x45 cm or 30x30x30 cm sized are dug. An amount of 10-15 kg manure and 50 g N, 25 g P2O5 and 25 g K2O are applied in each pit, well mixed with soil and mounded. A side dress is given at the flowering stage with 50 g N/plant. The vines are supported on the bower, constructed at a height of 2m above the ground. Weedings, hoeings and irrigations are practiced as and when needed. The vines start flowering in 3-4 months after planting.
Yield: About 50 kg fruits/plant or 25-35 t/ha
About 0.5 kg green shoots/plant
About 10-15 kg tuberous roots/plant annually.
Amaranthus (Amaranthus sp.)
Amaranthus is the common leafy vegetable grown during summer and rainy season. Leaves and succulent stems are used as vegetable. They are the very good sources of iron, Vitamin A and Vitamin C. This crop is the native of South-East Asia. In Nepal, three types of amaranthus, namely, red leaved, green leaved and green leaved spiny are cultivated in the home gardens. Well drained fertile loam soils are ideal for its cultivation. The ideal pH range is between 5.5-7.5. Most of the amaranthus species are adapted to tropical climates. A temperature range of 20o-30oC is preferred for better growth and yield. For summer season crop, sowing is done in February-March while for rainy season crop in May-June. Field is prepared thoroughly by repeated ploughing, breaking clods and removing previous crop residues. Application of 20 t FYM, and 50 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O/ha is made as basal dose. After each cutting the crop is side dressed with 20 kg N/ha.
Seed rate: 2 kg/ha for direct sowing and 1 kg/ha for transplanting.
Spacing: 20-30x10 cm. Seed is mixed with soil in 1:20 ratio then the line sowing is done.
First irrigation is made immediately after sowing and the subsequents are given at 3-5 days interval in summer. 1-2 hoeings are made to control the weeds.
Harvesting:
The first cutting is done 3-4 weeks after sowing and subsequent cuttings are made at 7-10 days interval.
Yield: 20-30 t/ha.
No serious insect pest and disease attack this crop.
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)
Lettuce is the most important salad crop of the western world. In Nepal its cultivation is limited in the peri-urban areas. Its tender leaves and heads are used as salad with salt and vinegar. Lettuce is rich in Vitamin A, Vitamin C and minerals like calcium and iron. Lettuce has been originated from Mediterranean region and it belongs to the family Compositae.
Botany: There are six morphological types of lettuces which are in cultivation.
Crisp head:
The cultivars form large round head with wrinkled non-wrapper leaves. It includes most important commercial cultivars such as Imperial 44, Great Lakes.
Butter head:
The cultivars form relatively small loose heads with broad, oily, soft-textured leaves. For example, Bibb, Big Boston etc.
Cos type or Romaine:
The cultivars have elongated leaves forming a loaf-shaped head. The cultivars are Tower, Paris Island.
Leaf type:
The cultivars are non-heading type and produce a rosette of leaves. The best known cultivar is Black-Seeded Simpson, Grand Rapids etc.
Stem type:
this type produces two crops fleshy stem and leaves. The cv. Celtuce is large-leaved thick stemmed and is grown in USA and Europe.
Latin type:
The cvs form loose heads similar to Butter head type but the leaves are elongated and similar to Cos type.
Soil and climate:
Well drained sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is the best. The best soil pH is 5.5-6.5. Both day and night temperatures are important and lettuce grown at 20/18oC or 20/17oC.
Seed rate:
400-500 g/ha. Seed is sown 70-60 m2 nursery area. After 5-6 weeks of sowing, seedlings are ready for transplanting.
Spacing: 45x45 cm or 45x30 cm.
Field preparation, manuring and fertilization:
Field is prepared thoroughly by repeated ploughing. Application of 30 t FYM and 40 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha is made as basal dose. Two side dresses are made each with 10 kg N/ha.
Sowing and transplanting time:
Regions Sowing/transplanting time
High hills February-March
Mid hills September-December
Terai September-December
Irrigation:
Irrigation is given immediately after transplanting and irrigation is continued twice in a day till 5 days. Then after irrigation is given at 7-10 days interval.
Interculture: 2-3 hoeings are made with light earthing up.
Harvesting:
When solid head or full size rosette are developed then the crop becomes ready for harvest.
Yield:
10-14 t/ha. Head lettuce can be stored for 3-4 weeks at 0oC temperature and 90-95% relative humidity.
Pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.)
Pointed gourd is a dioecious, perennial plant, cultivated for its tender fruits and young shoots too. The fruits are used in making curry and fried and for making pickles. Eastern Terai of Nepal and Bengal-Assam area of india are the primary centre of origin of pointed gourd. Pointed gourd contains 2% protein, 0.3% fat, 2.2% carbohydrates and 29 mg Vitamin C per 100 g edible fruits.
Soil and climate:
Well drained loam soils with ample humus and 6.0 to 7.0 pH are the best. It needs hot and humid climate. It is highly sensitive to frost and water logging condition.
Planting material:
Seed propagation is avoided due to poor seed germination adn dioecious nature of the seed plants. Ten to twelve percent male plants are are planted in regular sequence to ensure the source of pollinizer. Seed rate: 20-25 kg/ha. The mature vines are laye red in teh field in August-September. The plants are separated when they root and are transplanted. Cuttings 60-150 cm long are made from mature vines and are planted in nursery bed for rooting. The cuttage plants are transplanted in February-March.
Spacing: 2 m x 2 m.
Planting materials:
2500-3000 cuttings or rooted cutting, of them 10-12% cuttings were from male plants.
Transplanting/sowing:
Seed sowing: January-March.
Direct planting of fresh cuttings: August-August.
Transplanting of rooted cuttings: February-March.
Cultivars:
Land races having different types of fruits are cultivated. According to the fruit characters they are: long green fruits with white stripes; long green, green round and green round with white stripes.
Manure and fertilizers:
Application of 20-25 t FYM and 90 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O per ha are applied in the furrow/pit/hill prior to planting. The cuttings are coiled in the shape of a ring and planted both ends exposed to the light.
Stakings: The vines are trained over bowers and exposed to sunlight.
Irrigation: Frequent irrigations are given in dry periods.
Weed control:
At least at one month interval hoeing is essential. At the veining stage the crop may be side dressed with 10-20 kg N/ha.
Harvesting:
The fruits are harvested at tender stage after 80-90 days of planting. The interval of two harvests is 4-5 days. The vines die during winter. In spring the vines are pruned to the height of 50 cm and manure 5-4 kg and 150-100 ammonium sulphate per hill are applied.
Yield: 10.0-15.0 t/ha.
Storage:
At room temperature, the fruits can be stored for 3-4 days. At 7oC with 80% relative humidity the fruits can be kept for 10-12 days.
Powdery mildew, downy mildew and anthracnose are the major diseases and the major insect pests are fruit fly and aphids.
Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Brussels sprout is a delicious cold climate winter vegetable that has been grown around Brussels in Belgium since 13th century. The edible part of Brussels sprouts is swollen axillary buds known as 'sprouts' or 'mini-cabages'. Buds in the axil of petiolate leaves develop into swollen small head like structure about 5-8 cm in diameter. The sprouts are cooked and served in the same away as cabbage heads. Plants take optimum growth when temperature is 16-20oC and at higher temperature the growth is arrested. This crop is frost resistant and late cultivar can withstand temperature as low as –10oC. The cultivation practices are as the same applied in the cole crops. It takes 110-120 days for first picking after transplanting. At least 3-5 pickings are made. Yield 5-10 t sprouts per hectare.
Drumstick (Moringa oleifera Lam)
Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) belonging to the family Moringaceae is the popular tree vegetable cultivated in home garden for young leaves, flower buds and tender fruits, which are used as vegetables. They are a rich source of protein, minerals and vitamins. Drumstick is native to the African tropics and South East Asia. It is a deciduous tree of 8-10 m height. Pods are 30-120 cm long. Seeds are big and 3 winged. It is a tropical plant and grows well in the tropical and sub-tropical belts. The optimum temperature for better growth is 25-35oC. It grows well in the loose soils. The plants are quick growing reaching a height of 4.8 m in six months.
Irrigation:
Perennial types are propagated by limb cuttings. Annual types are seed propagated. 625 g seed/ha.
Spacing: 2.0 x 2.5 m.
Manure and fertilizers:
120 kg FYM/pit at the time planting, 100 g urea, 100 g super phosphate and 50 g of muriate of potash are applied after planting and the next with 100 g urea after three months of first application. For ratoon crops, the above schedule with 25 kg FYM is applied. When the seedlings attain the height 75 cm the shoot tips are to be nipped off to encourage side branches. It is drought-tolerant crop. Irrigation is given before sowing and on the third day after sowing. Irrigation is given generally 10-15 days interval.
Harvest and yield:
Seed plant produces fruits in 6 months of sowing and the cottage plants in 8-9 months. The fruits attain harvest maturity in 60 days after flowering. The period of harvest extends 2-3 months. 200-250 fruits/year in the 1st-2nd year. 500-600 fruits/year in the 4th-5th year.
Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.)
Asparagus is a perennial dioecious herb which start producing spears in 2nd or 3rd year and continues for 15-20 years. The tender shoots called 'spears' are used as vegetables and in preparation of soups. Asparagus belongs to the family Liliaceae. The height of the plant is 1-3 m. The roots are tuberous and serve as storage organ. The spear arises from a bud on the rhizome. The male and female plants are separate male plants yield more and live longer than female plants.
Soil and climate:
Asparagus prefers deep fertile loam soil with high organic matter. The optimum pH is 6.0-7.5. It requires a temperature range of 15.5-23.8oC for spear production. It tolerates frost to some extent.
Seeds and sowings:
It is propagated through seeds or crowns. 3-4 kg/ha. Seeds pre-soaked for 3-5 days are sown in line 15-20 cm apart at a depth of 1.5-2 cm. Sowing is done in March-May in hills and in July-November in Terai. The seeds germinate in 3-4 weeks. The seedlings are transplanted after 7-12 months.
Field preparation:
The field is ploughed deeply and 20-25 cm deep furrows are made. The seedlings or crowns are transplanted in the furrow and then the furrows are filled with soil.
Spacing: 100-150x45-60 cm.
Manure and fertilizers:
A basal dose of 20-30 t FYM, 20-30 kg N, 80-100 kg P2O5 and 50-60 kg K2O/ha is applied as the basal dose. Manure is applied in 3-4 years and the chemical fertilizers once in a year after harvesting.
Irrigation and weed management:
The first irrigation is given at the time of planting and thereafter at 10-15 day intervals. Frequent shallow hoeings are made to control the weeds. Mounding the soil to a height of 25-30 cm is practiced to blanch the young spears.
Harvesting:
The first cutting should be done two years after planting. Crooked and curved spears are rejected.
Yield: 1.35-4.50 t/ha (3.5-4.5 t/ha).
The spears can be stored at 0oC and 90% relative humidity for a period 3-4 weeks.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.)
Cassava is a major starchy root crop of the tropics. It belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and it is a native of Brazil. The plant is a perennial shrub producing enlarged tuberous roots and variously branched stems. There are two distinct plant types, erect with or without branching at the top and spreading types. Varieties are classified into bitter and non-bitter primarily due to the bitter principle, viz. cyanogenic glucoside (HCN).
A well drained loamy soil of pH 5.5-7.0 is best suited for the crop. Cassava yields best between latitudes 30oN and 30oS. It can be grown at altitudes upto 2,000 m but performs better at lower altitudes. It is considered as a drought tolerant crop. It can not withstand frost.
Soil is loosened to a depth of 20-25 cm. For better yield, a basal dose of 12 t of FYM along with 50 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O per ha is applied at the time of land preparation. When the crop attains 45-60 days after planting a side dress of 50 kg N and 50 kg K2O/ha has to be applied. As a rainfed crop, the best time of planting is April-May. Planting can be done in August-September.
Spacing: Non-branching type 75x75 cm
Branching type 90x90 cm
Planting material: Stem cuttings 15-20 cm long and 1.5-2.0 cm thick are used.
Interculture:
The first interculture is done deep at 45-60 days after planting and a shallow interculture and earthing up at one month after the first.
Harvest:
The crop matures in 10-11 months after planting. Short duration crop matures in 6-7 months stage. The postharvest life of the tubers is poor. Drying is one of the main modes of processing cassava tubers to enhance its postharvest storage. It can be in the form of cassava chips, flour, starch and pellets.
Yield: 25-30 t/ha.
Taro (Colocasia)
Three edible tuber crops, namely 'taro' (Colocasia esculenta schott), 'tannia' (Xanthosoma spp.) and 'giant taro' (Alocasia spp.) belong to the family Araceae. The former two are cultivated in larger scale. The leaves, petioles, corms and cormels are edible. India to Southern Asia is the centre of origin of Colocasia. Indo-China is the possible centre of domestication of the primitive Alocasia macrorrhiza (A. indica). From America, Xanthosoma was taken during slave trading era, to Africa where it is popularly cultivated.
Botany:
Colocasias are herbaceous plants and have underground corms and large leaves with long petiole clasping at the base. The taro cultivars vary in colour of leaves and petioles and shape of corms and cormels.
Soil and climate:
Low land taro is grown in alluvial soils of high fertility while the upland taro in soils of marginal fertility. The optimum soil pH range is 5.5-7.0. Colocasia can not tolerate frost but grows well where temperture averages around 21oC. The best growth takes place at 30oC to 34oC.
The land is prepared thoroughly by harrowings along with plankings and removal of grass and stone pieces.
Planting time: April-May for rainfed rainy season crop in plains and hills.
Planting material:
750-1,000 kg corms or cormels/ha. Use healthy cormels having 2-3 buds 20-40 g weight.
Spacing: Planted at 45-60x30 cm spacing in 10-15 cm deep furrows.
Manure and fertilizers:
Application of 25 t FYM and 100 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 80 kg K2O produces good yield. Half dose of N and entire doses of FYM, P2O5 and K2O are applied as basal dose. The remaining half N is side dressed in 45-50 days after planting. Crop is irrigated once a week in summer. One or two hoeings along with earthing up are practiced.
Harvesting:
Crop matures in 4-5 months after planting. Corms are harvested with spade. Corms are cured for 10-15 days. The mature corms can be stored for 5-6 months on the floor in a layer.
Yield: 20-25 t/ha.
Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batata Lam.)
Its roots are used after boiling or after roasting or for making flour. Roots are rich in starch which varies from 19 to 32%. It is a native of Brazil. Young shoots and leaves are used as vegetable.
Soil and climate:
The crop does well on sandy to sandy loam soils with a clay subsoil. The best pH is 5.8 to 6.7. A light frost also will kill the leaves. The best growth takes place at 22oC to 25oC.
Planting season:
Sweet potato is planted in two seasons: February-March and September-October.
Sweet potato is propagated vegetatively. About 100 kg medium sized tubers each weighing 125-150 g are planted at the spacing 60x20 cm on about 100 m2 nursery area. At 45th day the vines can be cut to a length of 20-30 cm for further multiplication. An area of 500 m2 is needed as secondary nursery. The vines obtained from primary nursery are planted in the secondary nursery. Cuttings of 20-45 cm long of the apical part with at least 3-5 nodes are optimum for tuber production. The cuttings are planted in the soil with both ends exposed and the middle portion buried in the soil at 60x20 cm spacing.
Field preparation: Normally up to 30 cm deep field preparation is sufficient.
Manure and fertilizers:
Application of 10 t FYM and 40:40:60 kg NPK/h gives good yield. Weeding and earthing up are made between 15-30 days after planting. Four to eight irrigations in spring-summer season produce good yield.
Harvesting:
Sweet potato takes 4-6 months to mature. The field is irrigated 2-3 days prior to harvesting. Yield ranges 6-9 t/ha in rainfed areas and 20-25 t/ha in irrigated areas. Tubers can be stored in ventilated room for 2-3 months.
Celery (Apium graveolens L.)
Celery is a salad crop grown for its long fleshy leaf stalk. It is a new crop in Nepal. It is a biennial plant and is native of Mediterranean region. It belongs to the family Umbelliferae. There are three types of cultivated celery: leafy types are referred to var. secalinum, blanched celery is var. dulce and celeriac (with swollen rooted celery) is var. rapaceum. The celeriac is also known as turnip rooted celery. Celeriac is popularly cultivated in the temperate region of north hemisphere. In the tropics and subtropics leafy and peliolated celery are in cultivation. The cultivars of petiolate type are divided into two groups: self-blanched type (cv. Standard Bearer) and green cultivars (cv. Ford hook).
Soil and climate:
Well pulverized fine soil is necessary for the crop. The field should be prepared by repeated ploughing, breaking clods and removing stones and previous crop's residues. Celery is a cool season crop. The optimum temperature for better growth is 15-21oC. Higher temperature causes bitterness in the leaves.
Seed rate:
125 g/ha. Seedlings from 125 g seeds become sufficient to plant one ha of land. Seeds are very small and germinate after 2-3 weeks sowing. The seedlings become ready for transplanting within 45-60 days from emergence when they are 10-15 cm height.
Spacing: 45x10-20 cm.
Sowing time: In mid hills and Terai: August-September
In high hills: February-March.
Manure and fertilizers:
Apply 50 t FYM and 50:50:50 kg NPK/ha as basal dose. Two side dresses are given each with 10 kg N/ha.
Irrigation:
Irrigations are given immediately after transplanting and continue to irrigate daily for few days them after at an interval of 10-15 days. Hoeings are practiced frequently. Earthing up is practiced twice to blanch the leaf stalk.
Harvesting:
The harvest of individual leaf can be started even 30 days after transplanting. Generally the crop matures in 75-90 days after transplanting. The plants are just below the soil surface.
Yield:
20-30 t/ha. Celery can be stored for 2-3 months at 0oC and 95-98% relative humidity. Seeds of celery can be produced in the hills. Seed yield 1900 kg/ha.
References:
Arya, P.S. 2002. A textbook of vegetable culture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India.
Agrawal, P.K. 2002. Principles of seed technology. ICAR, New Delhi, India.
Choudhury, B. 2003. Vegetables. National Book Trust, India.
Gaur, A.C.; S. Neelakantan and K.S. Dargan. 2002. Organic Manures. ICAR, New Delhi, India.
Pear, P. and S. Stickland. 1999. Organic gardening. Octopus Publishing Group Ltd. 2-4 Heron Quays, London E14, 4JP.
Ram, H.H. 1997. Vegetable Breeding Principles and Practices. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India.
Shakya, S.M., F. Thapa and J. Pant. 1991. Laboratory manual on vegetable production and ornamental horticulture. T.U. Press Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Singh, N.P., A.K. Bhardwaj, A.Kumar and K.M. Singh. 2004. International Book Distributing Co. Lucknow, India.
Thamburaj, S. and N. Singh (Eds.). 2003. Vegetables, tuber crops and spices. ICAR, New Delhi, India.
Verma, T.S. and S.C. Sharma. 2002. Producing seeds of biennial vegetables in temperate regions. ICAR, New Delhi, India.
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