THE RULES OF ESSAY WRITING - Helena G. Martins



expository ESSAY – rules of composition

A classic format for compositions is the five-paragraph essay. It is not the only format for writing an essay, of course, but it is a useful model for you to keep in mind, especially as you begin to develop your essay writing skills.

Topic paragraph (TP)

The topic paragraph should accomplish two tasks: 1) it should get the reader's interest so that he or she will want to read more. 2) it should let the reader know what the writing is going to be about. In order to accomplish the second task the paragraph must include a carefully crafted thesis statement which is a kind of mini-outline for the paper, communicating its topic, focus and purpose. Many writers think of a thesis statement as an umbrella: everything that you carry along in your essay has to fit under this umbrella, and if you try to take on packages that don't fit, you will either have to get a bigger umbrella or something's going to get wet.

The thesis statement is also a good test for the scope of your intent. The principle to remember is that when you try to do too much, you end up doing less or nothing at all. Can we write a good paper about problems in higher education in the United States? At best, such a paper would be vague and scattered in its approach. Can we write a good paper about problems in higher education in Connecticut? Well, we're getting there, but that's still an awfully big topic, something we might be able to handle in a book or a Ph.D. dissertation, but certainly not in a paper meant for a Composition course. Can we write a paper about problems within the community college system in Connecticut. Now we're narrowing down to something useful, but once we start writing such a paper, we would find that we're leaving out so much information, so many ideas that even most casual brainstorming would produce, that we're not accomplishing much. What if we wrote about the problem of community colleges in Connecticut being so close together geographically that they tend to duplicate programs unnecessarily and impinge on each other's turf? Now we have a focus that we can probably write about in a few pages (although more, certainly, could be said) and it would have a good argumentative edge to it. To back up such a thesis statement would require a good deal of work, however, and we might be better off if we limited the discussion to an example of how two particular community colleges tend to work in conflict with each other. It's not a matter of being lazy; it's a matter of limiting our discussion to the work that can be accomplished within a certain number of pages.

The thesis statement should remain flexible until the paper is actually finished. It ought to be one of the last things that we fuss with in the rewriting process. If we discover new information in the process of writing our paper that ought to be included in the thesis statement, then we'll have to rewrite our thesis statement. On the other hand, if we discover that our paper has done adequate work but the thesis statement appears to include things that we haven't actually addressed, then we need to limit that thesis statement.

The thesis statement usually appears near the beginning of a paper. It can be the first sentence of an essay, but that often feels like a simplistic, unexciting beginning. It more frequently appears at or near the end of the first paragraph or two. Here is the first paragraph of Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.'s essay The Crisis of American Masculinity. Notice how everything drives the reader toward the last sentence and how that last sentence clearly signals what the rest of this essay is going to do.

„What has happened to the American male? For a long time, he seemed utterly confident in his manhood, sure of his masculine role in society, easy and definite in his sense of sexual identity. The frontiersmen of James Fenimore Cooper, for example, never had any concern about masculinity; they were men, and it did not occur to them to think twice about it. Even well into the twentieth century, the heroes of Dreiser, of Fitzgerald, of Hemingway remain men. But one begins to detect a new theme emerging in some of these authors, especially in Hemingway: the theme of the male hero increasingly preoccupied with proving his virility to himself. And by mid-century, the male role had plainly lost its rugged clarity of outline. Today men are more and more conscious of maleness not as a fact but as a problem. The ways by which American men affirm their masculinity are uncertain and obscure. There are multiplying signs, indeed, that something has gone badly wrong with the American male's conception of himself.”

The first paragraph serves as kind of a funnel opening to the essay which draws and invites readers into the discussion, which is then focused by the thesis statement before the work of the essay actually begins.

However, avoid announcing the thesis statement as if it were a thesis statement. In other words, avoid using phrases such as "The purpose of this paper is... " or "In this paper, I will attempt to..." Such phrases betray this paper to be the work of an amateur. If necessary, write the thesis statement that way the first time; it might help you determine, in fact, that this is your thesis statement. But when you rewrite your paper, eliminate the bald assertion that this is your thesis statement and write the statement itself without that annoying, unnecessary preface.

The last sentence of the introductory paragraph should also contain a transitional "hook" which moves the reader to the first paragraph of the body of the paper.

Things NOT to do in the topic paragraph:

( Apologize. Never suggest that you don't know what you're talking about or that you're not enough of an expert in this matter that your opinion would matter. Your reader will quickly turn to something else. Avoid phrases like the following:

In my [humble] opinion.... or I'm not sure about this, but...

( Announce your intentions. Do not flatly announce what you are about to do in an essay.

In this paper I will... or The purpose of this essay is to...

Get into the topic and let your reader perceive your purpose in the topic sentence of your beginning paragraph.

( Use a dictionary or encyclopedia definition.

According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, a widget is...

Although definitions are extremely useful and it might serve your purpose to devise your own definition(s) later in the essay, you want to avoid using this hackneyed beginning to an essay.

Developmental paragraphs (DPs)

2-4 (most commonly 3) paragraphs of approximately equal length

must have the basic structure of a paragraph: topic sentence + supporting sentences + conclusion/transition to the following paragraph

should be filled with concrete support (examples, facts, reasons, statistics, evidence etc.)

each DP must concern itself with a single focus to maintain unity

should be coherent and employ a variety of transitional expressions

DPs should be arranged in the order suggested by the thesis statement

First developmental paragraph (DP1)

The first paragraph of the body should contain the strongest argument, most significant example, cleverest illustration, or an obvious beginning point. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the "reverse hook" which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the introductory paragraph. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence (topic sentence of this paragraph). This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the second paragraph of the body.

Second developmental paragraph (DP2)

The second paragraph of the body should contain the second strongest argument, second most significant example, second cleverest illustration, or an obvious follow up the first paragraph in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the reverse hook which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the first paragraph of the body. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence (topic sentence of this paragraph). This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional hook to tie into the third paragraph of the body.

Third developmental paragraph (DP3)

The third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest argument, weakest example, weakest illustration, or an obvious follow up to the second paragraph in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should include the reverse hook which ties in with the transitional hook at the end of the second paragraph. The topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence (topic sentence of this paragraph). This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional concluding hook that signals the reader that this is the final major point being made in this paper. This hook also leads into the last, or concluding, paragraph.

Here is a list of some common transitional devices (also called connective words) that can be used to cue your reader in a given way.

| |

|addition |

|again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, lastly, moreover, next, |

|second, still, too, what is more |

| |

|cause or effect |

|accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, due to, since, so, therefore, thus |

| |

|comparison |

|also, by the same token, just as, likewise, similarly, in the same way |

| |

|contrast |

|although, although this may be true, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, compared to, conversely, despite that, even so, even though, for |

|all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, meanwhile, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, |

|regardless, still, though, whereas, yet |

| |

|example/illustration |

|after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in particular, in this case, in this situation, indeed, in fact, in other words, in |

|short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, to demonstrate, thus, truly |

| |

|time sequence |

|after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, |

|further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly, |

|simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, until now, when |

| |

|summary/conclusion |

|all in all, altogether, as has been said, as has been shown, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, |

|lastly, on the whole, taking everything into account, that is, therefore, to summarize, to sum up |

A word of caution: Do not interlard your text with transitional expressions merely because you know these devices connect ideas. They must appear, naturally, where they belong, or they'll stick like a fishbone in your reader's craw. (For that same reason, there is no point in trying to memorize this vast list.) Having said that, if you can read your entire paragraph/essay and discover none of these transitional devices, then you must wonder what, if anything, is holding your ideas together. Practice by inserting a tentative however, nevertheless, consequently. Reread the text later to see if these words provide the glue you needed at those points.

Concluding paragraph (CP)

This paragraph should include the following:

1. an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph.

2. a restatement of the thesis statement, using some of the original language or language that "echoes" the original language. (The restatement, however, must not be a duplicate thesis statement.)

3. a summary of the three/four main points from the body of the paper.

4. a final statement that gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end.

5. it should have the form of a paragraph (although it is usually the shortest of all paragraphs in the essay, just one or two sentences will not be enough)

Your conclusion is your opportunity to wrap up your essay in a tidy package and bring it home for your reader. It is a good idea to recapitulate what you said in your thesis statement in order to suggest to your reader that you have accomplished what you set out to accomplish. It is also important to judge for yourself that you have, in fact, done so. If you find that your thesis statement now sounds hollow or irrelevant — that you haven't done what you set out to do — then you need either to revise your argument or to redefine your thesis statement. Don't worry about that; it happens to writers all the time. They have argued themselves into a position that they might not have thought of when they began their writing. Writing, just as much as reading, is a process of self discovery. Do not, in any case, simply restate your thesis statement in your final paragraph, as that would be redundant. Having read your essay, we should understand this main thought with fresh and deeper understanding, and your conclusion wants to reflect what we have learned.

There are some cautions we want to keep in mind as we fashion our final utterance. First, we don't want to finish with a sentimental flourish that shows we're trying to do too much. It's probably enough that our essay on recycling will slow the growth of the landfill in Hartford's North Meadows. We don't need to claim that recycling our soda bottles is going to save the world for our children's children. (That may be true, in fact, but it's better to claim too little than too much; otherwise, our readers are going to be left with that feeling of "Who's he/she kidding?") The conclusion should contain a definite, positive statement (or call to action), but that statement needs to be based on what we have provided in the essay.

Second, the conclusion is no place to bring up new ideas. If a brilliant idea tries to sneak into our final paragraph, we must pluck it out and let it have its own paragraph earlier in the essay. If it doesn't fit the structure or argument of the essay, we will leave it out altogether and let it have its own essay later on. The last thing we want in our conclusion is an excuse for our readers' minds wandering off into some new field. Allowing a peer editor or friend to reread our essay before we hand it in is one way to check this impulse before it ruins our good intentions and hard work.

Never apologize for or otherwise undercut the argument you've made. Leave your readers with the sense that they've been in the company of someone who knows what he or she is doing. Also, if you promised in the introduction that you were going to cover four points and you covered only two (because you couldn't find enough information or you took too long with the first two or you got tired), don't try to cram those last two points into your final paragraph. The "rush job" will be all too apparent. Instead, revise your introduction or take the time to do justice to these other points.

Here is a brief list of things that you might accomplish in your concluding paragraph. There are certainly other things that you can do, and you certainly don't want to do all these things. They are only suggestions:

• include a brief summary of the paper's main points.

• use a quotation.

• evoke a vivid image.

• call for some sort of action.

• universalize (compare to other situations).

• suggest results or consequences.

Sample essay

|1Stephen King, creator of such stories as Carrie and Pet Sematary, |The introductory paragraph includes a paraphrase of something |

|stated that the Edgar Allan Poe stories he read as a child gave him the|said by a famous person in order to get the reader's attention. |

|inspiration and instruction he needed to become the writer that he is. |The second sentence leads up to the thesis statement which is |

|2Poe, as does Stephen King, fills the reader's imagination with the |the third sentence. The thesis statement (sentence 3) presents |

|images that he wishes the reader to see, hear, and feel. 3His use of |topic of the paper to the reader and provides a mini- outline. |

|vivid, concrete visual imagery to present both static and dynamic |The topic is Poe's use of visual imagery. The mini- outline |

|settings and to describe people is part of his technique. 4Poe's short |tells the reader that this paper will present Poe's use of |

|story "The Tell-Tale Heart" is a story about a young man who kills an |imagery in three places in his writing: (1) description of |

|old man who cares for him, dismembers the corpse, then goes mad when he|static setting; (2) description of dynamic setting; and (3) |

|thinks he hears the old man's heart beating beneath the floor boards |description of a person. The last sentence of the paragraph uses|

|under his feet as he sits and discusses the old man's absence with the |the words "manipulation" and "senses" as transitional hooks. |

|police. 5In "The Tell-Tale Heart," a careful reader can observe Poe's | |

|skillful manipulation of the senses. | |

|1The sense of sight, the primary sense, is particularly susceptible to |In the first sentence of the second paragraph (first paragraph |

|manipulation. 2In "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe uses the following image |of the body) the words "sense" and "manipulation" are used to |

|to describe a static scene: "His room was as black as pitch with the |hook into the end of the introductory paragraph. The first part |

|thick darkness . . ." Poe used the words "black," "pitch," and "thick |of the second sentence provides the topic for this |

|darkness" not only to show the reader the condition of the old man's |paragraph--imagery in a static scene. Then a quotation from "The|

|room, but also to make the reader feel the darkness." 3"Thick" is a |Tell-Tale Heart" is presented and briefly discussed. The last |

|word that is not usually associated with color (darkness), yet in using|sentence of this paragraph uses the expressions "sense of |

|it, Poe stimulates the reader's sense of feeling as well as his sense |feeling" and "sense of sight" as hooks for leading into the |

|of sight. |third paragraph. |

|1Further on in the story, Poe uses a couple of words that cross not |The first sentence of the third paragraph (second paragraph of |

|only the sense of sight but also the sense of feeling to describe a |the body) uses the words "sense of sight" and "sense of feeling"|

|dynamic scene. 2The youth in the story has been standing in the open |to hook back into the previous paragraph. Note that in the |

|doorway of the old man's room for a long time, waiting for just the |second paragraph "feeling" came first, and in this paragraph |

|right moment to reveal himself to the old man in order to frighten him.|"sight" comes first. The first sentence also includes the topic |

|3Poe writes: "So I opened it [the lantern opening]--you cannot imagine |for this paragraph--imagery in a dynamic scene. Again, a |

|how stealthily, stealthily--until, at length, a single dim ray, like |quotation is taken from the story, and it is briefly discussed. |

|the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon |The last sentence uses the words "one blind eye" which was in |

|the vulture eye." 4By using the metaphor of the thread of the spider |the quotation. This expression provides the transitional hook |

|(which we all know is a creepy creature) and the word "shot," Poe |for the last paragraph in the body of the paper. |

|almost makes the reader gasp, as surely did the old man whose one blind| |

|eye the young man describes as "the vulture eye." | |

|1The reader does not know much about what the old man in this story |In the first sentence of the fourth paragraph (third paragraph |

|looks like except that he has one blind eye. 2In the second paragraph |in the body), "one blind eye" is used that hooks into the |

|of "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe establishes the young man's obsession |previous paragraph. This first sentence also lets the reader |

|with that blind eye when he writes: "He had the eye of the vulture--a |know that this paragraph will deal with descriptions of people: |

|pale blue eye, with a film over it." 3This "vulture eye" is evoked over|". . . what the old man looks like . . .." Once again Poe is |

|and over again in the story until the reader becomes as obsessed with |quoted and discussed. The last sentence uses the word "image" |

|it as does the young man. 4His use of the vivid, concrete word |which hooks into the last paragraph. (It is less important that |

|"vulture" establishes a specific image in the mind of the reader that |this paragraph has a hook since the last paragraph is going to |

|is inescapable. |include a summary of the body of the paper.) |

|1"Thick darkness," "thread of the spider," and "vulture eye" are three |The first sentence of the concluding paragraph uses the |

|images that Poe used in "The Tell-Tale Heart" to stimulate a reader's |principal words from the quotations from each paragraph of the |

|senses. 2Poe wanted the reader to see and feel real life. 3He used |body of the paper. This summarizes those three paragraph. The |

|concrete imagery rather than vague abstract words to describe settings |second and third sentences provide observations which can also |

|and people. 4If Edgar Allan Poe was one of Stephen King's teachers, |be considered a summary, not only of the content of the paper, |

|then readers of King owe a debt of gratitude to that nineteenth-century|but also offers personal opinion which was logically drawn as |

|creator of horror stories. |the result of this study. The last sentence returns to the Edgar|

| |Allan Poe-Stephen King relationship which began this paper. This|

| |sentence also provides a "wrap-up" and gives the paper a sense |

| |of finality. |

PARAGRAPHING - LENGTH

Paragraphs are units of thought with one idea developed adequately. Listed here are some rules of thumb to use when paragraphing. As your writing improves, you'll be able to break these "rules" to meet your own needs. Until then, these suggestions will be helpful:

• Put only one main idea per paragraph.

• Aim for three to five or more sentences per paragraph.

• Make your paragraphs proportional to your paper. Since paragraphs do less work in short papers, have short paragraphs for short papers and longer paragraphs for longer papers.

• If you have a few very short paragraphs, think about whether they are really parts of a larger paragraph--and can be combined--or whether you can add details to support each point and thus make each into a more fully developed paragraph.

|Materials compiled by Tomasz Szczegóła, Writing Program Coordinator for Years 1BA and 2BA, School of English, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań |

|(stomasz@ifa.amu.edu.pl) from: Guide to Grammar and Writing at mnet.edu/grammar/, Purdue University’s Writing Lab at owl.english.purdue.edu/ |

|and The Writing Skills Workbook by Lefkovitz. |

staff.amu.edu.pl/.../IFA.../RULESOFESSAYWRITING.docer

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