Rhetoric, Writing & Argument
Rhetoric, Writing & ArgumentWhat is rhetoric? Rhetoric began in ancient Greece. Citizens studied rhetoric to learn how to argue, communicate and reason, mostly so they could use these skills to participate in public life. Rhetorical education was especially important in law, democratic debate, and political action. The Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle both wrote about rhetoric. Aristotle provided one of the most influential early definitions of rhetoric.Aristotle noticed that some speakers in Athens were more effective in persuading the public than others. In On Rhetoric, a collection of those observations, he offered this definition:“Let rhetoric be defined as the faculty of observing in any case all of the available means of persuasion.”Modern rhetoric: the field of rhetoric has developed enormously over the centuries, drawing from and influencing other disciplines. Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg are English professors whose definition is a little more detailed:Rhetoric has a number of overlapping meanings . . . the use of language, written or spoken, to inform or persuade; the study of the persuasive effects of language; the study of the relation between language and knowledge; the classification and use of tropes and figures…Nor does this list exhaust the definitions that might be given. Rhetoric is a complex discipline with a long history.”The web site of the Department of Rhetoric & Writing Studies at San Diego State University describes rhetoric this way:Rhetoric refers to the study and uses of written, spoken and visual language. It investigates how texts are used to organize and maintain social groups, construct meanings and identities, coordinate behavior, mediate power, persuade, produce change, and create knowledge.Why Write? E. M. Forster, who wrote Passage to India, as well as other influential novels, answered the question this way: “How do I know what I think until I see what I say?”Young & Sullivan: “Why write? One important reason is that unless we do there are mental acts we cannot perform, thoughts we cannot think, inquiries we cannot engage in.”National Commission on Writing: “If students are to make knowledge their own, they must struggle with the details, wrestle with the facts, and rework raw information and dimly understood concepts into language they can communicate to someone else. In short, if students are to learn, they must write…The reward of disciplined writing is the most valuable job attribute of all: a mind equipped to think.”Anne Morrow Lindbergh, a pioneering aviator and author, gave a more detailed answer. She explained, “I must write it all out, at any cost. Writing is thinking. It is more than living, for it is being conscious of living.”What are arguments, and what do they have to do with writing and rhetoric? We’re not talking about disagreements with parents, siblings, friends, or enemies. In an academic context, when we discuss argument we are talking about a statement or idea that someone tries to persuade somebody else to believe. A reasonable person might disagree with that statement.An argument may also center on a proposed piece of action, upon which reasonable people might disagree. Arguments are everywhere. You’ll find them in academic writing, advertisements, newspapers, and films. Politicians use arguments every single day. In college, you will be asked to read, evaluate, and create arguments. Most of the time those arguments will be written. WHY IS ARGUMENT IMPORTANT?Gerald Graff: “Argument literacy is central to being educated.”Rolf Norgaard: “Universities are houses of argument.”Christopher Lasch:If we insist on argument as the essence of education, we will defend democracy not as the most efficient but as the most educational form of government, one that extends the circle of debate as widely as possible and thus forces all citizens to articulate their views, to put their views at risk, and to cultivate the virtues of eloquence, clarity of thought and expression, and sound judgment.What is a narrative argument? A narrative argument is one that's made by telling a story or narrative. Unlike a conventionalargument, which is limited by facts and figures, a narrative argument lets you use a narrative tojustify your stance on an issue. The goal is to weave together the elements of a story(characters, plots, settings, scenes) so they support your main argument, or thesis. ................
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