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INTELLIGENCE

This chapter examines intelligence and mental abilities, which are cognitive abilities that promote learning and adaptive behavior. The complex processes underlying mental abilities cannot be studied directly; instead, they must be inferred from a person's actions in situations requiring their use. Intelligence tests are designed to measure a person's general mental abilities.

Recent research indicates that experts do not yet agree on a single definition of "intelligence." Moreover, "intelligence" apparently means somewhat different things to experts and to nonexperts. In the early 1980s, Sternberg and his associates discovered that both experts and nonexperts described an intelligent person as someone with practical problem-solving ability and verbal ability. But laypersons included social competence in their concepts of intelligence, whereas experts put more emphasis on motivation.

← Practical problem-solving ability: reasons logically, makes connections among ideas, can see all sides of a problem, keeps an open mind, responds thoughtfully to the ideas of others, is good at sizing up situations, interprets information accurately, makes good decisions, goes to original source for basic information, has good source of ideas, perceives implied assumptions, deals with problems in a resourceful way.

← Verbal ability: speaks articulately, converses well, is knowledgeable about a particular field, studies hard, reads

widely, writes without difficulty, has a good vocabulary, tries new things.

← Social competence: accepts others as they are, admits mistakes, shows interest in the world at large, arrives on time

for appointments, has social conscience, thinks before speaking and acting, shows curiosity, avoids snap judgments,

makes fair judgments, assesses the relevance of information to the problem at hand, is sensitive to others,

is frank and honest with self and others, shows interest in the immediate environment.

← Problem-solving ability: makes good decisions, displays common sense, shows objectivity, is good at solving problems,

plans ahead, has good intuition, gets to the heart of problems, appreciates truth, considers the results of actions,

approaches problems thoughtfully.

← Verbal intelligence: has a good vocabulary, reads with high comprehension, is intellectually curious, sees all sides of a

problem, learns rapidly, shows alertness, thinks deeply, shows creativity, converses easily on a wide range of subjects,

reads widely, sees connections among ideas.

← Practical intelligence: sizes up situations well, determines how best to achieve goals, shows awareness of world

around him or her, shows interest in the world at large, uses self-knowledge of own motives to select the tasks

that will best accomplish own goals.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence theorists fall into two categories. In one group are those who argue for a "general intelligence" that characterizes a person's actions and thinking in all areas. Their critics believe that intelligence is composed of many separate types of aptitudes and abilities, and that a person who excels in one area will not necessarily excel in all areas.

Early Theories: Spearman and Thurstone

Spearman believed that intelligence is general: People who are bright in one area are bright in other areas as well. Thurstone disagreed: He believed that intelligence encompasses seven mental abilities that are relatively independent of one another.

In contrast, Cattell divided mental abilities into two clusters. The first is crystallized intelligence, or abilities such as reasoning and the verbal and numerical skills that are stressed in school. The second is fluid intelligence, or skills such as spatial and visual imagery, the ability to notice visual details, and rote memory.

Contemporary Theories: Sternberg and Gardner

In the mid-1980s, Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence that includes a much broader range of skills and abilities. According to this theory, intelligence consists of three overarching aspects: componential intelligence, the traditional mental processes or skills emphasized by earlier theories of intelligence, such as the ability to acquire new knowledge and perform tasks efficiently; experiential intelligence, characterized by insight and creative adaptability as well as efficient and quick processing of information without conscious thought; and contextual intelligence, marked by responsiveness to the environment. Intelligent people, according to Sternberg, are adept at making the most of their strengths and compensating for their weaknesses. Howard Gardner has proposed his theory of multiple intelligences, which asserts that what we refer to as intelligence actually consists of many separate abilities, each of which is relatively independent of the others.

Formal theories of intelligence serve as the foundation for the design and administration of intelligence tests. And because experts do not view intelligence in exactly the same way that nonexperts do, it is understandable that most tests of intelligence do not include items that many nonexperts think of as part of intelligence.

INTELLIGENCE TESTS - The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

The Binet-Simon Scale, the first test of intelligence, was developed in France by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon for testing children. Originally issued in 1908, it consisted of 30 tests arranged in order of increasing difficulty. From the average scores of children, Binet developed the concept of mental age.

The best-known Binet adaptation, created by Stanford University's L. M. Terman in 1916, is the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Terman introduced the term intelligence quotient (IQ), which is a numerical value given to scores on an intelligence test (a score of 100 corresponds to average intelligence).

The Stanford-Binet is designed to measure skills in four areas: verbal reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory.

The Wechsler Intelligence Scales The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) was developed by David Wechsler especially for adults. The test measures both verbal and performance abilities. Wechsler also created the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III), which is meant to be used with school-aged children. It measures verbal and performance abilities separately, though it also yields an overall IQ score.

Group Tests Group tests are administered by one examiner to many people at one time. Group tests are most commonly used by schools. The California Test of Mental Maturity (CTMM) and the SAT are group tests. Group tests aim to overcome the problems of time and expense associated with individual tests and to eliminate bias on the part of the examiner. However, in a group setting the examiner is less likely to notice whether an individual test taker is tired, ill, or confused by the directions. Emotionally disturbed children and people who have less experience taking tests usually do better on individual tests than on group tests.

Performance and Culture-Fair Tests

Some intelligence tests may discriminate against members of certain cultural or ethnic groups. Performance tests are intelligence tests that do not involve language, so they can be useful for testing people who lack a strong command of English. The Seguin Form Board, the Porteus Maze, and the Bayley Scale of Infant Development are performance tests.

Culture-fair tests are designed to eliminate cultural bias by minimizing skills and values that vary from one culture to another. The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test and the Progressive Matrices are examples of culture-fair tests.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEST?

Psychologists use reliability and validity as measures of a test's quality, and for purposes of comparing different tests.

Reliability - Reliability is the ability of a test to produce consistent and stable scores. The simplest way to determine a test's reliability is to give the test to a group and then, after a short time, give it again to the same group. If the group scores the same each time, the test is reliable. The problem with this way of determining reliability is that the group may have remembered the answers from the first testing. One method of eliminating this problem is to divide the test into two parts and check the consistency of people's scores on both parts. If the scores generally agree, the test is said to have split-half reliability. Psychologists express reliability in terms of correlation coefficients, the statistical measure of the degree of linear association between two variables. Correlation coefficients can vary from -1.0 to +1.0. The reliability of intelligence tests is about .90; that is, scores remain fairly stable across repeated testing.

Validity - Validity is the ability of a test to measure what it has been designed to measure. Content validity exists if a test contains an adequate sample of questions relating to the skills or knowledge it is supposed to measure. In general, most intelligence tests assess many of the abilities considered to be components of intelligence: concentration, planning, memory, language comprehension, and writing. However, a single test may not cover all the areas of intelligence, and tests differ in their emphasis on the abilities they do measure.

Criterion-related validity refers to the relationship between test scores and independent measures of whatever the test is designed to measure. In the case of intelligence, the most common independent measure is academic achievement. Despite their differences in surface content, most intelligence tests are good predictors of academic success. Based on this criterion, these tests seem to have adequate criterion-related validity.

Criticisms of IQ Tests

Much of the criticism of intelligence tests has focused on their content. Critics point out that most intelligence tests are concerned with only a narrow set of skills and may, in fact, measure nothing more than the ability to take tests. Critics also maintain that the content and administration of IQ tests are shaped by the values of Western middle-class society and that, as a result, they may discriminate against minorities. IQ tests are also criticized because the results are often used to label some students as slow learners. Finally, IQ tests do not offer information on motivation, emotion, attitudes, and other similar factors that may have a strong bearing on a person's success in school and in life.

Other critics hold that intelligence is far too complex to be precisely measured by tests. IQ tests are also criticized for neglecting to account for social influences on a person's performance. According to recent reviews of the evidence, intelligence tests are good predictors of success on the job. However, because so many variables figure in occupational success, psychologists continue to debate this issue. Robert Sternberg and Richard Wagner have called for a test to be developed specifically to measure skills related to job performance. They refer to the knowledge that people need to perform their jobs effectively as tacit knowledge.

WHAT DETERMINES INTELLIGENCE?

Heredity

Historically, research on the determinants of intelligence has focused on identical twins—some reared together; others reared apart in separate households. The correlation between the IQs of all identical twins is usually very high, indicating that their identical genetic inheritance is a more powerful determinant of intelligence than their experiences. But critics of this research make several strong points: (1) It is difficult to find identical twins who have been separated at birth, so that there are only a few such studies; (2) identical twins tend to be placed in households similar in socioeconomic background to those of their biological parents; and (3) even twins separated at birth have had nearly identical prenatal experiences.

Environment

Research on rats as well as on humans strengthens the case for environment as a factor in the development of superior intellectual ability. Thus, even though certain mental abilities are inherited, without the necessary stimulation a child's intelligence will not develop. This finding is important because lower-income families don't have access to the kinds of resources that other families do. Significantly, when they are placed in more stimulating environments, economically deprived children show an improvement in their level of intelligence. For example, lower-income children raised in middle-class homes display significant gains in IQ compared with their counterparts growing up in low-income households. Similarly, children who participate in intervention programs such as Head Start frequently exhibit improvements in cognitive abilities, although the long-term effects of such programs have yet to be confirmed.

The IQ Debate: A Continuing Controversy

Accounting for group differences in IQ poses a vexing problem in psychology. A milestone in this debate was the 1969 publication of an article by psychologist Arthur Jensen, claiming that overall differences in IQ scores between the races are largely inherited. Jensen's article raised a storm of controversy, which swelled up again in 1994 with the publication of a book on this topic by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray. Significantly, most participants in this debate agree that both heredity and environment affect IQ scores.

MENTAL ABILITIES AND HUMAN DIVERSITY

Gender

Overall, women and men do not differ significantly in general intelligence as measured by scores on standardized tests. Women may show a slight advantage in mathematical computation skills and men a slight advantage in spatial ability.

Academic Performance: The Influence of Culture

Differences in academic performance between American and Asian students are found from first grade through high school in mathematics and reading. Extensive research by Stevenson suggests that at least some of these differences may be related to (1) the educational curricula and (2) American students' tendency to attribute academic success more to innate ability than Asian students, who believe it stems more from individual effort and hard work.

EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE

The IQs of nearly 70 percent of the general population fall between 85 and 115, and all but 5 percent of the population have IQs between 70 and 130. Individuals with mental retardation and those who are gifted score at the two extremes of intelligence.

Mental Retardation

|Level of Retardation IQ Range |Attainable Skill Level |

|Mild Low 50s–70s |The individual may be able to function adequately in society. He or she can learn academic|

| |skills comparable to those of a sixth-grader and can be minimally self-supporting, |

| |although requiring special help at times of unusual stress. |

|Moderate Mid 30s–low 50s |These people profit from vocational training and may be able to travel alone. They can |

| |learn on a second-grade level and perform skilled work in a sheltered workshop if provided|

| |with supervision and guidance. |

|Severe Low 20s–mid 30s |Such people do not learn to talk or to practice basic hygiene until after age six.Although|

| |they cannot learn vocational skills, simple tasks can be carried out with supervision. |

|Profound Below 20 or 25 |Constant care is needed. Usually, people in this group have a diagnosed neurological |

| |disorder. |

Mental retardation is a condition of significantly subaverage intelligence combined with deficiencies in adaptive behavior. The condition includes a range of mental deficits with a wide array of causes, treatments, and outcomes. There are varying degrees of mental retardation, from moderately retarded to profoundly retarded. In addition to having a low IQ, to be considered mentally handicapped a person must also lack skills essential for independent daily living.

In most cases, the causes of mental retardation are not known. Where causes can be identified, the majority of cases involve a variety of environmental, social, nutritional, and other risk factors. About 25 percent of mental retardation cases can be traced to biological causes, including PKU, Down syndrome, and fragile-X syndrome.

Giftedness - Giftedness refers to superior IQ combined with demonstrated or potential ability in academic aptitude, creativity, leadership, and fine arts. The recent movement to identify and assist gifted children in schools has come under criticism, as have the assumptions underlying notions of giftedness. Critics say, among other things, that gifted people may not be a distinct group superior to the general population in all areas, but rather people who excel only in some areas. Critics also contend that it is erroneous to assume that career success automatically comes to people who are gifted.

CREATIVITY - Creativity—the ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects—is regarded by some psychologists as one aspect of intelligence. But there is some disagreement about the link between creativity and intelligence. The threshold theory of the relation between intelligence and creativity states that although creativity requires a certain amount of intelligence, once intelligence rises above the threshold level, creativity and intelligence are related only moderately, if at all.

Creativity Tests - Because creativity involves original responses to situations, it is helpful to measure it with tests composed of open-ended questions. Mednick's Remote Associates Test (RAT and the Wallach and Kogan Creative Battery are two examples of creativity tests.

Brief information about the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

• David Wechsler designed intelligence tests made up of items that are appropriate for a wide range of ages.

• There are three main types of Wechsler intelligence tests:

o Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) - 3-7 years

o Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC) - 7-16 years

o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - 16 years and over

• The first was the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1939).

• Replaced 1955 by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).

• 1981 revision is referred to as the WAIS-R.

• A subsequent revision was conducted in the US in 1997 and the present scale is the 3rd edition, known as the WAIS-III.  The revised version has almost 80 per cent of the original form. A number of improvements have been made including an attempt to make it more culturally fair.

• The WAIS(R) was standardised on a sample of 1,800 U.S. subjects, ranging from 16 to 74 years of age. It was a highly stratified sample, broken down into 9 different age groups. Equal numbers of men and women were used, as were white and nonwhite subjects, in line with census figures. It was further broken down into four geographic U.S. regions and six occupational categories. There was also an attempt to balance urban and rural subjects. The mean I.Q. for each age group on this test is 100, with a standard deviation of 15. The WAIS scales have impressive reliability and validity.

• There are different adaptations of the scale by country.  For example, in Australia we have the Australian adaptation of the WAIS-R (1989). 

• 11 separate subtests, which are broken into the Verbal scale (6 subtests) and the Performance scale (5 subtests). 

• A person taking the test receives a full-scale IQ score, a verbal IQ score, a performance IQ score, as well as scaled scores on each of the subtests.

WAIS Scales

• Verbal WAIS scales

1. Information: 29 questions - a measure of general knowledge.

2. Digit Span: Subjects are given sets of digits to repeat initially forwards then backwards. This is a test of immediate auditory recall and freedom from distraction.

3. Vocabulary: Define 35 words. A measure of expressive word knowledge. It correlates very highly with Full Scale IQ

4. Arithmetic: 14 mental arithmetic brief story type problems. tests distractibility as well as numerical reasoning.

5. Comprehension: 16 questions which focus on issues of social awareness.

6. Similarities: A measure of concept formation. Subjects are asked to say how two seemingly dissimilar items might in fact be similar.

• Performance WAIS scales

7. Picture Completion: 20 small pictures that all have one vital detail missing. A test of attention to fine detail.

8. Picture Arrangement: 10 sets of small pictures, where the subject is required to arrange them into a logical sequence.

9. Block Design: Involves putting sets of blocks together to match patterns

on cards.

10. Digit Symbol: Involves copying a coding pattern.

11. Object Assembly: Four small jig-saw type puzzles.

Interpretation of the WAIS (R)

• Three IQ scores are obtained from the WAIS(R):

1. Verbal IQ

2. Performance IQ

3. Full Scale IQ

1. Francis Galton: The 1st Modern Attempt (late 1800s)

Intelligence tests are grounded in the work of Francis Galton in the late 19th century. Galton is considered to be the father of the study of individual differences [and, incidentally was the half-cousin of Charles Darwin]. For Galton, measurement of intelligence was to be as direct as possible a measure of underlying intelligence. Hence, Galton suggested reaction time as a feasible approach and pursued various sensori-motor measurements.

Interestingly, more contemporary "Galton-like" approaches are being pursued by psychologists such as Arthur Jensen and Mike Andersen who assert that they are assessing the integrity of the central nervous system - inherent capabilities (Intelligence A) - as opposed to manifestations of intelligence in everyday life (Intelligence B). (Weinberg, 1989).

2. Alfred Binet: The origins of IQ Testing (early 1900’s)

Alfred Binet is celebrated in history as the man who created the first 'intelligence test' in the form as we know them today. He is commonly known as the “father” of IQ testing.

In 1904, Binet was commissioned by the French Ministry of Public Instruction to develop techniques for identifying primary grade children whose lack of success in normal classrooms suggested the need for some form of special education (Gould, 1981).

In 1905 he produced the Binet-Simon scale [with Theodore Simon] - the first intelligence test. Binet took a pragmatic approach, choosing a series of 30 short tasks related to everyday problems of life (e.g.

attend to simple instructions

• name parts of the body

• compare lengths and weights

• counting coins,

• assessing which of several faces is 'prettier',

• naming objects in a picture,

• digit span (the number of digits a person can recall after being shown a long list),

• word definition

• filling in the missing words in sentences, etc.

Supposedly all these tasks involved basic processes of reasoning.

The tests were arranged so as to be of increasing difficulty. Each level of tests matched a specific developmental level - i.e. all tests at a given level were capable of being solved by any normal child in that specific age-group.

This was a turning point in psychology: A new type of test had been produced in which the average level of performance was the criterion. In 1908 the test was revised and then again in 1911. This edition was the model for many future tests. The test results proved to be correlated with other criteria (e.g. results of school examinations, assessments of teachers, etc.)

3 & 4. Terman (1916) and Stern (1912)

Lewis Terman (1877-1956) of Stanford University in the US decided to use Binet's test. He found that the Paris-developed age norms didn't work very well for Californian school children. So he revised the test: adapted some items, added other items, established new age norms, and extended the upper age limit to "superior adults". This became the Stanford-Binet revision in 1916. In this revision the Intelligence quotient first appeared. The Intelligence Quotient or IQ was a score meant to quantify intellectual functioning to allow comparison among individuals. To arrive at an IQ score, Terman relied on a formula expressing the relation between an individual’s mental age and chronological age developed in 1912 in Germany by Wilhelm Stern: 1912 Wilhelm Stern proposed the following formula:

IQ = mental age x 100

chronological age

This formula works fairly well for children but not for adults (Thomson, 1968; Weinberg, 1989)

4. Charles Spearman: “g” (1920’s)

Up to now, the approaches to intelligence had been very pragmatic - i.e. tests were developed for particular needs. However, another approach to understanding intelligence, involved analysing data that was already collected.

Charles Spearman (1927) analysed the relations among experimental intelligence tests using 'factor analysis'. He argued that, as a rule, people who do well on some intelligence tests also do well on a variety of intellectual tasks [vocabulary and mathematical and spatial abilities]. And if people did poorly on an intelligence test, then they also tended to do poorly on other intellectual tests. That is, he observed correlations among performance on a variety of intellectual tasks.

Thus, he proposed, a 'two-factor' theory of intelligence:

- General Ability (g): which was required for performance of mental tests of all kinds; he called this a kind of 'mental energy' that underlies the specific factors

- Special Abilities: which were required for performance on just one kind of mental test.

- e.g. Scores on a verbal comprehension test are largely determined by one’s level of general intelligence but they are also affected by one’s specific ability to perform verbal comprehension tasks.

But the main thrust of Spearman's analysis was this idea of a general intellectual capacity. This formed a major theoretical platform for many subsequent approaches to intelligence.

It might be also noted, however, that Spearman was perhaps excessively enthusiastic about g. For example, he advocated restricting voting rights to people whose g exceeded a certain level, and he was a eugenicist (eugenics comes from the Greek "eugenes" meaning well-born) - arguing that only people with a certain level of g should be allowed to have offspring.

"g" was controversial then as now. 

5. Weschler: Intelligence Scales for Adults and Children (1939 - present)

Another test designer was David Wechsler. Wechsler felt that the Binet scales were too verbally loaded for use with adults, so he designed an instrument with sub-tests to measure both verbal and nonverbal abilities, largely borrowing from many other tests, such as the US Army Alpha test. He adopted a mean score of 100, since the Stanford-Binet metric had become universally accepted. The original Weschsler-Bellevue test in 1939 proved quite successful in civilian and military applications.

In 1949, Wechsler produced the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), which competed with the Stanford-Binet test.

In 1955, he produced a revision of the adult scales named the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). And later he produced a scale which could be used with pre-primary children.

These scales have all been revised, but still show a distinct resemblance to the original 1939 scale.

6. Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities (1930’s)

Another 'factor analyst', Thurstone (1938), accepted Spearman's hypothesis of a general factor. But he disputed its importance. He argued that g is in fact a second order factor or phenomenon - one which arises only because the primary or 'first-order' factors are related to one another. Thus, Thurstone identified 7 'primary mental abilities' which he judged to be more important. These were:

1.Verbal Comprehension: vocabulary, reading, comprehension, verbal analogies, etc.

2. Word fluency: the ability to quickly generate and manipulate a large number of words with specific characteristics, as in anagrams or rhyming tests

3. Number: the ability to quickly and accurately carry out mathematical operations

4. Space: spatial visualizations as well as ability to mentally transform spatial figures

5. Associative Memory: rote memory

6. Perceptual Speed: quickness in perceiving visual details, anomalies, similarities, etc.

7. Reasoning: skill in a variety of inductive, deductive, and arithmetic reasoning tasks

So, Thurstone's approach constituted the first multi-factor approach to intelligence.

Thurstone's tests have largely dropped out of use because the hope that they would be able to more accurately predict academic or occupational performance than general intelligence was not fulfilled.

Nevertheless, the main argument and findings are important: that intelligence is better described and measured by considering distinct primary mental abilities, rather than a single factor g which does not provide specific information about specific intelligences.

(see Flanagan, Genshaft & Harrison, 1997; Murphy & Davidshofer, 1998).

7. Raymond Cattell: Fluid & Crystallised Intelligence (1960’s)

Raymond Cattell (1963) [not to be confused with James McKeen Cattell, a contemporary of Galton's who was also significantly involved in early attempts at psychological measurement] suggested that there are two related but distinct components of g: fluid and crystallised intelligence.

Fluid: ability to see relationships, as in analogies and letter and number series = primary reasoning ability

Crystallised: acquired knowledge and skills = factual knowledge

Fluid intelligence decreases with age and crystallized intelligence increases with age. Thus mathematicians and scientists, who need fluid intelligence, produce their best work in their 20s and 30s; whereas those in the field of history, philosophy and literature produce their best work in their 40s, 50s and beyond as they have accumulated more knowledge. Interestingly, poets, who depend more on fluid than crystallized intelligence, produce their best work earlier than prose authors: this has been observed in all cultures, languages and throughout history.

8. Howard Gardner: Multiple intelligences (1980s to the present)

Howard Gardner (1983; 1993) supports Thurstone’s notion that intelligence comes in different packages. The most widely cited version of Gardner’s concept of intelligence is that there are seven different types of intelligence. Gardner has played around with this number and suggested a possible one or two more or even (in 1999) the possibility of a smaller number of intelligences. He argues that the seven intelligences are: verbal, mathematical, musical, spatial, kinaesthetic, interpersonal (social skills) and intrapersonal (self-understanding) functioning. He argues that these different intelligences are independent of one another.  Critics argue: not all these things are intelligence: More next week.

9. Robert Sternberg (1970s to present)

Robert Sternberg (1977, 1985) together with his colleague Richard Wagner (1993, 1995) argues that there are three intelligences:

• Academic

• Practical

• Creative

Sternberg and Wagner have designed a test of practical intelligence.

The Binet-Simon test was revised in 1908 and 1911 and then received a major revision in 1916 and was renamed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.  Part of the revision was the invention of the "Intelligence Quotient", better well-known as IQ. 

Lewis Terman (an American professor from Stanford University) then worked with Binet to produce a major revision in 1916.  The Binet-Simon test was renamed as the Stanford-Binet test.  The Stanford-Binet can be used with children from the age of about 2 and a half years.

Part of Terman's major revision was to re-conceptualize the relationship between Chronological Age and Mental Age.

• Chronological Age (CA) (i.e. Biological age)

• Mental Age (MA) (i.e. Level of intellectual performance

Terman realized that the ratio between MA and CA was a better indicator of intelligence than MA alone e.g., for example

• MA = 7 years / CA = 5 years (IQ=140 which means gifted)

• MA = 7 years / CA = 9 years (IQ=78 which means retarded)

The formula for calculating IQ developed by Terman was 100 x MA / CA.

There are some problems with calculating I.Q. scores in this way.

For example, do Person 1 and Person 2 have the same level of intellectual superiority?

• Person 1: Mental Age = 5  years / Chronological Age 4 years = IQ 125

• Person 2: Mental Age = 10 years / Chronological Age 8 years = IQ 125

A second problem with the IQ = 100 x MA/CA formula is in measuring adults:

Mental Age does not steadily increase throughout the lifespan, but Chronological Age does.  So, an 85-year is not likely to have gained any greater capacity than when he/she was an 60-year old. Mental Age levels off around the end of adolescence, but  Chronological Age gets higher, resulting in lower IQ scores as adults get older!

A third problem was that IQs do not fall strictly along a bell-shaped curve.  There is a higher incidence of very high (there something like 50 times are many people with very high IQs than expected from a normal curve), with a similar though not as large effect for those with very low scores.

A fourth problem was that it was difficult to convert to IQ scores from other achievement and ability tests.

Because of these problems, MA is no longer used in calculating IQ scores - instead "deviation IQ" is used.

Deviation IQ uses a scale which is based on the actual rarity with which ratio IQ scores actually occur.  Thus, it deflates the bulges in the curve, and makes a smooth bell-curve out of the data.  Basically, people are allocated to percentiles rather than actual scores, so "deviation IQs" perfectly fit a normal curve.  This is pretty simple to do, by looking up a chart that shows the match between someone's percentile rating and deviation IQ scores (based on a distribution with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15). 

For example, if one scores in the 96th percentile on an IQ test, then this can be read off a generic IQ chart as an IQ of 128.

Overview of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Gardner continues in the tradition of Thurstone's proposal that there is no g (general intelligence) but rather multiple, distinct intelligences.  Gardner proposes seven intelligences (although he does not limit the possible number)

10. Gardner's approach to intelligence

Howard Gardner (1983, 1993, 1999) believes that we have multiple intelligences, rather than a general intelligence that underlies performance in all tasks (g).

In arguing that there are distinct and separate components to intelligence Gardner offers nothing particularly new. However, what is new about Gardner's work is that he does not attempt to support his approach purely through statistical reanalysis of data (e.g. as Thurstone did), but instead he has looked at various "signs" to inform his theory of what constitutes intelligence.

Gardner's multiple intelligence theory is supported by the current anti-g Zeitgeist. He also suggests that different cultures highlight certain intelligences & minimize others.

Gardner's Seven Intelligences

Gardner concludes that the cumulative evidence points to seven (or possibly eight) distinct intelligences. The first three are somewhat similar to previous components of intelligence identified by other approaches; whereas the second four/five are more novel. He believes these develop differently in different people due to both heredity and training. He believes that all need to be measured to provide a truly global assessment of intelligence.

1. Linguistic Intelligence: involved in reading, writing, listening and talking

2. Logical-Mathematic Intelligence: involved in solving logical puzzles, deriving proofs, performing calculations

3. Spatial Intelligence: involved in moving from one location to another or determining one's orientation in space

4. Musical Intelligence: involved in playing, composing, singing and conducting. Furthermore, Gardner believes that auto mechanics and cardiologists may have this kind of intelligence in abundance as they make diagnoses on the careful listening to patterns of sounds.

5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence: involved in using one's body (or parts of it) to perform skilful and purposeful movements (dancers, athletes and surgeons)

6. Intrapersonal Intelligence: involved in understanding oneself and having insight into one's own thoughts, actions and emotions (self-understanding).

7. Interpersonal functioning: involved in understanding of others and one's relations to others. Being high in social skills (psychologists, teachers and politicians are supposed to be high in this type of intelligence).

8. The eighth intelligence was proposed by Gardner in 1999 and he calls it Naturalistic Intelligence. This intelligence involves the ability to understand and work effectively in the natural world. This is exemplified by biologists and zoologists.

Strengths of Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory

• helps to explain the variety of individual differences in different types of mental performance

• based in developmental, clinical, case study and educational evidence

Criticisms of Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory

• narrow intelligences may meet criteria, e.g. 20 to 30 intelligences may also have been convincing

• are these intelligences or just 'abilities'?  (and what is the difference?) - musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, intra and interpersonal are a source of some controversy

• doesn't explain why some people are more intelligent than others

• these 'intelligences' are not all essential for successful adaptation (one of the common definitions of intelligence)

• ultimately there is not really much HARD scientific evidence.

Intelligence: mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Intelligence Test: a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

Factor Analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score.

Reification: When we view an abstract concept (like intelligence) as if it were a concrete thing, we have made the error of reification.

                      

Theories of Intelligence

Francis Galton (late 1800's): He believed that some people were more superior than others with respect to intelligence.  He felt those people should be encouraged to mate and that less superior people should not be allowed to produce offspring (eugenics movement).  He felt you could determine one's intelligence by measuring his/her head size, body proportions, and reaction time.

Charles Spearman (1930's): Noted that people "smart" in one area were often skilled in other areas.  Thus, he believed in an underlying general intelligence or g-factor.

g-factor: a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

L.L. Thurstaone (1930's):  Disagreed with Spearman.  He identified "8 Primary Mental Abilities" and believed they were all independent from each other.  They included: perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal meaning, memory, spatial skills, reasoning, word fluency, & comprehension.  The existence of Savant Syndrome supports his viewpoint.

       

Savant Syndrome: a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or music. Howard Gardner (1980--): agreed with Thurstone in that intellectual skills were independent of one another.  He identified 8 independent multiple intelligences: logical/mathematical, spatial, linguistic, body-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, & naturalist.

Robert Sternberg (1980--):  believed there are 3 general types of IQ.  He called this the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.

        Academic (or analytic): intelligence which is assessed by intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems with a single correct answer (i.e., school smarts).

        Creative: intelligence demonstrated by reacting adaptively to new situations and generating novel ideas.

        Practical: intelligence required for everyday tasks, which are frequently ill-defined with multiple solutions (i.e., street or business smarts).

                   

Other Types of Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence: the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions.

Creativity: the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

                  

Brain Functions and Intelligence

While Galton was incorrect and you cannot determine IQ from head size, there is a moderate correlation (+.44) between brain volume and IQ (i.e., more cortical tissue and 17% more synapses in educated versus less educated people). Also, we find moderate correlations between IQ and (1) processing speed; (2) perceptual speed and; (3) neurological speed.

                 

ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE

Aptitude Test: a test designed to predict a person's future performance. Aptitude refers to the capacity to learn (IQ tests are considered to be aptitude tests).

Achievement Test: a test designed to assess what a person has already learned (e.g., AP exams, driver's license test).

**While the SAT is designed to predict future performance (and is thus an aptitude test), it is clearly also an achievement test.            

Alfred Binet: Along with Theodore Simon developed the first intelligence test in France in 1904.  It was designed to measure a child's mental age in order to predict future school performance.  The test was called the Simon-Binet Intelligence Test.  It was later revised at Stanford University by Lewis Terman and is now known today as the Stanford-Binet.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): defined originally (Stern) as the ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = MA/CA * 100).  On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) & Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC):  These are the 2 most frequently used IQ tests in the US.  They provide a verbal IQ along with a non-verbal or performance IQ.  They also provide an overall or full-scale IQ score.  The Wechsler tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.

                   

Principles of Test Construction

Standardization: defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested "standardization group".

Normal Curve: the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological traits (including intelligence). Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test (split-half reliability) or on retesting at a later date (test-retest reliability).

Validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

        a) Face Validity: the extent to which questions on a test appear to measure the construct of interest.

        b) Content Validity: extent to which a test actually measures the construct of interest.

        c) Predictive Validity: the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict.  This is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior (also called criterion-related validity).

Criterion: the behavior (such as college grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to predict.

Extremes of Intelligence

Mental Retardation: a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an IQ score below 70 and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound.

Down Syndrome: a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup.

GENETICS & ENVIRONMENT

Heritability: the proportion of variation among individuals on a particular trait that can attributed to the differences in their genes.

Twin & adoption studies show that genetics do play a role in intelligence (e.g., IQ's of identical twins correlate at about .85, while fraternal twins at about .60).

However, the same studies show how important environment is in that identical twins reared together correlate at .85, while those raised in different homes correlate at .71.

Most psychologist agree that differences in group IQ scores based on ethnic background or gender are due to environmental differences not genetics.

|___ 1. |Most experts view intelligence as a person's: |

|A) |ability to perform well on intelligence tests. |

|B) |innate mental capacity. |

|C) |ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. |

|D) |diverse skills acquired throughout life. |

|___ 2. |By creating a label such as “gifted,” we begin to act as if all children are naturally divided into two categories, gifted and nongifted. This |

| |logical error is referred to as: |

| |A) rationalization. B) nominalizing. C) factor analysis. D) reification. |

|___ 3. |Which of the following is not a requirement of a good test? |

| |A) reliability B) standardization C) reification D) validity |

|___ 4. |The concept of a g factor implies that intelligence: |

|A) |is a single overall ability. |C) |cannot be defined or measured. |

|B) |is several specific abilities. |D) |is both a. and c. |

|___ 5. |Melvin has been diagnosed as having savant syndrome, which means that he: |

|A) |has an IQ of 120 or higher. |

|B) |would score high on a test of analytical intelligence. |

|C) |is mentally retarded but has one exceptional ability. |

|D) |was exposed to high levels of testosterone during prenatal development. |

|___ 6. |The existence of ________ reinforces the generally accepted notion that intelligence is a multidimensional quality. |

| |A) adaptive skills B) mental retardation C) general intelligence D) savant syndrome |

|___ 7. |Don's intelligence scores were only average, but he has been enormously successful as a corporate manager. Psychologists Sternberg and Wagner |

| |would probably suggest that: |

|A) |Don's verbal intelligence exceeds his performance intelligence. |

|B) |Don's performance intelligence exceeds his verbal intelligence. |

|C) |Don's academic intelligence exceeds his practical intelligence. |

|D) |Don's practical intelligence exceeds his academic intelligence. |

|___ 8. |Gerardeen has superb social skills, manages conflicts well, and has great empathy for her friends and co-workers. Peter Salovey and John Mayer |

| |would probably say that Gerardeen possesses a high degree of: |

| |A) g. B) social intelligence. C) practical intelligence. D) emotional intelligence. |

|___ 9. |Which of the following best describes the relationship between creativity and intelligence? |

|A) |Creativity appears to depend on the ability to think imaginatively and has little if any relationship to intelligence. |

|B) |Creativity is best understood as a certain kind of intelligence. |

|C) |The more intelligent a person is, the greater his or her creativity. |

|D) |A certain level of intelligence is necessary but not sufficient for creativity. |

|___ 10. |Vanessa is a very creative sculptress. We would expect that Vanessa also: |

|A) |has an exceptionally high intelligence score. |

|B) |is quite introverted. |

|C) |has a venturesome personality and is intrinsically motivated. |

|D) |lacks expertise in most other skills. |

|___ 11. |When highly skilled people are performing a task, their brains: |

|A) |retrieve information from memory more quickly. |

|B) |register simple stimuli more quickly. |

|C) |demonstrate a more complex brain-wave response to stimuli. |

|D) |do all of the above. |

|___ 12. |The test created by Alfred Binet was designed specifically to: |

|A) |measure inborn intelligence in adults. |

|B) |measure inborn intelligence in children. |

|C) |predict school performance in children. |

|D) |identify mentally retarded children so that they could be institutionalized. |

|___ 13. |Benito was born in 1937. In 1947, he scored 130 on an intelligence test. What was Benito's mental age when he took the test? |

| |A) 9 B) 10 C) 11 D) 13 |

|___ 14. |Originally, IQ was defined as: |

|A) |mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. |

|B) |chronological age divided by mental age and multiplied by 100. |

|C) |mental age subtracted from chronological age and multiplied by 100. |

|D) |chronological age subtracted from mental age and multiplied by 100. |

|___ 15. |A 6-year-old child has a mental age of 9. The child's IQ is: |

| |A) 96. B) 100. C) 125. D) 150. |

|___ 16. |If asked to guess the intelligence score of a stranger, your best guess would be: |

| |A) 75. B) 100. C) 125. D) “I don't know; intelligence scores vary too widely.” |

|___ 17. |The formula for the intelligence quotient was devised by: |

| |A) Sternberg. B) Binet. C) Terman. D) Stern. |

|___ 18. |Current intelligence tests compute an individual's intelligence score as: |

|A) |the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. |

|B) |the ratio of chronological age to mental age multiplied by 100. |

|C) |the amount by which the test-taker's performance deviates from the average performance of others the same age. |

|D) |the ratio of the test-taker's verbal intelligence score to his or her nonverbal intelligence score. |

|___ 19. |According to the text, what can be concluded from early intelligence testing in the United States? |

|A) |Most European immigrants were “feeble-minded.” |

|B) |Army recruits of other than West European heritage were intellectually deficient. |

|C) |The tests were biased against people who did not share the culture assumed by the test. |

|D) |Both a. and b. could be concluded. |

|___ 20. |Before becoming attorneys, law students must pass a special licensing exam, which is an ________ test. Before entering college, high school |

| |students must take the SAT, which is an ________ test. |

|A) |achievement; aptitude |C) |achievement; achievement |

|B) |aptitude; achievement |D) |aptitude; aptitude |

|___ 21. |Tests of ________ measure what an individual can do now, whereas tests of ________ predict what an individual will be able to do later. |

| |A) aptitude; achievement B) achievement; aptitude C) reliability; validity D) validity; reliability |

|___ 22. |If you wanted to develop a test of musical aptitude in North American children, which would be the appropriate standardization group? |

|A) |children all over the world |C) |children of musical parents |

|B) |North American children |D) |children with known musical ability |

|___ 23. |Standardization refers to the process of: |

|A) |determining the accuracy with which a test measures what it is supposed to. |

|B) |defining meaningful scores relative to a representative pretested group. |

|C) |determining the consistency of test scores obtained by retesting people. |

|D) |measuring the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. |

|___ 24. |The bell-shaped distribution of intelligence scores in the general population is called a: |

| |A) g distribution. B) standardization curve. C) bimodal distribution. D) normal distribution. |

|___ 25. |Over the past 80 years, college aptitude test scores have ________ and WAIS scores have ________. |

|A) |declined; remained stable |C) |risen; declined |

|B) |remained stable; declined |D) |declined; risen |

|___ 26. |Jack takes the same test of mechanical reasoning on several different days and gets virtually identical scores. This suggests that the test has: |

| |A) high content validity. B) high reliability. C) high predictive validity. D) been standardized. |

|___ 27. |A school psychologist found that 85 percent of those who scored above 115 on an aptitude test were “A” students and 75 percent of those who scored|

| |below 85 on the test were “D” students. The psychologist concluded that the test had high: |

|A) |content validity because scores on it correlated highly with the criterion behavior. |

|B) |predictive validity because scores on it correlated highly with the criterion behavior. |

|C) |content validity because scores on it correlated highly with the target behavior. |

|D) |predictive validity because scores on it correlated highly with the target behavior. |

|___ 28. |If a test designed to indicate which applicants are likely to perform the best on the job fails to do so, the test has: |

|A) |low reliability. |C) |low predictive validity. |

|B) |low content validity. |D) |not been standardized. |

|___ 29. |You would not use a test of hearing acuity as an intelligence test because it would lack: |

| |A) content reliability. B) predictive reliability. C) predictive validity. D) content validity. |

|___ 30. |Which of the following is true of people who score high on aptitude tests? |

|A) |They achieve greater career success. |C) |They always do well in college. |

|B) |They are likely to be happier. |D) |None of the above is true. |

|___ 31. |Amelia recently took a test that assessed her ability to perform at the college level. The test she took was the: |

|A) |WAIS. |

|B) |WISC. |

|C) |SAT. |

|D) |None of the above, because they are all achievement tests. |

|___ 32. |Which of the following statements is true? |

|A) |The predictive validity of intelligence tests is not as high as their reliability. |

|B) |The reliability of intelligence tests is not as high as their predictive validity. |

|C) |Modern intelligence tests have extremely high predictive validity and reliability. |

|D) |The predictive validity and reliability of most intelligence tests is very low. |

|___ 33. |Studies of 2- to 7-month-old babies show that babies who quickly become bored with a picture: |

|A) |often develop learning disabilities later on. |

|B) |score lower on infant intelligence tests. |

|C) |score higher on intelligence tests several years later. |

|D) |score very low on intelligence tests several years later. |

|___ 34. |At age 16, Angel's intelligence score was 110. What will her score probably be at age 32? |

| |A) 125 B) 110 C) 115 D) There is no basis for predicting an individual's future IQ. |

|___ 35. |A high-school psychologist who is looking at a student's intelligence score finds a jump of 30 points between the earliest score at age 2 and the |

| |most recent at age 17. The psychologist's knowledge of testing would probably lead her to conclude that such a jump: |

|A) |indicates that different tests were used, creating an apparent change in intelligence level, although it actually remained stable. |

|B) |signals a significant improvement in the child's environment over this period. |

|C) |is unsurprising, since intelligence scores do not become stable until late adolescence. |

|D) |is mainly the result of the age at which the first test was taken. |

|___ 36. |By what age does a child's performance on an intelligence test stabilize? |

| |A) 2 B) 3 C) 6 D) 7 |

|___ 37. |Before about age ________, intelligence tests generally do not predict future scores. |

| |A) 1 B) 3 C) 5 D) 10 |

|___ 38. |Twenty-two-year-old Dan has an intelligence score of 63 and the academic skills of a fourth-grader, and is unable to live independently. Dan |

| |probably: |

|A) |has Down syndrome. |

|B) |has savant syndrome. |

|C) |is mentally retarded. |

|D) |will eventually achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills. |

|___ 39. |Down syndrome is normally caused by: |

|A) |an extra chromosome in the person's genetic makeup. |

|B) |a missing chromosome in the person's genetic makeup. |

|C) |malnutrition during the first few months of life. |

|D) |prenatal exposure to an addictive drug. |

|___ 40. |Which of the following statements is true? |

|A) |About 1 percent of the population is mentally retarded. |

|B) |More males than females are mentally retarded. |

|C) |A majority of the mentally retarded can learn academic skills. |

|D) |All of the above are true. |

|___ 41. |In his study of children with high intelligence scores, Terman found that: |

|A) |the children were more emotional and less healthy than a control group. |

|B) |the children were ostracized by classmates. |

|C) |the children were healthy and well-adjusted, and did well academically. |

|D) |later, as adults, they nearly all achieved great vocational success. |

|___ 42. |Sorting children into gifted and nongifted educational groups: |

|A) |creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. |C) |promotes racial segregation and prejudice. |

|B) |increases social isolation between groups. |D) |has all of the above effects. |

|___ 43. |Which of the following provides the strongest evidence of the role of heredity in determining intelligence? |

|A) |The IQ scores of identical twins raised separately are more similar than those of fraternal twins raised together. |

|B) |The intelligence scores of fraternal twins are more similar than those of ordinary siblings. |

|C) |The intelligence scores of identical twins raised together are more similar than those of identical twins raised apart. |

|D) |The intelligence scores of adopted children show relatively weak correlations with scores of adoptive as well as biological parents. |

|___ 44. |Current estimates are that ________ percent of the total variation among intelligence scores can be attributed to genetic factors. |

| |A) less than 10 B) approximately 25 C) between 50 and 75 D) over 75 |

|___ 45. |If you compare the same trait in people of similar heredity who live in very different environments, heritability for that trait will be ________;|

| |heritability for the trait is most likely to be ________ among people of very different heredities who live in similar environments. |

| |A) low; high B) high; low C) environmental; genetic D) genetic; environmental |

|___ 46. |Studies of adopted children and their biological and adoptive families demonstrate that with age, genetic influences on intelligence: |

|A) |become more apparent. |

|B) |become less apparent. |

|C) |become more difficult to entangle from environmental influences. |

|D) |become easier to entangle from environmental influences. |

|___ 47. |The Flynn effect refers to the fact that: |

|A) |white and black infants score equally well on measures of infant intelligence. |

|B) |Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement tests. |

|C) |The IQ scores of today's better fed and educated population exceed those of the 1930s population. |

|D) |Individual differences within a race are much greater than between-race differences. |

|___ 48. |Which of the following provides the strongest evidence of environment's role in intelligence? |

|A) |Adopted children's intelligence scores are more like their adoptive parents' scores than their biological parents'. |

|B) |Children's intelligence scores are more strongly related to their mothers' scores than to their fathers'. |

|C) |Children moved from a deprived environment into an intellectually enriched one show gains in intellectual development. |

|D) |The intelligence scores of identical twins raised separately are no more alike than those of siblings. |

|___ 49. |Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the text's position regarding the relative contribution of genes and environment in |

| |determining intelligence? |

|A) |Except in cases of a neglectful early environment, each individual's basic intelligence is largely the product of heredity. |

|B) |With the exception of those with genetic disorders such as Down syndrome, intelligence is primarily the product of environmental |

| |experiences. |

|C) |Both genes and life experiences significantly influence performance on intelligence tests. |

|D) |Because intelligence tests have such low predictive validity, the question cannot be addressed until psychologists agree on a more valid |

| |test of intelligence. |

|___ 50. |J. McVicker Hunt found that institutionalized children given “tutored human enrichment”: |

|A) |showed no change in intelligence test performance compared with institutionalized children who did not receive such enrichment. |

|B) |responded so negatively as a result of their impoverished early experiences that he felt it necessary to disband the program. |

|C) |thrived intellectually and socially on the benefits of positive caregiving. |

|D) |actually developed greater intelligence than control subjects who had lived in foster homes since birth. |

|___ 51. |First-time parents Geena and Brad want to give their baby's intelligence a jump-start by providing a super-enriched learning environment. Experts |

| |would suggest that the new parents should: |

|A) |pipe stimulating classical music into the baby's room. |

|B) |hang colorful mobiles and artwork over the baby's crib. |

|C) |take the child to one of the new “superbaby” preschools that specialize in infant enrichment. |

|D) |relax, since there is no surefire environmental recipe for giving a child a superior intellect. |

|___ 52. |Which of the following is not cited as evidence of the reciprocal relationship between schooling and intelligence? |

|A) |Neither education level nor intelligence scores accurately predict income. |

|B) |Intelligence scores tend to rise during the school year. |

|C) |High school graduates have higher intelligence scores than do those who drop out early. |

|D) |High intelligence is conducive to prolonged schooling. |

|___ 53. |Research on the effectiveness of Head Start suggests that enrichment programs: |

|A) |produce permanent gains in intelligence scores. |

|B) |improve school readiness and may provide a small boost to intelligence. |

|C) |improve intelligence scores but not school readiness. |

|D) |produce temporary gains in intelligence scores. |

|___ 54. |Most psychologists believe that racial gaps in test scores: |

|A) |have been exaggerated when they are, in fact, insignificant. |

|B) |indicate that intelligence is in large measure inherited. |

|C) |are in large measure caused by environmental factors. |

|D) |are increasing. |

|___ 55. |Hiroko's math achievement score is considerably higher than that of most American students her age. Which of the following is true regarding this |

| |difference between Asian and North American students: |

|A) |It is a recent phenomenon. |

|B) |It may be due to the fact that Asian students have a longer school year. |

|C) |It holds only for girls. |

|D) |Both a. and b. are true. |

|___ 56. |Reported racial gaps in average intelligence scores are most likely attributable to: |

|A) |the use of biased tests of intelligence. |C) |genetic factors. |

|B) |the use of unreliable tests of intelligence. |D) |environmental factors. |

|___ 57. |The contribution of environmental factors to racial gaps in intelligence scores is indicated by: |

|A) |evidence that individual differences within a race are much greater than differences between races. |

|B) |evidence that white and black infants score equally well on certain measures of infant intelligence. |

|C) |the fact that Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests. |

|D) |all of the above. |

|___ 58. |High levels of male hormones during prenatal development may enhance: |

| |A) verbal reasoning. B) spatial abilities. C) overall intelligence. D) all of the above. |

|___ 59. |Which of the following is not true? |

|A) |In math grades, the average girl typically equals or surpasses the average boy. |

|B) |The gender gap in math and science scores is increasing. |

|C) |Women are better than men at detecting emotions. |

|D) |Males score higher than females on tests of spatial abilities. |

|___ 60. |To say that the heritability of a trait is approximately 50 percent means: |

|A) |that genes are responsible for 50 percent of the trait in an individual, and the environment is responsible for the rest. |

|B) |that the trait's appearance in a person will reflect approximately equal genetic contributions from both parents. |

|C) |that of the variation in the trait within a group of people, 50 percent can be attributed to heredity. |

|D) |all of the above. |

Answer Key

|1. |C |

|2. |D |

|3. |C |

|4. |A |

|5. |C |

|6. |D |

|! 7. |D |

|8. |D |

|9. |D |

|10. |C |

|11. |D |

|12. |C |

|! |D |

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|14. |A |

|15. |D |

|16. |B |

|17. |D |

|18. |C |

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|20. |A |

|21. |B |

|22. |B |

|23. |B |

|24. |D |

|25. |D! tbl |

|talbs26. |B |

|27. |B |

|28. |C |

|29. |D |

|30. |D |

|31. |C |

| pard32. |A |

|33. |C |

|34. |B |

|35. |D |

|36. |D |

|37. |B |

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|40. |D |

|41. |C |

|42. |D |

|43. |A |

|44. |C |

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|46. |A |

|47. |C |

|48. |C |

|49. |C |

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|52. |A |

|53. |B |

|54. |C |

|55. |D |

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|58. |B |

|59. |B |

|60. |C |

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