Comprehension: Its Nature and Development



Annotated Bibliography

By: Sherrie Jones

What are the most effective ways to teach reading comprehension in elementary school?

Most of my teaching career has focused on helping students learn to read. Next year however, my goal will change to facilitating students reading to learn. In my nine years of teaching I have spent half teaching kindergarten and the other half teaching second grade, but next year I will be third grade teacher. Although there will still be occasions where I will need to review decoding and I am sure there will be some students who need to increase their fluency, my main focus will be reading comprehension. Therefore I chose to research the topic of reading comprehension and how to effectively address this topic in the classroom. I carefully read a variety of articles and selected 15 to annotate. My annotations include a summary of the content in the article, my evaluation of the content, and a reflection on how the content fits into my teaching beliefs and classroom situation. I follow up the annotations with a summary of what trends I see throughout the articles and how the articles answer my question.

Annotations

Barr, R. , Blachowicz, C. L. , and Wogman-Sadow, M. (1995). Comprehension: Its Nature and Development. Reading Diagnosis for Teachers: An Instructional Approach (pp. 143 - 171). NY: Longman Publishing Group.

In this chapter the authors present an overview of current beliefs about comprehension, emphasizing it is an active constructive process. They believe good readers use what they know when reading, “self-question” what they don’t know, integrate information across the text, and monitor their own reading. They identify four major influences of comprehension. The reader’s knowledge of language in reading and writing as well as speaking and listening, impacts his or her comprehension. The author’s linguistic and structural style can impact a reader’s understanding of the text. There are six linguistic devices used by authors that help facilitate the understanding of information. They are topic sentence, pronouns, synonyms, and synonymous expressions, definite article, syntactic structure, and connective terms. Instruction on how to effectively use these devices will aid in comprehension. The way the information is organized is another influence on comprehension, this is where schemata comes into play. The final influence on a reader’s comprehension is the need and the ability to make inferences. The second half of the chapter focused on developing good questions. Good questions stress connection to the text and go beyond the text. This type of questioning helps to foster inference and develop literary appreciation. Retelling is also an effective tool in measuring comprehension.

I found this chapter addressed my question by stressing both the selection of content and formation of questions. To effectively teach comprehension I must be aware of the particular language used in the text I select and teach any linguistic devices that apply. The formation of questions is as important as the text selection in this chapter. With an expository text a retelling of information may work best, here a student can share the information they learned from the text and I can pinpoint where rereading or additional instruction may be needed. With narrative text careful formation of questions that involve connection to the text as well as connection to other texts or personal experiences will be most meaningful.

Anderson, R. C. (1984). Role of Reader's Schema in Comprehension,

Learning, and Memory. In R. C. Anderson, Osborn, J. , and Tierney,

R. (Eds.), Learning to Read in American Schools: Basal Readers and

Content Text (pp. 372 – 384).Lawrence Eribaum Associates.

This selection focused on the role schema plays in one’s comprehension of text. The author defined schema as organized knowledge of the world. This knowledge provides much basis for comprehending, learning, and remembering the ideas in stories and text. The author quickly establishes the importance of schema by sharing passages where appropriate schema is necessary in order to understand any of the passage. Six functions of schema are then shared in the selection. Schema provides additional scaffolding for assimilating text information. Schema facilitates selective allocation of attention. Schema enables inferential elaboration. Schema allows orderly searches of memory. Schema facilitates editing and summarizing. Finally, schema permits inferential reconstruction. The author next shares implications for the design of materials and classroom instruction based on the implications of schema. He asks for activation of relevant knowledge before reading. He asks teachers’ manuals to include suggestions for building prerequisite knowledge. He calls for feature lesson activities that will lead children to meaningfully integrate what they already know with what is presented on the printed page. He urges employment that will highlight the structure of the text material. Finally he reminds us of minority children and how their schema may not match those of the majority culture thus causing difficulties in comprehension.

This selection focuses on the pre-reading necessities of my question. Not only is careful selection of text important, but also preparing my students for the text is key. I must know my students and what they bring with them to the page. I must then be able to bridge their schema with the necessary schema for successfully reading and understanding the text. How I bring my students schema to the appropriate place may vary from sharing simple background knowledge to connecting to personal experiences or even to creating an experience to better understand the text. Careful planning and implementation of activities is essential before my students even begin to read the page.

Applegate, A. J., & Applegate, M. D. (2004). The peter effect: reading habits

and attitudes of preservice teachers. The Reading Teacher,

57(6), 554 - 563.

This article focuses on how important motivation is to reading proficiency. Large populations of students are aliterate. Aliterate is defined as having the ability to read, but choosing not to do so. Some reading experts have referred to ideal readers as those who read regularly and enthusiastically thus becoming engaged readers. Intrinsic motivation is key in determining what type of reader students are. Efferent readers read to come away from the text with new information, very appropriate in reading content materials. Aesthetic readers, on the other hand, become absorbed in the text and live through the experiences of others, very appropriate when reading literature. This intrinsic motivation is very important in teachers because they can foster motivation in reading. In the classroom, teachers become reading models when they share their own reading experiences with students and emphasize how reading enhances and enriches their lives. Teachers who are enthusiastic readers are more likely to use instructional activities such as literature circles and discussions. These activities promote engagement thus fostering reading motivation in the classroom. The more students like to read the more they will read and the more they read, the better readers they will become.

This study just reinforced what I already knew, but to a further extent. Even at intermediate levels students need to be read to in an exciting and enthusiastic manner. Furthermore allowing students to see you reading is important, but more importantly is sharing the joy that reading brings to your life. We as teachers often forget how important are roles are. Students look up to us and see us as role models. Often what we display through words and actions will carry over to their words and actions. I love to read and must be sure that my students can see that in me and understand why I love to read. This may help to grow their love of reading.

Fielding, L. G., & Pearson, P. D. (1994). Reading comprehension: what

works. Educational Leadership, 51(5), 62 – 70.

This article focuses on four essential components of successful comprehension instruction. The first is large amounts of time for actual text reading. Ample time for reading allows for the opportunity for students to practice reading skills. Reading also results in learning of new knowledge, which in turn aids in comprehension. Begin by giving opportunities and guidance in selecting text. Teachers need to monitor student text for optimal difficulty. Encouraging rereading of texts is beneficial as is discussing texts with the teacher or other students. The second component is teacher-directed instruction in comprehension strategies. Instruction should include using background knowledge to make inferences, getting the main idea, identifying the sources of information needed to answer a question, and using the typical structure of stories. Instruction should be demonstrated and guided practice is needed. Be sure that the strategies taught are authentic. Third is the opportunity for peer and collaborative learning. This may include cooperative learning and reciprocal teaching. Lastly students should have occasions to talk to the teacher or one another about their responses to reading.

This article addresses my question by stating that students need ample time to read and have the opportunity to discuss their reading with other. Explicit instruction of comprehension strategies is necessary as well as peer and collaborative learning. Students need to be reading more than I am talking to ensure that they are having ample time to develop their skills are readers.

Grimes, S. (2004). The search for meaning: how you can boost kids' reading

comprehension. School Library Journal, 50(5), 48 - 53.

This article focuses on a study completed in Baltimore at an at risk school It began based on the notion that children can learn to understand and love reading if they are engaged in what their reading. What followed was a study of first through third graders using lessons that would incorporate analytical skills. Lessons were 90 minutes long including 20 minutes for students to read, 50 minutes to confer with a partner, and 20 minutes to share their insights with the entire class. These lessons occurred daily for eight weeks. The results were excited students about reading and a rate of 96% passing their comprehension test where before the readers were apathetic and 50% failed the tests. Keys to the lessons are teaching kids the “five finger rule” when selecting texts. Direct instruction in reading strategies was provided and children were shown not just told how good readers read. Students must learn how to independent use comprehension strategies through guided practice and teachers monitoring and modifying instruction. Celebrating and share success is also key.

This selection addresses my question in several ways. Again in this study the importance of opportunity to read and discuss text is seen. The need for direct instruction that is in touch with where students are and where we want them to go is key.

Hashey, J. M., & Connors, D. J. (2003). Learn from our journey: reciprocal

teaching action research. The Reading Teacher, 57(3), 224 - 232.

This article is a summary of the action research of teachers in grades 3 – 8 using reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching is a four-step strategy used to enhance comprehension. In step one, students use predictions to recall what they already know about a topic and to hypothesize about what might happen next. In step two students generate questions to check for understanding and deepen comprehension. The third step is clarification. Here students identify words or concepts that don’t make sense to them and seek answers. Last in step four students summarize, requiring them to identify the most important information. The study found that reciprocal teaching should begin no sooner that third grade, decoding skills need to be in place. Reciprocal teaching allows for teacher modeling, think-alouds, guided practice, and independent practice. Using this strategy all students were able to participate and provide input and thought.

Reciprocal teaching is a strategy that proved to be an effective form of reading comprehension instruction. I can employ this practice with a variety of texts in the room both with whole group or small groups. Furthermore it will help increase communication and discussion skills among students.

Paris, S. G. , Wasik, B. A. , and Turner, J. C. (1991). The Development of

Strategic Readers. R. T. O'Connell, and Schorp, M. A. (Eds.),

Handbook of Reading Research, Volume II (pp. 609 - 640). White Plains,

NY: Longman Publishing Group.

This selection addresses the difference between expert readers and novice readers and how to move students from novice to expert reader. The chapter is organized into four sections. The first section focused on text-processing strategies used before, during, and after reading. The second section focused on how metacognition plays a role in development and instruction to address related needs. The third section discussed how motivation and strategic reading relate and how to increase motivation and self-worth. The fourth section shares suggestions for curriculum, instruction, and assessment centering around the ideas shared in the previous three sections. Throughout the chapter authentic language activities and cognitive activities were emphasized. The chapter also shared how even with all the right instruction in place strategic reading depends on the individual’s motivation and confidence.

In reviewing my question this article address specific skills and specific times to teach those skills. It also reinforces the need to create motivation and self-confidence in the reader so they will use the strategies they been taught. The article also mentioned the importance of role model in the area of reading from teachers to parents. It will be key to emphasize to parents the important role they play in modeling reading for pleasure and purpose.

Palincsar, A. S. (2003). Collaborative Approaches to Comprehension Instruction. In A. P. Sweet, and Snow, C. E. (Eds.), Rethinking Reading Comprehension (pp. 99 - 114). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

This selection shared three forms of comprehension instruction, which engage both teachers and students in a collaborative approach; reciprocal teaching, questioning the author, and collaborative reasoning. In reciprocal teaching, students and teachers engage in dialogue to construct meaning from the text. The dialogue is supported by the use of four strategies: question generating, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting. Questioning the author takes the form of a discussion as students are reading the text for the first time and collaborating to construct the meaning. The two sets of tools used in questioning the author are queries and discussions. Collaborative reasoning is based on the notion of students and teacher working together through discussion to discover meaning, however this strategy takes place after students have independently read the text. In this strategy students take a position on a key question that related to the story. Research on all three strategies is shared and is found to be positive when used appropriately.

In relating the information back to my original question, I find reciprocal teaching to be most explicit form of instruction and would be best used with challenging material. Questioning the author could be used with both content and narrative text and supports students in reading for information. Collaborative reasoning will work best with a narrative text where a dilemma or problem occurs in the story. This strategy will encourage critical/analytical thinking.

Pressley, M. (2001, September ). Comprehension instruction: what makes sense

now, what might make sense soon. Reading Online, 5. Retrieved Apr 8,

2005, from ?.

A variety of well-validated ways to increase comprehension skills in students through instruction are summarized in this article. Also new hypothesis about effective comprehension instruction are shared. Reading is often thought of as a hierarchical of skills. Skilled comprehension requires a variety of skills to be in place and function independently. These skills are decoding, vocabulary, world knowledge, monitoring, and active comprehension strategies. Pressley then shares some emerging issues such as early teaching of comprehension skills, limits of word – recognition instruction, cognitive capacity constraints, and diverse texts. Pressley’s goal is to dive into comprehension in the early years and explore beyond the common day texts. He would like to see comprehension go to a higher level beyond short answer post-reading questions.

This article helped me review the key components to strong comprehension. When I come across a student who is not comprehending I will look back at key components to see which one is lacking in development. I can that address my instruction correctly. I also will use projects and other unique activities to show comprehension versus question answer activities.

Sweet, A. P. (2004). Ten proven principles for teaching reading. Retrieved

Apr. 08, 2005, from National Education Association Web site:

.

This booklet offers 10 ideas to transform instruction in reading and enhance literacy for all students. The ideas shared are based on research finding and should be used to build upon one another. The ten ideas shared are: 1. Children, when reading, construct their own meaning. 2. Effective reading instruction can develop engaged readers who are knowledgeable, strategic, motivated, and socially interactive. 3. Phonemic awareness, a precursor to competency in identifying words, is one of the best predictors of later success in reading. 4. Modeling is an important form of classroom support for literacy. 5. Storybook reading, done in context of sharing experiences, ideas, and opinions, is a highly demanding mental activity for children. 6. Responding to literature helps students construct their own meaning. 7. Children who engage in daily discussions about what they read are more likely to become critical readers and learners. 8. Expert readers have strategies they use to construct meaning before, during and after reading. 9. Children’s reading and writing activities develop together. 10. The most valuable form of reading assessment reflects current understanding about the reading process and simulates authentic reading tasks.

The ten principles some up what is known about best practices. I can use these principle to create authentic classroom reading experiences. The principles reflect the emphasis towards using one’s own thinking and to solve problems. I will use the information share here to make the most of reading in all three stages; before, during and after. Each principle has its own page in the booklet that further explains its meaning. These pages could be used to help parent better understand what good reading instruction looks like.

Taylor, B. M., Peterson D. S., Pearson P. D., and Rodriguez, M. C. (2002).

Looking inside classrooms: reflecting on the "how" as well as the "what"

in effective reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 56(3), 270 - 279.

This article focused on how reading skills are taught is just as important as what reading skills are taught. It shared the result of a study of eight high poverty schools. Teachers were observed on three occasions; fall, winter, and spring, throughout the year. Results found shown whole- group instruction occurred more often than small group instruction and word work was seen in the primary grades and comprehension was only seen the higher grades. There was little or no higher-level questioning or writing related to stories read. The majority of teacher interaction was telling and recitation by the teacher. Students were more often engaged passively versus actively. The overall reading growth in these classrooms was poor. However the study also reflected the reading growth in classrooms where teachers were using more positive practices, higher-level questioning, and encouraged higher pupil interaction. Here the reading growth was higher.

This article address the how to effectively teach reading comprehension. Although there are instances when skills just need to be explicitly taught, the goal should be for the teacher to model and the students to have ample opportunity to practice skills through guided practice. Once the skills have been clearly taught, I plan to take on the role of a facilitator. This will increase student participation and allow student to learn from one another. It will also allow me to see who struggles with what and how to tailor the instruction accordingly.

Texas Education Agency, (2002). Comprehension instruction. Retrieved Apr. 8,

2005, from Texas Reading Initiative Web site:

.

This publication is the result of Bush’s challenge and a collaboration of the state of Texas and the University of Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts. The first part of this booklet looked at important ideas about reading , comprehension, and comprehension instruction that have emerged from research. The second part describes what comprehension instruction based on research can look like. The final and third part of the booklet provides specific research based instructional activities and procedures that can be used as part of comprehension instruction. The booklet shares what good readers do as they read and how they differ from poor readers. It describes the key comprehension strategies to teach and defines effective comprehension instruction.

This booklet is used in Texas as a resource in schools. I plan to use it quite similarly. It gives research information to help answer the “why are you doing this?” questions. It also gives specific skills to teach as well as effective strategies to use in teaching these skills. I plan to integrate into our current reading program and share it with fellow teachers.

Villaume, S. K., & Brabham, E. G. (2002). Comprehension instruction: beyond

strategies. (questions and answers). The reading teacher, 55(7), 672 -

676.

In this article questions regarding comprehension were complied and discussed. Why do we teach comprehension and why do some students apply strategies thoughtfully while others do not was answered. Types of instruction, explicit and systematic, were discussed. It is believed that we choose to actively and thoughtfully construct meaning because we experience reading as an act that empowers us. It was also pointed out that although prior knowledge, automaticity of word recognition, and fluency affect students’ ability to comprehend, that disposition can be the greatest factor in comprehension. If reader enter the text unwillingly to participate actively in meaning construction than comprehension is not possible.

In answer my question in regards to this article, I will give my students a wide variety of texts to select from at level appropriate for them. I feel that students will be more willingly to read when the have a choice. I also feel that although the article reflects systematic instruction as well as explicit, there will be instances where the text will lend itself to a skill. I will not allow explicit and systematic instruction to constrain me from a teachable moment. I will share a joy of reading with my students and model for them how I construct meaning from text.

Williams, J. P. (1998). Improving the comprehension of disabled readers.

Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 213 - 239.

This article shares the result of a study in which a Themes Instructional Program was used to teach reading to mildly disabled intermediate students. The Themes Instructional Program consisted of five parts: prereading discussion of the purpose of the lesson and the story to be read, reading of the story, discussion of the important story information using organizing questions as a guide, identification of a theme for the story, practice in applying the theme to a real life experience. This program helped teach the students the fundamental aspects of theme comprehension and lower level comprehension. It also improved performance on an important higher-level comprehension task.

Although this particular program would not be adequate for the regular classroom due to the slow pace and redundancy, some interesting ideas can be taken from the themes program. I could adapt this program by using more complex stories with multiple themes and emphasize classroom discussion. They could connect stories they have read in past or look for stories to read in the future that have similar themes.

Williams, J. P. (1998). Strategic processing of text: improving reading

comprehension of students with learning disabilities. ERIC Digest,

Retrieved Apr 08, 2005, from .

This article looks at students with learning disabilities and how they may have the ability to process information in text, they do so with great inefficiency. They struggle with strategic processing and metacognition. The article talks about types of text and how to teach comprehension skills for that type of text. Narrative text is easier to comprehend and remember that expository text. Students can be taught to utilize story structure as an organizing framework for understanding critical aspects of the story. Using story maps and using themes is also a useful tool. In the reading of expository text students should combine summarizing and self-monitoring. Students will need step-by-step guidance in the reading.

I realize that I will have at least one or two students in my classroom with disabilities that will struggle with comprehension. The skills mentioned in this article can be used to help them and well as other students who are struggling with a particular text. The big question I find from this article is once I’ve effectively taught comprehension skills is, How do I effective evaluate a student’s understanding?

Summary of Trends

What are the most effective ways to teach reading comprehension in elementary school?

After reading a plethora of articles related to reading comprehension many similarities emerge, some surprising, some not so surprising. Students need to read a lot throughout the school day. Just like with anything else, practice allows for improvement. The more students read the better they will become. That’s not to say don’t teach, the reading time should be practicing taught skills. However, less time should be spent with the teacher talking and more time should be spent with the students reading. I’ve realized how you teach is as important as what you teach.

Although there are some instances where you just have to tell students things, you want them as actively involved in the process as possible. Most of the articles reflect that students need to be active participants in the comprehension process. Many of the articles encourage class discussions, partner sharing. The main idea here is that letting students talk about what they read is very important. Through talking out what the story is about they often clarify material and confirm predictions. They also learn from one another and can be talk to comment off of each other’s response in a productive way. Comprehension is an active process of the readier engaging with the text.

Modeling is another key trend seen across the articles. Just like with any other subject we teach modeling is better that just telling. Modeling can take the form of the teacher sharing what she or he thinks about a particular story they read. It works great when used as a think aloud.

Exposing students to a wide variety of texts is another important aspect seen throughout the articles. Teachers should not only have a wide variety of materials available for students to chose from during self-selected reading, but should incorporate a variety of reading materials into classroom instruction. By limiting the types of text we have students read we are limiting their ability to comprehend a variety of texts.

Another trend is that it is important to not only carefully select material, but make sure the students have the proper background to be successful with the text. You must know your students’ schema and be able to provide the “missing links” to making reading a particular text a successful experience. Building off of what they do know and providing experiences is more effective then just telling them.

What goes on during reading is essential. While many students at higher levels may be reading independently and silently it still important to check for comprehension throughout the reading. This can be done through DRTA, class discussion, etc.

Once students have finished reading they aren’t done with the text. While post-reading questions are popular they may not be the most effective or enjoyable way to check comprehension. Questions often just get at basic recall and summarizing. While these skills are needed, we can enhance them. Experiment with a variety of activities to not only teach and look for deeper understanding, but to make reading fun.

Finally I found the importance of motivation a common factor across the articles. Motivation comes from within and often is developed well before children come to school. However, I found that teacher attitude has a huge impact. When a teacher displays a love of reading and shares how reading impacts their lives students feel it to. Although this does not guarantee that everyone will love reading it builds a positive reading environment in your classroom.

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