A Research Perspective of Orff Schulwerk in the Classroom



An Update of Research Studies in Orff Schulwerk

Dr. Cecilia Chu Wang and Dr. David W. Sogin

School of Music

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0022

cecilia.wang@uky.edu

sogin@uky.edu

Paper Submitted for Presentation at the

MENC National Conference

Minneapolis, MN, 2004

An Update of Research Studies in Orff Schulwerk

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to describe the current body of research literature pertaining to Orff Schulwerk (OS). Research articles and writing from journals, dissertations, theses, and conferences papers were classified into fifteen categories identified to cover all areas related to research in Orff Schulwerk. Important findings were reported to provide an overall perspective of Orff Schulwerk research. Over half of the research studies were completed in 1990 and later, indicating that much attention has been given to OS research in recent years as more teachers have received OS training and practiced OS. All methods of research as well as a spread of research categories are represented in the literature, with an increase in qualitative inquiry in more recent research. Recommendations from the authors, along with the fifteen categories provide a means for designing and evaluating future research in OS. The sources for further reference are made available in an extensive list of bibliography.

An Update of Research Studies in Orff Schulwerk

Carl Orff was born in 1895 in Munich, Germany. In 1924 he and Dorothee Gunther, a dancer, founded the Guntherschule where improvisation was a major part of the program. Guild Keetman joined the school in 1926 where music were taught with dance and gymnastics; and percussion instruments, African xylophone and recorders were used in instruction. In 1928, Karl Maendler began to develop xylophones and later metallophones specifically to create the combination of timbres for the Orff ensemble. In 1931, the first volume titled “Orff Schulwerk—Elementare Musikubung” was published. While Carl Orff is known to many for his compositions, his compositions were greatly influenced by his own teaching. His most famous work, Carmina Burana, was premiered in 1937. Much has been written about Orff’s life and his musical works. To music educators, Carl Orff was known as a teacher, pedagogue, and writer all of which culminate in his five-volume work Music for Children (Orff & Keetman, 1950). Orff Schulwerk has spread worldwide and reached North America in the early 1950’s.

Research about the Schulwerk did not begin until the late sixties. There have been several major studies in the 1970’s and 1980’s. It is in the last ten years that we see more consistent output by researchers specifically devoted to the impact of Orff Schulwerk (denoted as OS from here on) in teaching and learning. The purpose of this paper is to describe the current body of research related the Schulwerk. The studies presented here are limited to those found by computer data bases available to the authors, they have to relate to Orff Schulwerk directly and must be considered to be based on a systematic method of investigation. Research studies using Orff Schulwerk only in a tangential way or writings of position papers have not been included here. Furthermore, only studies deemed relevant to MENC membership are included. Unintended omissions are inevitable and the authors believe that the inclusions here are representative of the literature as a whole.

Procedure

Data for this article come from journals, dissertations, theses, and conference papers. The research reports embody all methods of empirical research, namely historical, philosophical, descriptive (case studies, surveys, etc.) and experimental in method. They represent both quantitative and qualitative/ethnographic studies, and mainly field research. We will attempt to present the body of Orff Schulwerk research in music education in specific themes or categories designed for this purpose. These categories came about as a result of integrating components important to the Orff Schulwerk and those identified for music education research (Radocy, 1998). As a consequence, fifteen categories were considered. They are listed in the order indicating highest occurrence to least occurrence, but without any intention to denote the importance of the topic. The number following the term denotes the number of studies belonging to that category used for this paper. The assignment of category is based on the main focus of the research and only one category is assigned to each research study. Most studies follow easily into their category although a few studies are comprehensive in nature and thus could fall into more than one categories.

The categories are as follows: 1) Curriculum/Assessment—11, 2) Effect of OS on Music Knowledge/Skills—9, 3) Teacher/Student Characteristics—4, 4) Influence of OS on Attitudes/Preferences—4, 5) Contributions of Organization/Individual—4, 6) Creativity/Improvisation—4, 7) Pedagogic process/Settings—3, 8) Relating OS to Language/Other curricula subjects—2, 9) OS and Theoretic/Philosophical Inquiries—2, 10) OS Teacher Training—2, 11) Learning and development/Diverse learners—2, 12) Instruments/Recorders in OS—2, 13) Relating OS to Movement/Arts—1, 14) OS Research/Research Methods—1, 15) American Music/World Music/Teaching Materials—0. In the following paragraphs, we will give a brief explanation and provide research sample(s) for each category. Details will be presented for selected studies in the hope to give a good perspective of research pertaining to Orff Schulwerk.

The Curriculum/Assessment category applies to all studies that examine curriculum or assessment issues. This category includes studies by Addo (1990), Calusel (1998), Chang (1991), Chin (1993), Daigneault (1993), Kubitsky (1998), Lyne (1991), Madden (1984), Shamrock (1988), Tsisserev (1993), and Woody and Fredrickson (2000). Several of these studies examined how Orff Schulwerk can be applied in cross-cultural settings, other relate Schulwerk to existing or create new curriculum models. Shamrock’s work is very comprehensive and it provides real-life examples of OS in three different Asian cultures (Japan, Taiwan, and Thailand) with different language systems. Her insight is significant in the understanding the adaptation of OS materials with cultural factors in mind. In general, researchers here find that OS can enhance learning when incorporated into the curriculum.

The next most researched category consists of nine studies that investigated the effect of OS on some form of music knowledge or skills such as singing (Muse, 1994), rhythmic or pitch accuracy, and audiation (Hudgens, 1987), musical sensitivity (Olson, 1964) or music achievement based on standardized music tests (Hensley, 1981). Researchers here tend to use the experimental method of research, employing two or more teaching methods as treatment groups, designating the Schulwerk approach as the experimental group and a traditional method as control. The Kodaly and/or the Dalcroze approaches would make up the other treatment groups. Besides the four studies mentioned above, other studies that fall into this category include those by Flohr (1981), Siemens (1969), Glasgow & Hamreus (1968), and Shank and Rashley (2001). Here the results regarding the effects of OS varied, some studies indicated that OS increased musical learning, yet other studies, especially those with short instructional span, found no significant differences. At the same time, no adverse effect has been reported anywhere. One difficulty is that the treatment labeled Orff Schulwerk as well as that labeled Traditional or other method of instruction varied from study to study.

A study titled “Orff-Schulwerk: Design for Creativity” based on the project “Creativity and Participation in Music Education” in the Bellflower Unified School District in California (1968) is also listed under this category. This project is unique due to its extensiveness and at such an early stage of OS research. The project spanned the duration of at least two years, involved 325 first and second grade students, and 23 classes in secondary schools. While creativity was the main dependent variable, the project also addressed curriculum development, assessment of student behaviors, attitude, reading, as well as the effect of OS on children of different race. It utilized both quantitative measures in creativity scores, reading scores, behavior checklists, as well as qualitative data obtained by means of field observations by administrators and teachers, discussions, and other performance-based assessments. In the Bellflower study, students receiving Schulwerk instruction increased in seven out of nine areas related to creative expression.

The first two categories comprised of about forty percent of all research studies considered here. There are four studies in each of the next four categories. Hamilton (1999), Martin (1992), Munsen (1986), and Wang and Sogin (1997) investigated Teacher and Student Characteristics. All examined time use related to teacher and student activities, and student/teacher interaction. Martin’s study is a replication of Munsen’s in a different setting. The first three studies used the ethnographic method of observations, and teacher or student behaviors were observed mainly during activities involving improvisation. They found that much teacher/student interaction goes on in the Orff classroom and that students are excited about learning. The study by Wang and Sogin utilized the quantitative measures of time analysis and found that teachers consistently over-estimated the proportion of time they spent per activity.

Research on the Influence of OS on Attitudes/Preferences included studies by Barker (1981), Bondurant-Koehler (1995), Mckoy (1998), and Mishenhelter (2001). These studies used quantitative analyses to investigated if relationship exists between OS and self concept (Barker), music listening preference (Bondurant-Koehler, Mckoy), and perception of teaching ability and anxiety (Mishenhelter). Barker’s subjects were with learning disabilities and significant differences were found at the p < .05 level of the pre-post testing on the Piers-Harris Children's Self Concept Scale. Results for Bondurant-Koehler and Mckoy indicate that other variables besides OS would influence listening preference. Mishenhelter found that his college students perceived slightly better teaching ability after participation in an OS workshop but no change in anxiety.

There are again four studies classified as Contributions of Organization or Individual. These studies are important because they present the history of Orff Schulwerk in America in a cohesive and comprehensive manner. The work by Patricia Osterby (1988) Orff Schulwerk in North America 1955 – 1969 provided in extraordinary details the leaders and their thoughts culminating to the formation of AOSA. De Lois Wimmer’s work (1993) The Organization of American Orff Schulwerk Association from 1968 - 1980 and its influence upon Music Education in America traced the work of the American Orff-Schulwerk Association (AOSA) from its beginning (1968) through its expansion until 1980. Weisert-Peatow (2002) focused on the leadership of AOSA and extended the coverage to 1998. The study by Orrell (1995) detailed the influence of Grace Nash on music education in the United States. These are all qualitative studies showing the rich history of Orff Schulwerk in the United States, and of Canada to a great extent.

Research with focus on Creativity and Improvisation comprises of the work by Beegle (2001), Amchin (1995), Brophy (1998), and Flohr (1980, 1981). Beegle interviewed three teachers before and after oberving their teaching three improvisation lessons, and analyzed the pedagogic process in guiding children’s improvisation and relate improvisation to the music curriculum. Flohr (1980) explored and described how pre-school children improvise. The studies by Amchin, Brophy, and Flohr (1981) were experimental in design in studying children’s ability to improvise in an OS setting. Brohpy studied children ages 6-12 and found a clear developmental trend demonstrated in children’s improvisation, with a great increase between ages 8 and 9. Amchin’s study did not yield significant difference in fourth and fifth graders’ creative thinking after 23 weeks of improvisation instruction but students showed increased music aptitude and interest.

There are three studies in the next category of Pedagogic process/Settings. Price and Harding (1998) found that teachers who were trained in OS did not use time in music teaching differently than those not trained. Sogin and Wang (1990) investigated whether the amount of Orff training has influence on the perception of a music lesson and found none. However teachers rated the time spent on musical activity consistently lower than those events that are considered general teaching techniques. Wang and Sogin (2003) documented student activities and teacher behaviors observed in 24 elementary general music classes conducted by five exemplary teachers of OS and found that these teachers used modeling extensively and that there are more music-making activities than reported in other general music research.

Each of the next five categories has two research studies in its classification. Two categories have one study each and one category has no study found. They are reported here by name as follows: Relating OS to Language/Other curricula subjects (Kelley, 1981; Whitehead, 2001), OS and Theoretic/Philosophical Inquiries (Jaccard, 1995; Snell, 1980), OS Teacher Training (McDowell, Abril, & Frego, 2002; Robbins, 1994), Learning and development/Diverse learners (Grant, 1991; Persellin, 1999), Instruments/Recorders in OS (Sogin & Wang, 2002; Velasquez, 1990), Relating OS to Movement/Arts (Moore, 1984), OS Research/Research Method (Wang & Sogin, 1995), and American Music/World Music/Teaching Materials—0. The last categories has not found a matching research study here, however this category denotes some important media in OS teaching and this topic appears often in non-data-based articles. The authors feel that listing all the categories here might be useful by providing a complete research agenda in Orff Schulwerk for future researchers.

Conclusion

The amount of research related to Orff Schulwerk has increased significantly in the last ten years. The methodologies used in these research studies also seem to follow the trend of the music education research practice in general. For instance, there has been an increase of ethnographic studies using qualitative techniques. Among the studies noted in this article, 21 studies can be classified as qualitative and 30 quantitative. Some recent qualitative research studies also included some quantitative measures and vice versa.

The analysis of these works on Orff Schulwerk in the Classroom suggest that much greater care must be taken in defining the variables used in conducting the research, specifically "Orff Schulwerk". Also, different researchers use a variety of definitions when using Orff Schulwerk as an independent variable. Comparisons cannot be made across studies when this is the case. On the other hand, more recent research indicates that the researcher or the teacher tends to have more formal training in Orff Schulwerk and that more stringent criteria were met in designating a teacher as Schulwerk-trained. In earlier research, a teacher with Level I OS training was denoted as Orff-certified while in later studies Level 3 is more typical. If researchers can better define "Schulwerk" then clearer patterns will evolve from the literature and better information can be used in the decision making process.

In a related manner, many researchers tend to use Orff in conjunction with other curriculums such that it is difficult to say what the effect of Orff Schulwerk, if any, has on the dependent variable when there is such cross pollination of curriculum ideas. This other curriculums traditionally have been those of Kodaly, Dalcroze, and Comprehensive Musicianship. However, the current literature also suggests comparing OS with other approaches such as by Rolland, Suzuki, Gordon, and other instructional methods. The literature also shows strong interest in examining OS in cross-cultural settings.

After three decades of research and teaching and learning in Orff Schulwerk, we can now define the approach much better. We now know that true Schulwerk classrooms should be filled with music making and movement activities. We know the approach is student-centered and that they provide many ideas for active learning. We now have a wealth of music materials suitable for OS classes, and for wider range of age groups. We know that Orff Schulwerk is process-oriented and that Orff Schulwerk is not complete until students have experienced the four phases of pedagogic process: imitation, exploration, literacy, and improvisation. Using Orff instruments per se, or teaching songs by rote alone, or using chants and body percussion without understanding the teaching process is not Orff Schulwerk. The body of OS research indicates that more studies addressed the OS curriculum content and its effect on music skills than other categories mentioned above. Thus, when reading some of the research listed here, one still needs to decide if the results truly reflect the effect of Orff Schulwerk. For future studies using Orff Schulwerk as a curriculum treatment, we suggest using curriculum guidelines provided by Frazee & Kreuter (1987), Steen (1992). The book by Saliba (1991) and by Warner (1991) also provide good examples of Schulwerk activities for children.

Finally, we hope that the fifteen research categories mentioned in this study provide some way to look at Orff Schulwerk as a whole. We would like to see more research immediately to focus on the pedagogic process and on improvisation. We would like to see a continuing increase of Orff Schulwerk research, covering each of the fifteen categories.

Reference

Addo, A. O. (1990). A Survey Of Music Teaching Strategies In Ghanaian Elementary

Schools As A Basis For Curriculum Development. (Masters Thesis, The University Of British Columbia). Masters Abstracts International, 30, No. 04. 0986.

Amchin, R. A. (1995). Creative Musical Response: The Effects Of Teacher-Student

Interaction On The Improvisation Abilities Of Fourth- And Fifth-Grade Students. (Doctoral dissertation, The University Of Michigan). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, No. 08A, 3044.

Barker, C. S. (1981). Using Orff-Schulwerk As A Method To Enhance Self Concept

In Children With Learning Disabilities. (Doctoral dissertation, Brigham Young University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, No. 05A, 2026.

Beegle, A. C. (2001). An Examination Of Orff-Trained General Music Teachers' Use

Of Improvisation With Elementary School Children. (Masters Thesis, University Of St. Thomas (St. Paul) Masters Abstracts International, 40, No. 02, 287.

Bellflower Symposium. (1968). Orff Schulwerk: Design for Creativity: A report of the project “Creativity and Participation in Music Education”. (EASA Title 3 Report). Bellflower, California: Bellflower Unified School District. (ERIC ED 053 153).

Bondurant-Koehler, S. (1995). The Effect Of Selected Modes Of Music Instruction On

Children's Music Preference. (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, No. 08A, 3044.

Brophy, T. S. (1998). The Melodic Improvisations Of Children Ages Six Through

Twelve: A Developmental Perspective. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59, No. 09A, 3386.

Chang, Hwei-Hwei (1991). A Status Report And Suggestions For Improving

Elementary Music Education In The Republic Of China. (Doctoral dissertation, University Of Oregon). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, No. 04A, 1245.

Chin, J. (1993). Curriculum For Introducing Chinese Instruments In Grades Four Through Six. (Masters Thesis, California State University, Los Angeles). Masters Abstracts International, 32, no. 01.27.

Clausel, S. L. S. (1998). Applications of Cambourne's model of literacy learning and the

Orff-Schulwerk music method to the development of a curriculum model for Mississippi music education, K-1. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Mississippi, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59-10A, 3768.

Daigneault, D. J. (1993). A survey of recommended procedures and teaching methods

for building and maintaining a wind and percussion instrumental music education program grades six through twelve. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Mississippi, 1993). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54-09A, 3362.

Flohr, J. W. (1980). Musical improvisation behavior of young children. (Doctoral

dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1979). Dissertation Abstracts International, 40, 5355A.

Flohr, J. W. (1981).Short-term music instruction and young children’s developmental music aptitude. Journal of Research in Music Education, 29, 219-223.

Frazee, J. & Kreuter, K. (1987). Discovering Orff. New York: Schott.

Glasgow, R. B. and Hamreus, D. G. (1968). Study to determine the feasibility of adapting the Carl Orff approach to elementary schools in America. (Final Report). Monmouth, Oregon: Oregon College of education. (ERIC ED 020 804).

Grant, T. W. (1991). The Effect Of Orff Schulwerk Instruction On Memory

Development In Children Ages Ten To Eleven. (Doctoral dissertation, Memphis State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, No. 06a, 2061.

Hamilton, H. J. (1999). Music Learning Through Composition, Improvisation And

Peer Interaction In The Context Of Three Sixth Grade Music Classes. (Doctoral dissertation, University Of Minnesota). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, No. 07A, 2420.

Hensley, S. E. (1981). A study of the musical achievement of elementary students taught

by the Memphis City Curriculum Guide and students taught by the traditional approach. (Doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42-11A, 4757.

Hudgens, C. K. K. (1987). A Study Of The Kodaly Approach To Music Teaching And

An Investigation Of Four Approaches To The Teaching Of Selected Skills In First Grade Music Classes. (Doctoral dissertation, University Of North Texas). Dissertation Abstracts International, 48, No. 03A, 0556.

Jaccard, J. L. (1995). A conceptual model for literature-based musical education.

(Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56-11A, 4312.

Kelley, L. L. (1981). A Combined Experimental And Descriptive Study Of The Effect

Of Music On Reading And Language. (Doctoral dissertation, University Of Pennsylvania). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, No. 03A, 1076.

Kubitsky, I. (1998). Ewe Children's Music From Ghana, West Africa, In The Classroom

(Masters Thesis, San Jose State University). Masters Abstracts International, 36, No. 05, 1214.

Lyne, J. K. (1991). Beginning Strings Class Instruction: Practice And Theory.

(Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, No. 06A, 2063.

McDowell, C; Abril, C.; and Frego, D. (2002). Motivation Factors of music educatiors

attending an Orff Schulwerk Summer training workshop. Paper presented at the 2002 national convention of the American Orff-Schulwerk Association, Las Vegas, Nevada.

Mckoy, C. L. (1998). The Effect Of Two Instructional Approaches On Fourth-

Grade Students' Preferences For Indigenous Folk Music Of Ghana. (Doctoral dissertation,).Dissertation Abstracts International, 60,No.02A, 0372.

Madden, James A., Jr. (1984). Zoltan Kodaly And Carl Orff: Implications For Program

Development In Elementary Instrumental Music Education. (Doctoral dissertation, Temple University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 45, No. 01A, 0072.

Martin, M. A. (1992). An Examination Of The Orff-Schulwerk Approach To Music

Education In A Public Elementary School: A Replication Study. (Doctoral dissertation, The University Of North Carolina At Chapel Hill). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, No. 08A, 0153.

Mishenhelter, D. (2001). An Investigation of University Students’ Perceptions of

Personal Teaching Ability and Anxiety Before and After an Orff-Schulwerk Workshop. Paper presented at the 2001 national convention of the American Orff-Schulwerk Association, Cincinnati, OH.

Moore, J. L. S. (1984). Rhythm And Movement: An Objective Analysis Of Their

Association With Music Aptitude (Orff Schulwerk, Weikart Movement). (Doctoral dissertation, The University Of North Carolina At Greensboro). Dissertation Abstracts International, 45, 05a, 1328.

Munsen, S. C. (1986). A Description And Analysis Of An Orff-Schulwerk Program Of

Music Education. (Doctoral dissertation, University Of Illinois At Urbana-Champaign). Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, No. 09A, 3351.

Muse, M. B. (1994). A Comparison Of Two Methods Of Teaching Singing To Primary

Children An Attempt To Determine Which Of Two Approaches To Teaching Singing Is More Effective. (Masters Thesis, University Of Louisville ). Masters Abstracts International, 33, No. 01, 0030.

Olson, R. G. (1964). A Comparison Of Two Pedagogical Approaches Adapted To The

Acquisition Of Melodic Sensitivity In Sixth Grade Children: The Orff Method And The Traditional Method. (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, No. 02A, 0500.

Orff, C. & Keetman, G. (1950). Music for Children, 5 volumes. Mainz, Germany: Schott Musik International.

Orrell, M. S. (1995). The Work Of Grace C. Nash In Music Education In The United

States, 1960-1990, And Her Influence Upon Members Of The American Orff-Schulwerk Association In The States Of Arizona And Colorado. (Doctoral Dissertation, University Of Houston). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, No. 12a, 4694.

Osterby, P. M. (1988). Orff Schulwerk In North America, 1955-1969 (United States,

Canada). (Doctoral dissertation, University Of Illinois At Urbana-Champaign). Dissertation Abstracts International, 50, No. 01A, 0094.

Persellin, D. (1999). The effect of Orff-based music instruction on spatial-temporal task

performance of young children. Texas Music Educators Association Research.

Price, H. & Hardin, L. (1988) Elementary school teachers comparative use of class time:

Teachers who are versus those who are not Orff Schulwerk certified. Paper presented at the 1988 national convention of Music Educators National Conference, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Radocy, R. (1998). Personal perspectives on research: Past, present, and future. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46, 342-350.

Robbins, J. (1994). Levels of learning in Orff SPIEL. Bulletin ofr the Council for

Research in Music Education, 123, 47-53.

Saliba, K.K. (1991). Accent on Orff: An Introductory Approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Shamrock, M. E. (1988). Applications And Adaptations Of Orff-Schulwerk In Japan,

Taiwan And Thailand . (Doctoral dissertation, University Of California, Los Angeles). Dissertation Abstracts International, 0031.

Siemens, M. T. (1969). A comparison of Orff and traditional instructional methods in music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 17, 272-285.

Snell, C. A. (1980). The Philosophical Basis Of Orff-Schulwerk. (Doctoral

dissertation, University Of Southern California). Dissertation Abstracts International, 41, No. 04A, 1470.

Shank, J., and Rashley, B. (2001). The effect of musicing on recognition of music

concepts by college students. Paper presented at the 2001 national convention of the American Orff-Schulwerk Association, Cincinnati, OH.

Sogin, D. W. and Wang, C. C. (2002). A descriptive analysis of the recorder

component of an Orff-Schulwerk teacher-training course. Paper presented at the National Conference of the American Orff-Schulwerk Association Las Vegas, November 6-10.

Sogin, D. W. and Wang. C. C. (1990). An analysis of the perceptions of Orff-trained

teachers on an elementary music lesson. Paper presented at the 1990 world congress of the International Society for Music Education, Helsinki, Finland.

Steen, A. (1992). Exploring Orff: A Teacher’s Guide. New York: Schott.

Tsisserev, A. (1993). An Analysis Of The Music Education Methodology Of Dmitry

Kabalevsky And A Comparison With Those Of Zoltan Kodaly And Carl Orff. (Masters Thesis, The University Of Manitoba (Canada). Masters Abstracts International, 35, No. 02, 0399.

Velasquez, V. (1990). Tuned idiophones in the music education of children: The history of Orff instruments. The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education, 11, 93-109.

Wang, C. C. and Sogin, D.W. (1995). A research perspective of Orff Schulwerk in the classroom. Paper presented at the Orff 100 International Conference of Music and Dance, Melbourne, Australia.

Wang, C. C. and Sogin, D.W. (1997). A comparative study of self-reported versus observed classroom activities in elementary general music.” Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 444-456.

Wang, C. C. and Sogin, D. W. (2003). An examination of the teacher-student interaction in the Orff-Schulwerk process. Research Perspectives in Music Education.

Warner, B. (1991). Orff-Schulwerk: Applications for the Classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Weisert-Peatow, H. S. (2002). Leadership In The American Orff-Schulwerk Association, 1968--1998: (Doctoral dissertation, Seattle University 2002). Dissertation Abstracts International, 63, No. 05A,

Whitehead, B. J. (2001). The Effect Of Music-Intensive Intervention On Mathematics

Scores Of Middle And High School Students. (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, No. 08A,

Wimmer, D. L. (1993). The Organization Of The American Orff Schulwerk

Association From 1968-1980 And Its Influence Upon Music Education In America. (Doctoral dissertation, University Of Houston). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54, No. 03a, 0857.

Woody, R., and Fredrickson, J. (2000). A partnership project integrating computer

technology and Orff Schulwerk. General Music Today, 13, 8-11.

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download