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Samenvatting artikels Political Theory Oxford Handbook IntroductionIn the pursuit of any one ideal, it is disastrous to lose sight of all the others 1) What is Political TheoryInterdisciplinary endeavor whose center of gravity lies at the humanities end of the happily still undisciplined discipline of political science Concern with the demands of justice and how to fulfill them, presuppositions and promise of democracy, the divide between secular and religious ways of life, nature and identity of public goodsCommitment to humanistic study of politics and skepticism towards hegemony Study of politics = formal and quantitative challenged by the Perestroika movement on behalf of more qualitative and interpretive approaches How to position Political Theory in relation to political science, history and philosophy, between canonical political theory and the newer resources Political theorists: empirical work in politics associations with political scientists and law Political theory: normative componentCore canon: from Plato to NATO the subject matter has always extended beyond this canon and its interpretations Political theory = sub-discipline with no dominant methodology or approach Political theorists do not readily position themselves by reference to three or four dominant schools Lack of a core identity? Reconceive knowledge as more fundamentally interdisciplinary: field’s pluralism as a strength Relationship with Political Science Those driven by scientific aspiration: distinguish the ‘true” scientific study from the humanistic approaches Political theory: Own work in normative theory lacks rigor (strengheid), pointing to criteria within political theory that differentiate more from less rigorous work Engaged with empirical politics Relationship: cohabitionRelationship with history Historical contextualism: legitimately employ political principles from one era as a basis for criticizing political practice in another Ashcraft: Political theorists should acknowledge the fundamentally historical character of their enterprise Acknowledging the ideological character of political theory = embracing it’s political character <-> Straussians: the wisdom of the ancients and greats is outside history <-> Wolin: politics understood not in it’s instrumental capacity but rather in it’s orientation toward the public good coupled with a commitment to the public happiness of political participation ‘The political’: rejects the idea that politics is about universal truths, rejecting the reduction of politics to interests, individual or collective action that disrupts ordinary states of affairs, normal life, routing patterns of behavior or governance Relationship with Philosophy Rawls A theory of justice: investigation of what political, economic and social justice should look like in contemporary democracies Fundamental question of politics: the conflict between liberty and equality Dworking: all the society’s sources are on sale and the participants employ their clamshells to bid for what best suits their own projects in life Political Philosophers: interesting work but repeatedly challenged Relationship with ‘Real World’ PoliticsUtopianism: normative explorations generate conclusions that cannot plausibly be implemented How does theory engage with the developments in the political world? Some see it as failing to do so (Gunnell, Isaac) A flurry of studies employing empirical results to shed light on the real-world prospects for the kind of deliberative democracy currently advocated by democratic theorists Political theorists take their cue from events around them, turning their attention to the challenges strong sense of political engagement in political theory Institutional Landscape Best journal: Political Theory 2) Contemporary Themes and Developments Self-examination: takes a morbid turn, with demise or death at issue Concerns about the fate of theory peaked with the ascendancy of behavioralism in US political science but at that moment there were more than theoretical concerns Rawls: A theory of justice Book devoted to the examination of themes that the turbulent 1960s hade made so prominent: redistributive policies, conscientious objection, and the legitimacy of power Liberalism and it’s critics 21st C: no indication of political theory failing Energetic and expansive debate with new topics Individuals are for the most part motivated by self-interest and regards them as the best judge of what this interest requires –> through market economy Politics = how to reconcile and aggregate individual interests and a neutral set of constitutional rules Checks across different center of power are necessary Rights protect citizens against the government and one another obligations and duties Plenty of scope for dispute concerning the boundaries of politics Liberalism a competitor in Marxism Centrality of social classes in conflicts not individuals Market as generator of oppression and inequality Feminism as opposite of liberalism Liberal Egalitarianism In many areas of political theory liberalism had become the dominant position Liberals representing equality rather than liberty as the sovereign virtue and socialists with questions of individual responsibility liberal egalitarianism Literature on basic income or basic endowment Liberal understandings of equality: no particular resource implications attached to human equality Explosion of liberal egalitarianism = radicalization of the liberal tradition Much of the theory about equality mainly individualistic (focused but doesn’t mean economic inequality isn’t examined, just not in this field) CommunitarianismSandel: stressing abstract individuals and their rights as the building blocks for political theory, liberalism missed the importance of the community that creates individuals ad they actually exist Individuals always embedded in network of social relationships and they have obligations to society FeminismCritics of both schools Shared communitarian skepticism about disembedded individuals and found it even disembodied as if it made no difference wether ‘he’ were female or male Authoritarian potential in holistic notions of community and how they could be wieled against women Largely critical about the liberal tradition : overly individualistic, alert to gender issues Now liberalism has made adjustment to at least part of the feminist critique: peace with liberal tradition Democracy and Critical Theory Republicanism: emphasizes active citizenship, civic virtue and the pursuit of public values one of the main alternatives to liberal democracy but not a total alternativeDeliberative democracy: reflection upon preferences in a public forum was central prominent liberals proclaimed themselves deliberative democrats Green Political Theory Ecologically defensible alternatives to liberal capitalism Ecological political theory characterized by engagement with liberalism Post-structuralism Merely critical rather than constructive Seek to supplement rather than supplant liberalism Some versions of liberal theory more likely to be embraced or explored BUT also alternative theories 3) Political Theory and the Global Turn Fukuyama: ‘end of history’Victory of liberal capitalism Increasing anxiety about the way Western liberalism centers itself Significant traditions of thought beyond Western liberalism Foundationalism: claims about subject no independent grounding accused skeptics abandoning normative political theory Liberalism: post-foundational political theory now grapples more extensively with questions of moral universalism and moral and religious differences Explosion of writing on multiculturalism: rights of non-liberal groups in liberal society Kymlicka: a secure cultural context necessary to individual autonomy requires liberals to support multicultural policies Because of dominance liberalism increasing awareness other traditions: globalization? Political theory draws on national concepts that linger into their more global phaseIncreasing attention to both international and global dimensions New ways of theorizing religion Increasing focus on the role of pleasure and passion in political activism Issues of gender and race gender now central component in political thought Important new developments are under way 4) Political Theory and Political Science: Current Trajectories Political theory subfield of political science connects with other fields International Relations:Liberalism: actors can co-operate and build international institutions for mutual gains Realism: states maximize security if violent conflict is possibleConstructivism: social constructions that can change over time and place Connected with political theory: resources provided, same viewpoint,…Comparative politics: Only a limited interest in theory In some cases supporting on political theory but mostly quantitative or case studies Methodology:Reflection on what particular sorts of methods can do political theory fruitful material for methodological reflection Public policy:Political theorist clarify the normative principles that underpin policy proposals Rarely possible to translate theories in recommendations Policy evaluation and design require normative criteria political theory Rational choice theory:Rational choice is what should truly be described as political theory rational choice regarded as a failure Exploratory as well as critical connections Rothstein: reconnecting the normative side of political theory with the positive/empirical side Bad Moons, Little DreamsHistory = catalogue of human sorrows2600 years ago: Greek invention potent form of wishful thinking: démokratia Wishful thinking = regular feature of the human condition: we allude (verwijzen) to things that are absent, we conjecture (speculeren)Language = unending series of short little dreams démokratia: little dream with grand effect Democracy had no known wordsmith roots remain mysteryDemonax: first public figure to describe himself as a friend of democracy BUT not one of his speeches or laws survived Democracy = full of enigma’s, confusions, things that are supposed to be true The Life and Death of DemocracyWord democracy much older not a Greek invention = Greek plagiarism Mycenal: damos/group of powerless people who once held land in common origins further east? Lamp of assembly-based democracy was first lit in the East arrival of popular assemblies and démokratia in the West radically altered history: it made history possible Democracy radical biteInstitutions specially designed to decide for themselves as equals first ever human form of government: required people to see through talks of gods and nature, superiority of brain and blood = denaturing powerDemocracy = political order that ensured that who gets what, when and how should be a permanently open questionDemocracy = government of the humble, by the humble, for the humble self-government of the equalsWhy democracy now?The Life and Death of Democracy provides fresh details of the obscure origins of old institutions and ideals Forgetting or remembering the wrong things is dangerous for democracy, and that things that are timeless are never so (elections, voting)Every turn of phase, every custom and every institution of democracy as we know is time-bound Participatory or direct democracy vs indirect representative democracyAssembly democracy Three overlapping epochs in which democracy has developed Phase 1: creation and diffusion of public assemblies Dark era of undemocratic degenoracy Seeds of it basic institutions scattered across different soils and climesAssemblies were accompanied by various ancillary institutional rules Earliest experiments in creating second chambers and federated alliances New ways of being: Islamic world Representative democracy Phase 2: tenth century CE Atlantic region Military resistance to Islamic civilization triggered the invention of assemblies Near destruction worldwide of democratic institutions by mechanized war, dictatorship and totalitarian rule Rebirth of towns, religious struggles catholic church and revolutions in low countries representative democracy in France, England and American Republic Nobody knows who first spoke of representative democracy BUT foreign minister Marquis d’Argenson false democracy soon collapses into anarchy, in true democracy one acts through deputies authorized by election New way of thinking: voters genuine choice between at least two alternatives Thomas Paine: Athens by representations would have surpasses her own democracy Representative democracy:A way of governing better by openly airing differences of opinionFreeing citizens from the fear of leaders to whom power is entrusted Positive substitute to unelected monarch and tyrants Humble government: dissenting political minorities and levelling competition for power Delegate the task of government to representatives not everybody can take part job = monitor spending of public money, debate issues and make laws; who will govern and how Written constitutions, independent judiciaries and laws that guaranteed procedures Extrended the geographic scale of institutions of self-government Mainly housed in territorial states protected by armies and with power to make laws and taxes much larger than assemblies New terms of democracy corresponded to the many kinds of struggles by groups for equal access to governmental power new ways of life, institutions, ideals Written constitutions, formal separation of powers, periodic elections, competing parties = new + invention of civil societies: new social habits and customs (dining in restaurants, non-violent weapons First talk of international democracy De Tocqueville: ‘great democratic revolution’ Fueled by rowdy struggles and breathtaking acts (formal abolition of slavery) Permanently on trialCertain groups couldn’t vote (black and poor) early decades 20C right to vote universal Monitory democracy Incompleteness of present-day democracies Technique of putting imaginary eyes in the back of our heads rebirth of democratic politics after WWII Democracy = global force first time racial and xenophobic prejudice has begun to be extracted from the ideals of democracy democrats embarrassed of the past 1941: only 11 democracies left bounded back from oblivion (India, southern Africa, central-eastern Europe) democracy became a global political language Twentieth century = Democratic Century? Growing global human rights and democratic consciousness, ordinary people should rule Dictators everywhere dressed up in democratic clothes European experiment: post-representative democracy has been born democracy as a weapon against concentrations of unaccountable powerMonitory Democracy:Since 1945 invention of a hundred different types of power-monitoring devices Power-monitoring and power-controlling devices have begun to extend sideways and downwards through the whole political order (public integrity commissions, judicial activism, local courts,…) greater humility Monitory mechanisms underneath and beyond state borders shape and determine the agendas of the government Help of media public monitoring of international organizations is growing Efforts for green democracy newly established independent science and technology assessment bodies Bad Moons Democracy changes through time, democracies are capable of democratizing themselves Unexpected coming of democracy to India:Become economically fit through democracy Extended the hand of democracy globally Self-government needed to protect a multicultural country Democracy with a real difference Publicly monitoring devices raised Worlds largest democracy but also it’s most compound, turbulent and exciting prototype How viable are all these trends feeding the new age of monitory democracy Democracy nowadays plagued by market failures and social inequality Decline of political party membership, fluctuating turnout and elections and disrespect for politicians Media big role: campaign mega ) advertising organized lobbying Silver democracy: people live longer The rise of the US <-> Russia, China Spread of destructive civil wars, climat change, and nuclear weapons Democracy has no built-in historical guarantees, history of democracy business of everybody Bad moon rising over democraciesProblems with no historical precedents or solutions Despite all the huffing and puffing, the so-called global triumph of democracy may well turn out to be a campfire on ice stands on the side of democracy with new arguments The Athenian Revolution: Athenian Democracy and The History of IdeologiesStudy of classical democracy bridge between two disciplines that have much to gain by closer interactionsHistorical studies: gain purchase in debate with normative theoryPolitical theory: strengthened by a confrontation with the consequences of political thought and practice Between the fields of practice and theorySomething historically and politically remarkable took place in the polis of Athens between 508 and 322 BC classical period: begins with the ‘Athenian Revolution’ and ends with the suppression of popular government by the militarily superior Macedonians Demokratia: rule of the demos, the mass off ordinary adult natives demos true political authority: no oligarchy of bureaucrats, dealmakers, landlords, warlords or aristocrats Revolutionary change in patterns of thought, speech and action: because of the replacement of a small elite to broad citizenship of ordinary men Athenian Political history:Origins and development of a coherent ideology, institutional structure that facilitated the decision-making by the demos Decisions actually made by the demosResults of those decisions Athenian political theory: imaginative and creative response by Athenian intellectuals to the perceived problems and contradictions that arose as a result of the rule of the peopleMost of Western history: democracy unconceived Especially interesting in 20th century: influential thinkers denied that a true democracy could exist Today all democrats: authority of an entrenched elite inevitable good or bad thing? plentiful and colorful ‘We the people’ have lost faith in our own powers Ahtenians themselves: reality of democracy in their own time they supposed that for an elite to rule the people had to be overthrowed Texts that were written were to persuade the sophisticated audiences Fourth Century sources: Rich epigraphic tradition Rhetoric and historiography and political philosophy literary resources Exciting period: democracy was vibrant and stable Ideology is not a mask for underlying reality in classic AtheneConnection between ideology and reality manifested by discourse and by practice Believing, saying and doing not distinct from eachother Relationship between ideology, discourse and practice Variety of interpretative stances Error of extreme forms of interpretative poles is the shared obsession with ontology Positive approach: historical truth is unitary, stable and accessible Reader-response approach: worthwhile to demonstrate that each truth claim is compromised by its situation in a preexisting ideological universe that is informed by the play of power Philosophical pragmatism: both meaningless Movement from believe to discourse to practice as a historical problem rather than the ontological status Important that writers are self-conscious about intellectual traditions and political power and existing structures Athenian political life: two distinct directions: Historical consequence of a politics that is democratic and nonfoundationalist is striking, Pragmatic and free-wheeling process of social construction led to making policies that contributed to the breakdown of Panhellenic codes of international behavior privilege certain classes, limited the carnage of battle, crisis of the polisdevelopment of the Greek tradition of political theory, lack of secure foundations of Athens’ speech-act based democratic politics Democratic Ideals and RealitiesDemocracy begins with the voters what the majority wants becomes government policy democracy makes the people the rulers Abraham Lincoln: ‘of the people, by the people, and for the people’Folk theory: accessible, appealing ideas assuring people that they live under an ethically defensible form of government that has their interests in heartCredibility undercut by scientific evidence with a darker view of democratic politics citizens pay little attention to politics: at election time they’re swayed by how they feel about the nature of times political loyalties (from childhood) are the primary drivers of political behavior Contemporary democracy: elections outcomes largely random events Two contemporary approaches to democracy Populist idealEmphasizes the role of ordinary citizens in determining policiesThe public decides issues through the election of individuals <->People rule through direct direct democracy via initiative and referendum Elections as mechanisms for leadership selection Democracy can not mean that people actually rule it means only that the people have the opportunity of accepting or refusing the men who are to rule them Retrospective theory of voting: the electoral in its great, and perhaps principal, role as an appraiser of past events, past performance, and past actions elections outcome isn’t about ideas but public approval or disapproval of the performance of political leadersLess pressure on the voters to have elaborate, well-informed policy viewsVoters typically make choices on the basis of who they are – social identities But isn’t democracy doing just fine? World Values Survey: How important is it to you to live in a country that is governed democratically? Important for everyone! Nearly all political regimes claim to be democracies of some sort More surprising: their citizens believe them! How democratically is this country being governed today? In every country a gap between the ideal and the perceptions of reality But still high, even in unlikely countries People almost everywhere accept that their own political system is democratic and accept that democracy is a good thing The meaning of democracy that different governments implied have little in common Even only in western countries the criteria for qualifying as a democracy differ (ex. Dahl) Dahl: democracyResposiveness to citizens preferences, considered as political equalsEffective participationVoting equalityEnlightened understandingControl of the agendaInclusion of adultsNo existing government comes close to Dahl’s criteria Dahl: none is likely to but they can work as standards to measure the performance Even if reality fails to correspond to the ideals, the ideals are valuable and should serve as the basis for modifying or reconstructing the reality ideals not to unrealistic In general: we are simultaneously dreamy realistic and and grimly pessimistic Whitman:Optimistic view about democracy the fruitation of democracy on aught like a grand scale resides all together on the future, democracy in all public and private life Believe that democracy could be perfected, despite the appalling spectacle democracy in practice The critical traditionHuman beings are busy with their life, for most time is a premium people can not engage in well-informed, thoughtful political deliberation Folk theory unrealistic James Bryce: widespread citizen inattention Lowell: never existed a political system in which men have not to demonstrate to perfectionSchumpeter: the typical citizen drops down to a lower level of mental performance as soon as he enters the political field Lippmann: inevitable limits of human cognitive ability in politics, we have to act in a complex environment, which we have to reconstruct on a simpler model before we can manage it Niebuhr: human judgement not just overwhelmed by the complexity but is warped in self-interest and the will to powerConverse: the political ‘belief systems’ of ordinary citizens are generally thin, disorganized and ideologically incoherentMany scholars express hope that institutional reform, civic education, improved mass media, more effective mobilization of the poor or stronger moral exhortation might bring public opinion into closer correspondence with the standards of the folk theory The plan of this book Chapter 1Dahl: There is a great variety of empirical facts that one needs to know, or have some hunches about, before one can rationally decide on the kinds of political rules one wants to follow in the real world Empirical facts drawn from democratic system of the US, but also some others BUT finding relevant for all countries history, institutions and culture shape democratic practices but don’t lead to fundamentally different conclusions Timezone: 1916 (Wilson) – 2012 (Obama) Consider the New deal (1930s), political transformation of the South, Watergate scandal (1970s), politics and religion: babyboomers case studies Chapter 2Popular sovereignty Kinder: the extraordinary interest in the possibility of ideological reasoning was and still is an expression of concern for the quality and very possibility of democratic forms of governmentSpatial model of electoral competition: how ideological reasoning by ordinary citizens could enhance prospects for democratic control over political elites Converse: the vast majority of Americans are thoroughly innocent of ideology, largely sustained by subsequent scholarship also in other democracies Most democratic citizens are uninterested in politics, poorly informed and unwilling or unable to convey coherent policy preferences through issue voting Populist ideal of electoral democracy is irrelevant in practice, leaving elected officials mostly free to pursue their own notions of the public good or to respond to party and interest group pressures Chapter 3Direct democracy: medley of institutional reforms to enhance the role of ordinary citizens in processes of democratic decision-making reforms a response to failings of existing democratic procedures The cure for the ills of democracy is more democracy BUT na?ve direct democracy goes mostly badly: people to busy with their own life Referendum has mostly empowered millionaires and interest groups that use their wealth to achieve their own policy goals AND when ordinary citizens shape policy it can be counterproductive Chapter 4Retrospective voting: voters can control elected officials by assessing their performance in office and voting to reelect or replace them accordinglyChapter 5How well are citizens able to assess responsibility for changes in their own welfare Voters punish incumbent politicians for changes in their welfare that are clearly acts of God or nature ability to make judgements highly circumscribed Retrospection will be blind and political accountability will be greatly attenuated (verzwakt) Chapter 6 If voters are not very good at assessing responsibility for changes in their own welfare, neither are they very good at recognizing those changesEx retrospective accountability: presidential elections voters reward or punish incumbents for real income growth, however the voter are myopic (bijziend), focusing entirely on income growth in the months just before each election Chapter 7 Voting in the Great Depression 1930s: punishing their leaders at the polls when economic conditions worsened and rewarding them when economic conditions improved, with short memories and little apparent regard for ideology or policy Primary implication: elections are collective decisions based on considerations that ought and will be soon forgotten by the voters retrospective model will not bear the normative weight that its proponents want to place on it Chapter 8The group theory of democracy: citizens as members of social groups with social identities and group attachments in their political loyalties an behavior Surer foundation that populism or retrospective voting Chapter 9Partisan change: powerful role religious identities in responses to Kennedy’s candidacy, partisan realignment of the South, abortion different for men and women, men followed the viewpoint of their party Chapter 10Citizens perceptions of parties policy stands and their own policy views are significantly colored by their party preferences size of federal budget deficit Clinton: decreased by half but Republicans believed it increased Group and partisan loyalties are fundamental in democratic politics a realistic theory must be built on the insight of the critics of these traditions, who recognized that human life is group life Chapter 11: what would it mean to have more and better democracy? The challenge: taking on the divine right of the people Stimson: democracy is bound up with symbolism, belief, patriotism, and quasi-religious commitment, democracy is the civil religion of America Dahl: to reject the democratic creed is in effect to refuse to be an American The divine king also long history in human thought king always intended to rule well and justly, but he was sometimes misled Ideal of popular sovereignty plays the same role in contemporary democratic ideology Politics and practices that are unjust or unsuccessful can always be attributed to some mistranslation or temporary deflection of the peoples will ‘the people are never corrupted but sometimes deceived’ History of democratic thought is marked by an addiction to romantic theories first step toward recovery to admit we have a problem document the gap between democratic ideals and realities Participation and Democratic Theory Chapter 1: Recent theories of democracy and the ‘classical myth’1960s: participation part of the popular political vocabulary Demands from students for new areas of participation Demands of various groups for the practical implementation of rights of participation that was theirs Word is used in a variety of situations by different peoplePlace of participation in a modern, viable theory of democracy? Participation minimal role in theory of democracy Not only minimal role most theories emphasis for dangers for widespread participationOlder theories, with most participation possible, need a drastic revision or even rejectionPreoccupation stability of the political system: only two alternatives are democracy orr totalitarianism Size and complexity industrialized societies and bureaucratic forms of organization doubts attainment democracy Mosca and Michels: In every society a elite must rule with representative institutions iron law of oligarchy Choice: either organization or democracy but not both Collapse of Weimar republic (mass participation) into fascism, post-war establishment of totalitarian regimes based on mass participation backed by intimidation and coercion (dwang) participation linked to totalitarianism rather than democracy Large scale investigations in Western countries: lack of interest in politics and widespread non-democratic authoritarian attitudes among the lower socio-economic groups classic picture of democratic and increase of participation by present non-participators could upset the stability of the democratic system Old theories: normative and value-laden modern: scientific and empirical Joseph Schumpeter (Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy 1943):Facts showed that classical democratic theory in need of revision New realistic definition of democracy:A theory unassociated with any particular ideals or ends‘Democracy is a political method, that is to say, a certain type of institutional arrangement for arriving at political, legislative and administrative decisions’ Model of classical doctrine of democracy: examine deficiencies and offer alternatives Competition by potential decision makers for the people’s vote that is the vital feature Democratic method:‘That institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote’ Political competition for votes = economic market Necessary conditions democratic method:Civil libertiesAll the interests that matter in allegiance with the structural principals of existing society NOT universal suffrageMeans of participation: voting for leaders and discussion they don’t control leaders, they can vote for an alternative at the next elections Focus on minority of leaders Almost universally accepted Berelson:Functionalist Classical theory confronted wit empirical evidence certain requirements commonly assumed for the successful operation of democracy are not met by the behavior of the average citizens despite all this Western democracies have survivedParadox: individual members don’t meet standards but the whole survives and grows Classical theory focused on the individual citizen, ignoring the political system itself or the features needed for the institutions to work as required Conditions survival political democracy:Intensity of conflict limitedRate of change restrained Social and economic stability Pluralist social organization Basic consensus Earlier theories: homogeneous citizinery required for democracy but heterogeneity found Necessary to perform contradictory functions It works because qualities and attitudes are distributed among the electorate contradictions resolved and stability maintained Stable and flexible system Limited participation and apathy positive for system no shock of disagreement, adjustment and changeIncludes the values of classical theory to individuals content revisited with present realities Amount of participation obtains is amount that is required for stability DahlUncertain if there is a thing as the classical theory of democracy His theory of democracy as polyarchy replacement for modern theory of democracy Characteristics democracy:Political method Elections are central voters high degree of control diversity of control techniques in modern democracies No use for maximum participation: most disinterested and apathetic Small proportion of individuals will take up decision-making in any form of social organization leaders responsive to non-leaders: competition Minorities can have influence on policy decisions Equality: lower class barred from equality inactivity, limited access to resources, system of constitutional checks Universal suffrage: leaders have to listen, they will suffer if they don’t accept offers of the minorities Consensus of norms amongst leaders social training (families, schools, newspaper,…), 3 kinds: reinforcing, neutral, negative effective social training: develop individual attitudes that support democratic norms no democratic character required but a personality that can adapt to different kinds of roles in different kinds of systems Dangers participation: consensus in norms may decline, dangerous to the stability SartoriIn democracies not just minorities that rule but elites Emphasis the dangers of instability and on the proper relationship between democratic theory and democratic practice Unbridgeable gap between classic theory and reality democratic ideal must be minimized would lead to bankruptcy of the system fear that active participation leads straight to totalitarianism colours all sartori’s arguments people must react but not act How can we account for the inactivity of the average citizen? We do not! One does not learn to vote through voting The apathy of majority is nobody’s fault and it’s time to stop seeking for scapegoats Eckstein Conditions necessary for a democratic system to stay stable Definition: political system where elections decide the outcome of competition for policies and power but if this system is be stable then the form that government takes must be of a certain typeStability: survival: capacity for adjustments to change, realization of political aspirations and the keeping of allegiances Authority patterns in social relationships rejected in literature Propositions:Stable if authority pattern is congruent with the other authority patterns of the society Congruent: Strong: identical not in a democracy, not possible and dysfunctional consequences and undemocraticWeak: graduated resemblance some segments of society closer to governmentIf authority patterns increase in similarity to government the closer they are to it High degree of resemblance in patterns adjacent to government Stability can only be obtained and strain avoided if congruency is achieved government pattern must not be purely democratic: balance of disparate elements and an healthy element of authoritarianism Stability can only take place if the element of authoritarianism is present and men have a need for firm leaders and leadership Contemporary theory of democracy (4 theorists above)Empirical of descriptive theory: operation of the democratic political system as a whole, grounded in the facts of present-day political attitudes as revealed by sociological investigation Democracy = political method or set of institutional arrangements at national level Competition of leaders for the votes of the people in free elections Majority can control leaders through elections Responsiveness of leaders ensured through the sanction of loss of office at the election or through pressure from active groups Political equality: universal suffrage and existence for equality of opportunity to access to channels of influence over leaders Participation in the choice of decision-makers Conditions for stable democracyParticipation not above the minimum would weaken the consensus on the norms Social training or socialization congruency Almost universal support Critics: Misunderstood the classical theory: not a descriptive but normative theory Ideals in classical theory rejected and replaced with others Contemporary theory doesn’t describe the operation of certain political systems, but implies that this is the kind of system that we should value and includes a set of standards or criteria by which a political system may be judged democratic two alternatives: a system where leaders are controlled by and accountable to the electorate, choice between competing leaders and elites <-> not the case: totalitarianism critics: has its own normative content and implies that we are living in the ideal democratic system Duncan and Lukes: empirical evidence can lead us to change normative theories but it needs to be shown exactly why or how the ideal was impossible and this has nowhere been done <-> critics didn’t show why it is attainable Inconclusive nature of criticism because critics have too accepted Schumpeters formulation of the problem do not question the theory but disagree about it’s nature Notion of classical theory is a myth Classical theorists:Schumpeter’s definition: classic theory eighteenth century theory, developed from a small-scale prototype, utilitarian Rousseau, Mill and Bentham Critics: quite unrealistic and demands a level of rationality from the ordinary man that is just impossible and classic theory ignored leadership Schumpeter’s interpretation not correct: two different writings about theory found Bentham and James Mill:Bentham: expected the electorate to exercise a fair degree of control over their representatives requires opinion on which policies their delegate should vote for The people = the numerous class Citizens interest in security against bad government and peoples sympathies are with one anotherElectors would make each decision independently of propaganda and form their opinions logically Importance of educating the electorate into socially responsible voting working class would take the middle class as their reference group and vote responsible Main concern: choice of good representatives rather than the formulation of the electorates opinions Similarities classical and contemporary theory Participation protective function: private interests of each citizen protected <-> competition between leaders Chapter 2: Rousseau, John Stuart Mill and Cole: a participatory theory of democracy Rousseau Theorist par excellence of participationSocial contract vital for theory Individual participation of each citizen in political decision-makingContinuing interrelationship between the working institutions and the psychological qualities and attitudes of individuals interacting within them Ideal participatory system: Certain economic conditions necessary: equality and independence differences shouldn’t lead tot political inequality Each man has to own some property Interdependent: each citizen would be powerless without the co-operation of others Laws should rule: the only policy that will be acceptable for all is the one where benefits and burdens are equally shared general will is always just No organized groups present former could make their particular will prevail there will be inevitably tactic associations BUT difficult to obtain support because of the conditions of participation Develop responsible, individual social and political action Participation in the making of decisions and participation is a way of protecting private interests and ensuring good government Plamenatz: Rousseau turns our minds to considering how the social order affects the structure of human personality Citizen has to take in account wider interests than his own private: forced to deliberate according to his sense of justice (constant will) learns to be a public as well as private citizen through educative process no conflicts between the two Once the participatory system is established it’s sustainable the qualities required are those that the process of participation itself develops Close connection between participation and control forced to be free forcibly educated through participating in decision making otherwise no law that ensures everyone’s freedom Individuals freedom increased through participation because it gives them control over his life and his environment and those that execute the laws Cranston: critics: never seeing institutions as a threat of freedom ideal institutions from Rousseau guarantee freedom Participation gives people the change to be ‘his own master’: not being master over others but purely oneself, equally dependent on each other Participation enables collective decisions to be easier accepted by individuals Participation increases the feeling among individual citizens that they belong in their community John Stuart MillTheory mix of all diverse influences Echoes of utilitarian view: one of the greatest dangers of democracy is the sinister interest of the holders of power two aspects of good government:1) how far it promotes the good management of the affairs of society by means of the existing faculties, moral, intellectual, and active of its various members2) a great influence acting on the human mind Governments and political institutions as educative: aspects of government interrelated necessary condition of good government is the promotion of the right kind of individual characterQualities developed by participation self-sustaining character Not necessary for citizens to perform the logical and rational calculations that Schumpeter asserted were necessary Certain level of political sophistication and public-spiritedness in these countries Education same terms as Rousseau Man never thinks of any collective interest, of any object to be pursued jointly with others, but only in competition with them, and in some measure at expense private-money-getting occupation situations changes when the individual can participate in public affairs: forced to widen their horizons A democratic constitution not supported by democratic institutions in detail but confined to the central government, not only not is political freedom, but often creates a spirit precisely the reverse no use having universal suffrage and participation in national government if the individual hasn’t been prepared for this participation at local level effective participation in big societies requires the development of necessary qualities in local level participation Large scale society representative government will be necessary: difficultyDemocratic political systems compatible with the natural society were power and influence are exercised by the fittest and where the multitude would have faith in the minority that rules elite had to be accountable to the many difficulty True democracy <-> ideal system (plural voting based on educational attainment) Political equality not necessary everybody a voice but not an equal Proper job of representatives is discussion Majority branded by the suffrage system as political inferiors and cannot resist the implementation of disadvantageous policies Through political discussion the individual becomes a member of a great community Industry as other area where the individual could gain experience in the management of collective affairs Co-operative forms of industrial organizations leading to moral transformation of those that took part in them friendly rivalry in a pursuit of a good common to all co-operation inevitable in industry: association of labourers on terms of equality, collectively owning the capital and working under managers elected and removable by themselves political relations in industry democratized participation in all lower level authority structures or political systems? Cole Theory of a modern, industrialized society Industry key to truly democracy Influence of Rousseau translating his insights in modern setting Will basis for social and political organization: co-operate to satisfy their needs motives that hold men together in associations and how they act in supplement and complement to their actions as isolated or private individuals:Object of social organization not only material efficiency but self-expression and self-government of all the members which leads to fullest freedom most free when he co-operates with equals in making laws theory of associations: society = complex of associations held together by the wills of their members democracy only real if its conceived in terms of function and purpose function of an association is based on the purpose for which it was formed representative government necessary in most associations existing roles of representation = misrepresentationprinciple of function overlooked elector no real choice or control over his representative, denies the right of the individual to participate functional representation: constant participation of the ordinary man distinction between the existence of representative institutional arrangements at national level and democracy individual must be able to participate in all the associations with which he is concerned: participatory society necessary democratic principle must be applied to every form of social actions new philosophy of groups educational function is crucial and individuals and their institutions cannot be considered in isolation from each other participation local level learn democracy: individual no control on vast mechanism of modern politics because he is given no chance of learning self-government within a smaller unit industry arene for educative effect of participation ordinary man spends a great deal of his life at work fundamental evil in our society not poverty but slavery industrial system key to paradox of political democracy; individual self-governing in workplace, training turned into training for democracy no political equality without economic equality equality through destruction of the whole idea of remuneration for the work done but status distinctions plays a larger role in this theoryparticipatory system: one group of equal decision makers, abolition of the fear of unemployment and so the abolition of status distinction problem of preservation of leadership in democratic system principle of function answer: representatives rather than delegates functional associations have a continues existence, so can continually advise, criticize and recall the representative material efficiency: motive of greed and fear replaced by the motive of free service and workers which efforts benefit the whole community self-government key to efficiency Guild Socialist structure Vertical structure: economic, functionalist and political functions separated Economic: Guilds: unit of organization on the production side Consumer co-operatives, utility councils,…Each guild would elect representatives to the higher stages of the vertical structure Horizontal structure: communal spirit of whole society Representatives elected from the guilds Ward, regional communes, national commune Beyond Monologue: for a comparative political theory Strauss: political science fiddles while Rome burns Call for political theorists to recapture the Socratic élan: unraveling the meaning and moral direction of political life Now: political science attentive to the burning issues of our time? turn to global, cross-cultural or comparative political theorizing Comparative political theoryTakes the process of globalization seriously, growing proximity and interpretation of cultures, global village Shared meanings and practices arise from lateral interaction, negotiation and contestation among different cultural frameworks Dialogical or hermeneutical approach theorists must be multilingualSome contemporary motivations September: panel: What is political theory? Thoughtful and well-informed reflectionsProfessional bias: limiting themselves to familiar theories of the western canon 9/11: America’s vulnerability, illuminated the changing and disturbing international landscape Other challenges in nations Challenged the fabric of international order; new forms of global economic hierarchy and inequalityCross-cultural and inter-civilizational bonds and arrangements Anthropology Ethnological and ethnographic studies: cultural idioms and traditions around the globe Geertz and Sahlins: methods: field interviews and hermeneutical understandingPolitical theorist: cultural studies, post-colonial studies interconnection between Western and non-Western societies Pressure on political science comparative politics: empirical analysis Philosophical Sources of Inspiration Political theorists persuaded by contemporary philosophy cross-cultural orientation: linguistic turn, phenomenology, hermeneutics, pragmatism and postmodern deconstruction Distatisfaction with modern Western egocentrism Eurocentrism Heidegger: human existence as being-in-the-worldThinking ego in context of societies, fellow beings and natureHermeneutical phenomenology Planetary thinkingGadammerHermeneutics: endeavor to gain understanding through an intensive dialogue Interpretation as a constitutive element of human existence and human inquiry Metha (India) Relentless exposure to the tension between the scientific consciousness and the legacy of the past address right questions to religious tradition and by rewarded by answers WittgensteinSubject of cognition as functions of grammar and multiple language games Bakthin: heteroglossia: multilingual dialogues between idioms and cultural frameworks Derrida: unsettle self-contained identities or invariant meaning structures Repositioning Europe in the world Merleau-PontyResist the lure of the privileged engage in the labor of concrete lateral interactions lateral universal through ethnological experience testing of the self through the other person Panikkar: comparative philosophy cannot except a method that reduces all visions to the view of one single philosophy Dialogical or imperative mode of philosophizing diatopical hermeneutics Comparative Political theory Political science = power and its exercise in a collective arena attracted and attached to corridors of power located in the west efforts for comparative theory from scholars in the periphery Anthony Parel (Canadian-indian): western political thought comparative and cross-cultural (East-Indian) Western political thought: products of universal reason dubious: questioned by other cultures Validity of cultural pluralism and philosophical pluralism: differences but also similarities (equivalences)Hwa Yol Jung (Korean-Am): differential of diatactical mode of theorizing <-> monological and logocentric Decenter canonization of modern West Relational ontology, interbeing, transtopia, transversality Charles Taylor (Canadian): dialogical encounter and recognition, liberal politics of equal dignityDifference blindness seeks to maintain and cherish distinctness: potential for forming and defining one’s own identity as an individual and as a culture Multiculturalism = open-minded learning process across boundaries Parekh (British-Indian): legacy of Gandhi and issues of post-colonialism and multiculturalism Comparative theory must recognize the interplay of three factors:1) cultural embeddedness2) inescapability and desirability of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue 3) internal plurality Critical Queries and broader implications Issue of universalismFavoring parochial identity politics Politics of difference necessary universal feminism (not only the west everyone) Those who claim to be universal monopolize universalismLimits to understanding Unacceptable cultural differences Dialogue includes challenges and critical contestation Benefits: rekindle the critical elan to political philosophy since Socrates and Plato Issues: radically critical perspective on society, canonization West had been globalizedLiberty is changing from a liberating promise into a vested status Interpret al other societies in the categories of our own Deliberative democracy: an introduction The aim of this HandbookOrdinary people not up to the task of competent participation in democracy Identities an partisan attachments drive voting behavior rather than issue opinions and interests ConceptsDeliberation: mutual communication that involves weighing and reflecting on preferences, values and interests regarding matters of common concern Aggregative democracy: counting of votes both deliberation and aggregation important for democratic decision-making Ideals deliberative democracy: ideals that cannot be achieved fully in practice but that provide standers toward which to aim, all other things equal aggregative ideals also impossible to achieve perfectly Sometimes: costs to come closer to an ideal, trying to hard to achieve one may create impediments to achieving other ideals and values Contingent approach applies to all democratic ideals First generation thinkers: Contemporary democratic theoryDeliberative experiments Deliberation generically: offering and receiving of reasons for positions or policies, ideals of high-quality argumentation or rational-critical debate, focus on common good, mutual respect, rationally motivated consensus Second generation ideals: more sensitive to the nuances of pluralist aspirations and dimensions of modern democracies More emotionally rooted expressions Expansions of firs-generation ideals Democratic inclusion and plurality (table) Mutual respect: central to all theories of deliberation Listening actively and trying to understand the meaning of a speakers statement each speaker is owed an effort at identification Black feminist theories: effort should include consciousness that one cannot ever fully understand or identify ask questions to elicit (ontlokken) each persons own understanding Unchallenged standard of good deliberation Absence of coercive power: unchallengedCoercive power: threat of sanction of use of force Forced choices emanating from the context of social, political and economic power Equality: Mutual respect, inclusion and equality of communicative freedom Democratic deliberation requires not equal influence but equal opportunity of access to political influence = equality of sources, material wealth and educational treatment Societal equality is a necessary condition for political democracy Equal influence equal opportunity to influence Reason: Public sphere= peoples public use of their reason Emotions: form of appraisal and evaluation reason underlying emotional commitment to the process Compassion essential element of good reasoning Human communication: testimony, greeting, rhetoric, storytelling Ideal of eliciting and presenting reason eliciting and presenting relevant considerations Consensus:The consensus developed in rational-critical public debate, final unanimity of mutual enlightment for the general interest (Habermas) Elsters: goal political action rational agreement , engaging in public debate with a vies to the emergence of a consensus Habermas: deliberative democracy should underwrite and protect deliberative influence aiming at mutual understanding, but also fair compromises and bargains when really in conflict Cohen: arrive at a rationally motivated consensus no promise that consensual reasons will be forthcoming majority rule Orientation to the common good:Habermas: rational-critical public sphere Self-interest appropriate motivation as long as it is constrained by considerations of fairness and others rights Publicity, accountability and sincerity Publicity appropriate for all deliberations privacy Accountability in the context of elected representation Insincerity allowable in communications aimed at generating the mutual respect necessary for deliberation Improving knowledge No platonic ideal of good deliberation The Site of Deliberative Democracy Almost everywhere locations can be joined in productive combinations Formal institutions of government Legislatures Not adhere closely to deliberative standards Elected representatives: public speech strategically Parliamentary debates: ritualized performances Westminister parliamentary systems: sharpening the accountability, do so at some cost do deliberative learning Deliberative quality higher in more consensual systems with no strict party discipline, higher in committees not open to the public transparency not always deliberately good Courts:Specialists in a certain kind of public reason hard to find outside the US Deliberative but not democratic: appointed for life US: members divide along partisan lines Judges and justices must still justify their decisions with reasoning, constrained by institutional rules, norms and particulars of cases Executive Deliberate extensively over which policies are to the public good Inclusive if there are coalitions deliberative negotiations Administrations Governance-driven democratization: consult stakeholders, formal and informal networks BUT deliberately an democratically problematic: no inclusions and equality evaluated Civil society and public sphere Public sphere: totality of deliberation in public life in a society, including the institutions of government Public Spheres as plural, differentiated and overlapping, encompassing political activists, social movements and new and old media also informal political conversationsPublic spheres site for resistance, influence over formal institutions of government and for deliberative social learning, source of change, issues to be identifies, formulated and advocated deliberative sensors of new issues and problems (feminism, environmentalism,…) Elections intermediate role, political forums with deliberative elements, influences of private entities International politics great deal of persuasion global deliberative democracy Institutions designed to reflect ideals and purposes of deliberative democracy Long-established dispute resolution Partisans as facilitator or mediator mediation, stakeholdersdialogue and consensus-building Deliberation does not need to result in consensus to be successful Restorative justice and truth commissions: criminal justice Non-partisan forums: mini-publics: advancing the participation of many citizensdisadvantage of self-election 15-20 participants: arguments for and against proposals size compromises their representativeness and heterogeneity Advisory Citizens assemblies and deliberative polls 150 or more citizens: representative Recommendation and report (assemblies), informed opinions (deliberative polls)Thinking about deliberative democracy systemically Many sites and kinds of deliberation are enabled and constrained by their environments Systemic perspective: deliberative ideal realized in distributed ways, with some venues providing high quality reasons and others having greater capacities for active listening and common ground, others to include the marginalized or for new ideas Systemic distribution can promote equalityNondeliberative political activities may have positive deliberative consequences for the system as a whole Deliberative character of democratic opinion- and will-formation can be realized through the democratic system as a whole systemic approach uncovers deliberative deficits and sites in which more or better deliberation would strengthen democracy and political system performance Critics: a systematic or macro perspective makes it seem less urgent to create optimal deliberative conditions Institutions with high levels of decision-making power play key roles in deliberative systems the greater the need to justify departures from deliberative standards pool of competing standards large or restricted? Inserting mini-publics in political systems:Critics: Normative legitimacy: randomly selected representatives are not chosen by other citizens, don’t need to explain their decisions and can’t be sanctioned for their actions Perceived legitimacy: so little experience, little basis to decideBig deal is if it’s binding or not most of the time advisory role More trust from non-deliberating citizens <-> propagating arguments Individual educative function for citizens; increases in information and civic engagement and may spread beyond Critics Deliberative democracy is too idealistic and ignores power and politics Politicians can take advantage of the rational ignorance of the citizens, use vivid rhetoric rather than engage in rational discussion Most political debates don’t produce deliberative exchange Deny that actors can often do influence one another with reasons and arguments Contextually limited: anglo-american politics Directed towards the first-generation ideals second-generation ideal embraces conflict Deliberative negotiations allow self-interest to be a necessary component Deliberative democracy mistakenly aims at consensus Rational consensus not just undesirable but conceptually misguided Misrepresents the role of consensus: misplaced for second-generation theorists Recent years reformulations of consensus concept compatible with political struggle and conflict Meta-consensus: consensus on acceptable domains of preferences and ranges of competing options Economizing on disagreements Working agreementOpinion clarifications and structured disagreement more important than consensus A good deliberative process can have a variety of outcomes, of which consensus is only one Deliberative democracy misunderstands human motivations and the limits to the cognitive capacities of ordinary citizens Overestimate the demand for deliberative democracy Citizens dislike politics and are happy to let elites govern, when citizens participate it is because they think they need to monitor and sanction untrustworthy political elites Empirical studies of more authentically deliberative opportunities tell a different story: willingness to deliberate in US much higher than presumedOrdinary citizens lack the cognitive capacities for deliberative democracy: most participants don’t engage in the give and take of the discussion Discussion often induces groups to move to extremes as individuals hear new arguments in support of the positions they already hold Many of these skeptical findings, based on experiments and empirical studies that were not designed with deliberation in mind Deliberation is too rational, excluding the informal social and speaking styles typical of many marginalized groupsIdeal of democratic inclusion violated Dutwin: no evidence that soci-economic status affected the quality od deliberation Major factor behind differences: experience with political conversation Europolos: less privileged, least skilled deliberators but the experienced didn’t have more success in changing the mind of others Just democracy: the rawls-machiavelli programme Belgium = rare example of a multi-national state which has succeeded (for SU) Staying attached to SU because it was a union, only such a union can guarantee protection of minorities and a higher degree of solidarity Dislocation USSR and possible break-up Belgian social security system moves us away from implementing a concept of justice that involves a strong solidarity, at the same time it is achieving more democracy Which justice, which democracy? Democracy = combination of majority rule, universal suffrage and free voting Justice = maximinning of material conditions, possibly subject to satisfying certain constraintsMaximin = criterion of justice, privileged member of a larger family of criteria of distribution One hand liberal conception of justice: compatible with equal respect for the various conceptions of the good life First limitation: great majority of conceptions are also liberal in this sense not simply liberal also solidaristic Solidaristic conceptionsContrast: entitlement conception, which require justice as nothing other than the absence of any violation of individual rights Justice = liberal-solidaristic for writerDemocracy can be a threat for justice: limits the exercise of democratic power but if it’s seen as equal for all members of society would it supply justice? NO Maximed versus maximin Democracy <-> justice Everything depends on the respective levels of the median income and of the mean income If the median voter earns a gross income greater than the mean, each one of these two parties will have an interest in proposing a zero rate of tax, and thus a distribution of net incomes identical to the distribution of gross incomes median voter earns a gross income smaller than the mean income, each of the two parties will have interest in proposing a tax rate of 100 percent Mean income lies beyond the median income in most capitalist countries (second case relevant) Figure 2.1Total income is in no way affected by the manner in which that income is distributed Tax of 100 per cent raises both the minimum and the median income to the level of the mean income Basic income will not diminish one’s eagerness to seek a job, to muster effort,…Figure 2.2Mean income slightly smaller when the rate is 30 per cent that when it’s zero and considerably smaller when it’s 100 100 still the best from the point of view of maximin Point of view of medium income: opposite is true and 30 per cent is the preferred rate Convergence between the maximized of democracy and maximin of justice has disappeared In removing some of the most unrealistic assumptions we can expect a further deepening of the gulf that separates the actual functioning of our democracies from the realization of justice as maximinMean dollar every change of hiding in the pocket of a voter whose gross income not lower but far higher than the mean income if they can convince the voter that the electoral platform of the party Is closer to their interest than its opponents Democracy against migration International disparities began to widen because of the emergence of industrial society, capitalist nations far from being democratic influx of foreign workers and exodus of capital was no problem: little to fear and much to gain After first world war visa required: why?Deepening of inequality on a world scale because of the expansion of capitalism an demographic and ecological developments Growth of political power of the working class and its organisations Product of capitalism and democracy Extension of democracy that constitutes the main obstacle on the one road towards more justice on the world scale Democratic engineering If we cannot assume harmony between democracy and justice which one is preferable to sacrifice stick to justice and sacrifice democracy democracy may take us further from justice, less democracy does not necessarily brings us closer to it Difficult to see how a non-democratic procedure could offer the best guarantees Hazlitt: only right to vote if the recipients of social benefits had paid more in taxes and contributions than they had received in benefits widens the gap from justice as a maximVote for immigrants and lifting administrative obstacles = significant progressWhich democracy is the most capable of ensuring the implementation of the conception of justice adopted here Essential that it should permit the emergence of public debate through which all the parties concerned can make their positions and arguments heard above all influence regenerate a sense of justice Very difficult to find any other basis in which material resources are distributed closer to justice as maximin When in search of optimal combinations democratic engineering should not be guided by an autonomous democratic ideal but by an ideal of justice Example India: hunger strike Gandhi because only the Untouchables could chose representatives compromiseDemocratic dynamic embracing all categories of the population is preferable to mixed dynamic that combines electoral competition within each category and power relations between the various categoriesGlobalizing democracyWhen deciding we must keep a federal level or not we must identify the distribution of powers which has the best change of promoting the realization of the largest possible scale of justice Conception of justice adopted here: essential that key decisions about the distribution of resources should be taken by a federal parliament whose members directly represent the citizens of the federation and not the federated entities decisive cleavages more ideological than national Policies adopted not a compromise between the representatives of the national components but subjected to the constraint of having to be justified by way of arguments that appeal to citizens in the whole federation Example: migration Radical difference between justice within a nation and justice on the world scale dichotomy illegitimate: solidaristic conception can apply across borders, if democratic institutions which are capable of landing such an extinction don’t exist, we must fight to put them in place Principle of subsidiarity, realization of a solidaristic conception of justice and putting into place institutions which make the latter possible are essential to protect diversity of cultures against the pressure towards uniformity from the growing hold of the world marketNeed to stabilize the vagrants (landlopers) of our era that we can expect a decisive impact in the establishment of the institutions required to realize something like equal concern at the world level system of transfers as individualized, as unconditional and as high as possible utopian We are bound for better and worse by an ever tighter interdependence from which there is no escape but through further involvement: establishment of true democratic institutions beyond national level Reconciliation of democracy and justice at stake No global demos, no global democracy? A systematization and critique Key precondition of democracy = demos, is absent at global level = against the pursuit of global democracy Globalization Normative theory: appropriate institutional responses to globalizing trends Global redistributive schemes Reforms of the international arena, with a view on problematic globalization-related phenomena Legitimacy standardsLegitimacy beyond borders, requires democratic decision-making Different institutional configurations of the international arena Disagreement:Worth pursuing? No global demos, no global democracy EU: lack of European people is a major cause for the slow progress of the European political project Viability EU? No global public or a sense of common destiny utopian 4 interpretations of the slogan none of them implies that global democracy is not an ideal worth pursuing Political ideals In order to be worth pursuing ideals must meet three conditions: Desirability: depicts a state of affairs in which good things are realized Depends on the normative perspective we adopt Non-infeasibility: reason to hope that it can be realized, or at least approximated Feasibility = permissive, ideal = feasible when:In principle compatible with the basic features of human nature Can be achieved or approximated from the status quoNon-feasibility: weaker than feasibility To establish that an ideal is worth pursuing, all we need is enough ground for reasonably hoping that the ideal can be realize or approximated, not a full demonstration of its feasibility Moral accessibility: reason to hope that it can be realized or approximated without excessive moral costs Moral costs of transition Democracy Def: a political system is democratic if, and only if, those to whom decisions apply have the opportunity to participate in their making as equals Giving power to people in the making of political decisions Commitment to equal respect for persons qua self-determining agents, capable of leading their lives pursuing their ends and goals Instrumentally valuable: ensures that social outcomes are responsive to everyone’s interests Intrinsically valuable: equal status of persons in the face of reasonable disagreement about how society should be governed The DemosNormative desirability: those who given fundamental democratic commitments, should be included in the decision-making body Feasibility: conditions that must be satisfied by a group of people in order for it to be capable of supporting a democratic decision-making system The Demos cEqual respect: all be given the opportunity to participate in decisions that apply to them as equals under what conditions does a decision apply to someone? All-subjected principle: all and only legal subjects should have a say in the making of the legal decisions that bind them Legal subjects: participation Participation establishes a connection between the will of the subjects and the will of the ruler, allowing the autonomy of the former not to be undermined by the latter’s authority Coercive (dwang) laws may apply to individuals who are not recognized as legal subjects and thus not legally obligated to obey no de facto coercion without participation All-subjected principle revised: all and only those who are de facto subjected to coercive legal decisions should have a say in the making of decisions Coercion deep impact on person’s interests and autonomy, but people’s autonomy can be equally impacted by non-coercive interventions All-affected interests principle: all and only those who are affected by a decision should have a say in its making To broad, needs to be qualifiedDemocratic entitlements only when a certain subset of interests are affected Reference to important interests still is insufficient to obtain a plausible version decisions that affect very important interests and yet we would never want to be democratically made (someone marrying to the one you love) All-affected interest principle qualified: all and only those whose important interests are affected by a decision in principle open to democratic adjudication should have a say in its making The Demos p List and Koenig-Archibugi Performative perspective: group of people qualifies as a demos if, and only if it exhibits a capacity for democratic agencyCapacity: organized, in a democratic manner, in such a way to function as a group agent Comprises the electorate or a group of people who if incorporated in democratic institutional arrangements would allow such arrangements to function properlyTwo conditions for a collection of individuals to display the relevant capacity for democratic agency: external coherence and internal cohesion Group members must have common interests, share some substantive principles and be bound by robust enough relationships of mutual trust convergence of interests and belief Democracy can’t work well under conditions where disagreement is too extreme, similar conditions apply to trust No global demos, no global democracy? There is no global demos c therefore global democracy is undesirableCompositional point of view: no actual or prospective decisions that apply to everyone in the world correctness depends on how we understand the notion of a decision applying to someone Understanding 1: there is no global subjection to coercive law therefore global democracy is undesirable Not a plausible claim: forms of coercion to which is everyone subjected border coercion Miller: border control not strictly coercive but rather preventative does not require democratic justification Distinction between coercion and prevention far from clear-cut International property regime: who holds what property and which bodies have the authority coercively to settle conflicts over property Cavallero: if coercion generates a stringent burden of justification for distributive inequalities domestically, the same burden exists globally Global demos existsUnderstanding 2: there is no global affectedness therefore global democracy is undesirable Faced with global concerns: international trade, finance, anthropogenic climate change global demos??Christiano: version of the all-affected interests principle very demanding oneDemocracy only desirable when people’s interests are affected in roughly equal measure by decisions over time met within domestic global communities but not global level Claim that there is no cluster of decisions that affect the worlds population does not show that there is no global demos: equality in decision-making not so central to democratic politics have a say proportional to their stakeProportional approach: difficulties, but same will arise with peoples stakes : people will disagree about who is most affected uncontroversial metric to measure stakesCriterion for measuring stakes is necessary to have equal stakesDisagreements about stakes will inevitably exist but not across all decisions Include all those whose important interests are affected in the decision-making process, giving them a say roughly proportional to their stakes global demos exists There is no global demos p, therefore global democracy is infeasible now Performative point of view: demos is a collection of individuals that exhibits the capacity for democratic agency if a global democratic structure were to be imposed on the world as it is today it would not function well Condition of internal cohesion necessary for democratic agency remains unmet Peoples of the world lack mutual trust, shared principles, and common interests that allow democracy to function at the domestic level Liberal nationalist and republican thinkers: lacking a global demos attempts to bring about a global democracy are destined to leas to impoverished, unstable forms of political engagement, while undermining the richer participatory practices Advocates of global democracy not necessary defend democratic global government, but for supra-national institutions addressing global concerns Not likely to happen, USA will refuse Not to deny variety of democratic trends within the international arena but do not prove the existence of global demos: only small population involved in democratic activities Claim validated: there is no global demos therefore global demos is infeasible now not warranted that democracy is not an ideal worth pursuing A global demos p cannot come about, therefore global democracy is altogether infeasible Global demos:Incompatible with human natureInaccessible from where we are Argument 1: The demos and the nation state Demos can only exist in nation state Solidarity: members of demos need to be united by feelings of solidarity and be willing to make sacrifices for each other, if the boundaries stretch too widely, the necessary solidarity will be psychologically unavailable Solidarity is not essential, democracies so big that is difficult for people to develop anything like a strong sense of solidarity against all fellow citizens Suggestion that it uniquely develops along national lines loses credibility in an increasingly globalizing world Popular sovereignty and civic education: only within democratic states can people develop the motivational preconditions for realizing common political projects, popular sovereignty and civic education give legitimacy to political decisions and creates political agents with a strong sense of collective responsibility Demos is a necessary ingredient of effective democratic agency and may only merge within specific state-like political entities as a result of specific histories doesn’t say global demos is impossible: global demos can only emerge starting from existing political units and their current political practices Argument 2: The demos and global pluralism Skeptical about the possibility of a free agreement on principles of political morality universal convergence on moral matters could only be achieved coercively: which will lead to anarchy No evidence of impossibility of full agreement about justice at global level not needed for the existing of a global demos only some agreement needed Pluralism-driven skepticismInternational community increasingly converging on a set of principles, human rights Argument 3: The demos and epistemic burdens Democracy can only properly work if members of the demos are sufficiently well informed about the decisions that have to be made, their grounds and implications Christiano: keeping op with the complexities of domestic political systems is already hard enough, keeping up with those of a global system in impossible At domestic level some of these difficulties mitigated by the professionalization of politics, possible on global level? global organizations that play at least a subset of the roles performed by political parties nothing that makes global political parties possible Inaccessibility International norms often frame or even determine political decisions within individual states, citizens slowly, but increasingly take an interest in international affairs global demos possible and certainly not inaccessible Necessity of democratically organized world state Criticisms:Conjectural, based on controversial teological assumptions about the logics of respectively, accountable expansion, international anarchy and human nature A global demos cannot come about without excessive moral costs, therefore global democracy is morally inaccessible Demos: through conflict and struggle against a central despotic power common opposition to unaccountable power for a demos to exist: before a global demos a global despotic power has to emerge Not convincing: nothing necessitates the path above Deudney: risks associated with violence-interdependence under anarchy have regularly pushed different communities to come together under a higher-order system of governmentBottom-up emergence not as an all-powerful democratic global state, but a network of democratically organized governance institutions Global democratic processes addressing issues of common concern are desirable, morally accessible and not infeasible The crisis of democracy and the science of deliberation The sheer quantitative overabundance overloads policymakers and citizens, making it difficult to detect the signal amid in the noise decline in civility and argumentative complexity Uncivil behavior and pathological mass communication reinforce each other Declining civility in interactions among elected representatives decreases citizens trust in democratic institutions the more polarized, the less citizens listen to the content of messages and the more they follow the partisan cues or simply drop out of participating People vote mainly guided by group identity can fuel arguments against democracy and in favor of government by wise elites Even if people are bad solitary reasoners, they can be good group problem-solvers Human life is group life but not in pathological form Deliberative democracy Capacities of citizens as they engage democratic dialogue Deliberative democracy incorporates inclusive participation that encompasses citizens and leaders, mutual justification, listening, respect, reflection and openness to persuasion Deliberative institutional experimentation is flourishing throughout the world (Ireland, Mongolia, India) DD to be deployed in both diagnosis of democratic ills and in the development of effective responses to the contemporary crisis of democracy What research findsMost people do not want to participate in politics false once the possibility of participation is meaningful deliberation is offered: most willing to deliberate are precisely those who are turned off by standard partisan and interest group politics Ordinary people are capable of high-quality deliberation if well-arranged standards are far from utopian standards that only very few citizen deliberators achieve Ordinary people thinking together can see through elite manipulation of symbolic political appeals overcome the way elites try to frame decisions to their own advantage In deliberative conditions, the group becomes less extreme; absent deliberative conditions, the members become more extreme Properly structured deliberation can promote recognition, understanding and learning Deliberation leads judgements to become more consistent with values that individuals find that they hold after reflection Creating venues that are not simply another form of engagement for the elite Rhetoric can find a productive place in deliberation by engaging listeners and can build bridges across perspectives ImplementationPositive effects: face-to-face assemblies and gatherings which can be expensive and logistically challenging at scale Institutional design enables well-know problematic psychological biases and dynamics to attenuate or disappear How can positive effects of deliberation be secured in larger publics? Multiple locations for deliberation that are already found in many political systems, linked through the pressure of social movements, justifications for their actions that leaders give and arguments that experts make Deliberative elements can slow decision-making down but can also generate smart and sustainable solutions Major improvement: moments and sites of listening and reflection and integrating these into political processes citizens panels or direct deliberative exchanges between representatives and groups of citizens Social media: misinformation, political Deliberative democracy as a more familiar part of standard political practice ................
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