MUTX 340 - University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire



MUTX 340.001 [pic]Q/A Sets [pic]3 Chapter 4

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p. 83

Three elements are needed for the perception of sound to take place:

A source of _____________, a medium of ____________________, and a ______________.

The smallest bone in the human body is the ___________. It is about half the size of a grain of ________.

Reissner’s _______________ in the cochlea is only two cells thick.

p. 83 – 84

The hearing process begins as sound __________________ waves traveling through the atmosphere and then striking the ________.

p. 84

Why do some animals tilt or rotate their ears in different directions?

_____________________________

How do humans localize sound?

___________________________________

The outer ear is called the _________.

The function of the pina is supposedly to catch the sound __________.

The diameter of the pinna and the inner __________, or ear canal, is not much more than one inch. However, sound waves come toward us from all sides, with wave lengths measured in many inches, feet, or even yards.

Man’s outer _______ help make sounds originating from in front of the head slightly more intense than those originating from behind the head, aiding in sound localization. Cupping a hand behind the ear demonstrates how the outer ear makes sounds ___________ and easier to hear.

The inner contour of the ear shell also aids in sound ______________________. As sound waves reflect off the ridges and folds of the _________ ear, they provide localization cues to the brain.

Localization is also aided by ___________ cues. Sounds arrive at the two ears a microsecond apart. The brain uses these minute discrepancies in arrival time to locate the _________________ of the sound.

The connecting passageway from the outer ear to the middle ear is the ear canal (external auditory _____________). This air-filled cavity has two protective devices to keep unwanted dust particles or other foreign bodies from entering the ear; the outermost edge is lined with ________ and the surface of the ear canal is lubricated with a sticky ______. The primary function of the ear canal is to channel air _____________ waves to the ____________. It also acts as a ____________ and amplifies sounds in the range of 2,00 – 4, 000 Hz as much as 15 dB. The ear canal controls the ________________________ and ___________________ of the eardrum (_________________), which lies at the far end of the canal.

p. 84 – 85

The eardrum receives air pressure waves from the atmosphere via the ear __________ and vibrates in accordance with the ____________________ and intensity of the waves.

p. 85

Responding to the movement of molecules of air, the eardrum transmits a wide variety of vibrations, from the faintest whisper to the loudest explosion. What provides evidence for the eardrum’s sensitivity?

Its _____________portion is only __________________.

Between the eardrum and the cochlea in the inner ear is the air-filled cavity called the middle ear. This cavity has an opening into the oral cavity, the ___________________ tube. The eardrum connects with the inner ear via three small bones. These three bones are known collectively as the ________________, and separately as the hammer (_____________), anvil (_______), and stirrup (________). The ossicles serve as a ________ between the outer ear and inner ear. At one end, the hammer is attached to the eardrum, and at the other end, the stirrup is connected to the cochlea at the _______ window.

A sound wave traveling in the atmosphere reaches the ear and is channeled through the ear canal to the eardrum. The eardrum, in sympathetic vibration which the sound wave, vibrates back and forth, moving the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. These bones not only transfer the ________________ to the oval window, but due to their specific motions and the disparity in size between the eardrum and oval window, also _______________ the vibrations. As they travel through the air, sound waves meet with little resistance.

p. 86

The dense fluid of the cochlea is called the ______________.

The impedance of cochlear fluid is approximately 3,750 times greater than that of air. The increase in energy from the eardrum to the _______ window is what allows us to hear sound. This energy increase is created in three ways:

1.                  The eardrum is much larger than the oval ___________, which causes an increase in ________________ of 35 times.

2.                  The eardrum buckles in the middle, which doubles the ___________________ at the oval window.

3.                  The ossicles, acting as _____________, increase the pressure by a factor of 1/15.

The overall pressure increase at the oval window is _________ times.

Three muscle actions combine to form the acoustic or _________________ reflex to protect the ear against loud noises.

1.      The muscles that control the eardrum can contract and draw the drum into a conical shape, stiffening the membrane so that it cannot ________________ so much.

2.      The muscles of the ossicles can twist the bones so that they are somewhat ____________ and lose a little of their ___________________ efficiency.

3.      The muscle attached to the stirrup can alter it in relation to the ______ window, again causing a loss of amplification.

Also, the Eustachian tube, normally closed, can be opened by ______________ the mouth or swallowing, allowing air pressure to be ____________________ on both sides of the eardrum.

Unfortunately, the ear has no way of protecting itself against ________, ____________ noises.

The oval window separates the air-filled middle ear cavity from the fluid-filled _______ ear. The inner ear consists of the ___________________ canals and the cochlea. The semicircular canals serve an important function in determining body ______________, but they are not involved in the process of hearing. The cochlea has another surface membrane, the __________ window, which serves to release pressure built up in the cochlea.

p. 87

The cochlea is a spiral shaped body of two and one half turns, no bigger than the tip of the little finger. Along most of its length it is divided into the cochlear duct into two parts: the ________________ canal (scala vestibuli) and the tympanic canal (scala tympani). These two canals are connected at the tip of the cochlear spiral by the __________________ and are filled with perilymph. The cochlear duct is filled with ______________________ and is bound on one side by Reissner’s membrane (next to the scala vestibuli) and on the other side by the _______________ membrane (next to the scala tympani).

The basilar membrane is made of relatively stiff fibers and widens to 6 times its original size from the oval window to the apex. One side of the membrane is attached to a bony shelf; the other side is attached to ligaments and is free to ____________.

p. 87 - 88

Resting on the basilar membrane is the organ of _________ which contains the __________ of Corti, which support one inner and three outer rows of sensory hair cells (may be three or four rows near the apex). There are about 3,500 inner hair cells and 20, 000 outer hair cells. Outer hair cells can shorten their length up to two microns as many as 30,000 times per second. The conjecture is that this fast length change may enhance the auditory signal, improving ________________ and fine tuning.

p. 88

Overlapping the organ of Corti is the ___________________ membrane. About 100 microscopic, threadlike filaments, called ___________________, emerge from each outer hair cell and are imbedded in the tectorial membrane. About 50 stereocilia emerge from each inner hair cell but these are not imbedded in the tectorial membrane.

The auditory nerve links the inner ear to the __________ and allows for two-way communication. For each cochlea there are about 50,000 fibers that carry information from the cochlea to the brain along ascending (______________) pathways and 1,800 fibers that carry signals from the brain to the cochlea along descending (______________) pathways. While many outer hair cells may converge on a single auditory nerve, each inner hair cell may stimulate up to 20 auditory nerve fibers, most of which are _____________. Because of this arrangement, inner hair cells provide more acoustic information. ______________ nerves, bringing information from the brain to the inner ear, may be involved with increasing the frequency resolution of the inner hair cells.

As the ___________ pushes up on the oval window, causing it to move in and out, waves are propogated through the perilymph and passed along the ______________ canal to the helicotrema, making the return trip through the tympanic canal. At the end of this two-way trip through the spirals of the cochlea, the waves push against the round window. When the oval window is pushed in by the action of the stirrup, the round window is pushed out by the pressure of the _________ traveling through the perilymph. The energy transmitted by the movements of the round window is released into the air ___________ of the middle ear, where it returns to the atmosphere via the Eustachian tube.

On its journey through the vestibular and tympanic canals, the pressure wave transmits some of its energy to the membranes of the ________________ duct and the endolymph contained in it. As the membranes and the endolymph _______________, the arches of ___________ are also vibrated.

p. 88 – 89

When the basilar membrane is _____________ in vibration, the reticular lamina, tectorial membrane and organ of Corti slide with respect to each other, ____________ the hairs.

p. 89

This shearing action, caused by the membranes traveling in opposite directions, ____________ the hair cells.

The hair cells nearest the oval window respond to ______________ frequencies and those nearest the helicotrema respond to the ____________ frequencies.

Analysis of auditory information takes place in many localized processing centers scattered along a diffuse pathway between the inner ear and the auditory cortex.

Each of these processing centers analyzes the auditory information for a particular feature, such as location of the source of the sound. In the primary auditory cortex and surrounding association areas, these pieces of information are integrated to create a coherent ___________ experience with meaning (music).

Maintenance of frequency information in a spatial representation or map is called __________________ or tonotopical organization.

p. 90

The auditory nerve as part of the _____________ cranial nerve divides as it enters the brainstem and sends fibers to both the upper (__________) and lower (_____________) cochlear nuclei. The cochlear nuclei not only relay information but also sort, enhance, and encode information to be sent to higher _______________ nuclei.

p. 91

A parallel pathway in the reticular formation connects with descending tracts in the spinal cord to allow for reflex-types responses to ______________ stimuli. The descending or efferent pathway emanating from the ______________ formation also serve to inhibit lower auditory centers and elevate thresholds of hearing. The ascending pathway from the reticular formation serves to _______ the cortex of important upcoming signals. Animals whose classical auditory pathways have been cut regain their ability to respond to sounds using this alternate auditory pathway through the _______________ formation.

Cells in the medial _______________ complex respond to temporal delays and are tuned to specific tonal frequencies. Because there are more cells tuned to lower frequencies, these nuclei may have a significant role in locating the source of lower frequencies. Cells in the lateral superior olive specialize in detecting ________________ differences in the two ears and provide localization of higher frequency tones. As sound waves travel through the air, the head casts a ___________ such that there is a slight time differential in the arrival of the sound wave at the two ears. Since lower frequencies have longer waves, this shadow effect has more consequences for high frequency tones. One role of the olivary complex is to create a ________________ map.

p. 92

The final relay station before the auditory pathway reaches the cortex is the medial __________________ body, located in the thalamus. Frequency-specific fibers leaving the medial geniculate body fan out in ascending auditory radiations and provide _______________ information to the auditory cortex.

Approximately 70 % of the fibers in the auditory pathway cross over to the contralateral side. Conduction is faster and stronger for the ______________ pathway. While both ears send all information to both sides, each hemisphere listens more carefully to the ear on the ________________ side and will suppress information from the ipsilateral side if there is any conflict.

The primary auditory projection areas lie in the superior _________________ gyrus and occupy a surface area only one-half to one-third the size of the optic cortex.

Various neural units within the auditory cortex respond to different types of sound stimuli. In the auditory cortex pure tones are systematically arranged according to their characteristic ___________________.

What is SQUID and what did its use document about pitch in the primary auditory cortex?

_____________________________________________________ - a common ______________ in the primary ________________ cortex with the pitch for complex tones ______________________________ onto the same areas as frequency for _________ tones

p. 94

The primary auditory zone is surrounded by association areas which serve interpretive functions. Damage to these may cause ___________ (loss of musical skills).

Perception is the study of _________________ processes that transform raw information into something meaningful, such as the elements that make up music.

p. 95

A music theorist frequently considers music from a _________________ frame of reference, while an ethnomusicologist discusses music from a _______________ frame of reference. The field of music ______________________ has focused largely on the interrelationship between the physical and the perceptual frames of reference.

Seashore believed that musical _______________ could be measured by testing an individual’s sensitivity to each of the physical aspects of sound (i.e., frequency, amplitude, signal shape, and temporal interval).

Seashore’s Model of Musical Perception:

Physical Perceptual Trunklines of Musicality

frequency pitch tonal

amplitude loudness dynamic

signal shape timbre qualitative

time duration temporal

Seashore used the term waveform to describe the physical correlate of musical _________. He frequently referred to signal graphs as sound waves. In actuality, a sound wave involves the three-dimensional propogation of energy through an elastic medium (i.e., air or water). The more accurate term signal shape is used in your text instead of waveform. The term signal is used in your text for a graph of amplitude by time, e.g., the visual representation of a sine function.

p. 96

Perceptions are the subjective ________________ that arise from the presence of particular physical stimuli.

When a sound stimulus strikes the ear, the acoustic information in the wave is transmitted via the eardrum, ossicles, and cochlear fluid to the ________________ membrane. The hair cells along the undulating basilar membrane are stimulated at a particular point determined by the ________________. The hair cells a certain distance on either side of the point of maximum excitation are also stimulated. This region of hair cells, whose width is determined by the intensity of the sound stimulus, is called the ________________ region.

If two tones of differing frequencies are sounded, two resonance regions that correspond to the stimulus frequencies will be formed on the basilar membrane. If these two resonance regions are separated because the frequency difference is great enough, two tones will be heard. If the frequency difference is small and the resonance regions overlap, roughness or ____________ can occur. As the two tones are moved further apart, the beating will get more and more pronounced until a sensation of roughness occurs. If the tones continue to move still farther apart until two separate tones are perceived, the roughness will then gradually give way to a feeling of __________________. The approximate point at which the transition from roughness to smoothness occurs is called the _____________ band.

p. 97

Frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental are called ________________. They are sometimes referred to as partials or harmonics, though these terms include both the fundamental and the overtones. The amount of vibrational energy present in an overtone decreases in proportion to the difference in frequency between it and the ___________________ frequency. The greatest amount of energy is contained in the fundamental and each consecutive overtone has a smaller amount of energy.

p. 98

Sounds with a definite pitch (ex.: flute) consist of periodic vibration patterns. ______________ vibrations are those that repeat a similar pattern of motion over and over.

The ear can perceive pitches over a frequency range of approximately 20 – 20,000 Hz. The upper limit of hearing is defined as the highest tone that can be perceived at an intensity level below the ______________ of pain. ________________ refers to the decline of the upper range of hearing that occurs with aging.

p. 98 - 99

Helmholz developed the first modern theory of hearing and called it the ____________ theory. He noted the resemblance of the ______________ membrane to strings on a piano or harp. He theorized that a given place on the basilar membrane is responsible for a particular pitch. His theory is sometimes called the _______ theory. As the resonance region moves up and down the basilar membrane, he theorized that so does our perception of pitch.

p. 99

Whose research revealed flaws in the place theory?

What did he discover?

That the basilar membrane vibrates as a ________ below 100 Hz

Seebeck’s research revealed that by controlling the number of energy pulsations per second, it was possible to alter the _____________ pitch of a tone.

p. 102

What did Shepherd’s research reveal about perception of an ascending chromatic scale repeatedly played on piano?

The pitch appeared to leap _________________ and start over with its upward scales

Pitch chroma is the aspect of a pitch that all Cs or Ds or Fs share in common. The aspect of perceived pitch that remains the same regardless of the octave in which the pitch is played is the __________.

p. 104

What is JND?

Just _________________ difference - the smallest _____________ in a stimulus that an observer can detect 50% of the time

p. 106

When two or more tones are played simultaneously, the vibration patterns of each tone will _______________, both constructively and destructively, resulting in a composite signal shape.

A combination of tones that sounds pleasant and stable is referred to as ______________. A combination of tones that sounds discordant or rough is referred to as _________________.

These concepts do not form a ________________ but rather a perceptual continuum. According to your text, _____________ refers to utter dissonance.

p. 107

Tonal consonance appears to be directly dependent upon the ________________ difference between tones. If the frequency difference is either small enough that the tones do not interfere with each other or large enough that the peaks of stimulation on the basilar membrane are beyond the critical ________________, the tones are judged to be perceptually consonant.

p. 109

Perfect pitch is the ability to identify a specific tone by frequency or pitch name without the assistance of a ______________ tone. Absolute pitch also includes the ability to accurately produce a specific pitch on demand.

Loudness is the perceptual variable related primarily to the physical characteristic ______________ (or intensity). Volume involves a complex interaction between intensity, density, and area of the auditory experience. Loudness is related to increasing intensity. Volume is the psychological counterpart to how much ________ a sound seems to occupy.

p. 110

Loudness is usually expressed as sound ______________ level in dB. This unit of measure quantifies the amplitude of the physical vibration using a logarithmic scale.

Any sound over ______ decibels is considered potentially harmful. The OSHA standards for the legally allowed level of exposure without harmful effects is _______ decibels for _____ hours daily. For each increase of 5 dB above 90 dB, it takes only ________ as much time for damage to occur.

p. 112

Music loudness preferences were above OSHA safety levels for what two styles of music in the research by Kuras and Finday?

________________________________________

Damage occurs because overly loud sounds cause hair cells in the cochlea to ____________ so violently that they are damaged. Prolonged exposure _____________ outer and inner hair cells and they lose their resilience and _____. Once these hair cells are destroyed, they can never be replaced, and the hearing loss is permanent.

Persons who listen to music at just under “damage limits” may experience a temporary _________________ shift (TTS), which is a temporary loss of hearing _________.

p. 113 - 114

Loudness is coded and transmitted by the __________ rate of the hair cells within the resonance region of the basilar membrane. When the intensity of a tone is increased, the nerves fire at a ____________ rate – up to a point. If the tone continues to increase in intensity, the hair cells quickly reach their maximum firing rate with the result that the resonance region spreads wider along the basilar membrane including more and more hair cells that join in the firing. Thus, the perception of loudness is a result of the total number of neural impulses – a combination of the firing rate of individual neurons and the number of neurons within the resonance region.

p. 114

If all the tones of the complex are within a critical bandwidth, loudness depends solely on the overall sound pressure level. When tones of a complex lie within different ____________ bands, loudness is equal to the sum of the loudness contributions of successive adjacent critical bands covering the excitation pattern of the stimulus.

The relationship between sound pressure level in decibels and perceptual loudness is not simply additive. Why?

The decibel scale is ________________, not linear.

The relationship between physical intensity levels and perceived _____________ is not isomorphic. The perceived loudness of complex tones is dependent on the _____________ between frequency components. If the tones are within the same critical bandwidth, perceived loudness actually ______________.

The ability of one sound to hide another sound is called _____________.

Forward masking occurs when the sound occurs ________, and ___________ masking occurs when the sound occurs after the other sound.

p. 115

If pure tones are close together in frequency, masking is _______ likely to occur. A pure tone will more effectively mask a tone of ___________ frequency than a tone of __________ frequency. The range of masked frequencies is dependent on the intensity of the masking tone, such that higher intensities result in a higher range of effected frequencies. Two tones that are widely separated in frequency will show little effect of masking.

The ___________________ envelope is the way that a musical note starts, sustains, and stops and is a characteristic property that assists in distinguishing one instrument from another. Every amplitude envelope consists of onset, steady state, and offset.

The ________ portion of an amplitude envelope consists of the time interval required to begin the note.

p. 116

The ___________ is the time interval between when the musician stops applying energy and when the sound dies away. The offset length varies due to the specific _____________ properties of the instrument.

Because the intensity level changes dramatically during the onset and offset, these aspects are often called _______________.

The transition from one note to another may be referred to as a ______________ transient to distinguish this phenomenon from the onset and offset of isolated tones.

That attribute of auditory sensation of which a listener can judge that two steady state tones having the same pitch and loudness are dissimilar is ____________ and may be called musical tone quality.

p. 117

The physical attributes associated with timbre may be represented in a spectrum, or graph of frequency components by _________________.

p. 118 – 119

Research has shown that timbre depends upon the absolute frequency position of the _________________________ envelope rather than upon its position relative the fundamental frequency.

p. 119

Research reveals that timbral judgments seemed to be based primarily on the configuration of _______________ and their respective amplitudes, though onset and offset characteristics are also influential.

p. 120

_________________ is the psychological variable associated with time. Beats divide a temporal period into equal units of duration. The rate at which these beats occur is referred to as __________. ____________ describes the musical pulse which is organized into a regularly occurring pattern of accented and unaccented beats. ______________ results when a sequence of sounds of either equal or varying durations is perceived by a listener.

p. 121

____________ time refers to the concept of temporal flow.

___________________ time refers to clock time.

p. 122

Rhythmic ___________ refers to a pattern of long and short note durations across time.

What is the missing fundamental?

Result of perceived pitch mapping to a _________________ that does not actually exist in the physical domain

p. 123

How can the missing fundamental phenomenon be explained?

in terms of the constructive and destructive _____________________ occurring between the two sine components

p. 124

Pure tones and broadband noise increase in _______________ when duration is increased from 0 to 100 ms.

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