Chapter One Handout: Introduction/Methods



Chapter One Handout: Introduction/Methods

From the PowerPoint Presentation:

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages & Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Age |Freud |Erikson | |B-1year

(Infancy)

|Oral: The mouth is the focus of stimulation and interaction; feeding and weaning are central.

|Trust vs. Mistrust: learn that others will care for their basic needs | |1-3 year

(Toddler)

|Anal: The anus is the focus of stimulation and interaction; elimination and toilet training are central.

|Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: learn to be self-sufficient | |3-6 year

(Early childhood)

|Phallic: The genitals (penis, clitoris, and vagina) are the focus of stimulation; gender role and moral development are central.

|Initiative vs. Guilt: learn to initiate interactions with others | |6-12 year

(Middle childhood)

|Latency: A period of suspended sexual activity; energies shift to physical and intellectual activities.

|Industry vs. Inferiority: learning they are competent beings | |Teenage

|Genital The genitals are the focus of stimulation with the onset of puberty; mature sexual relationships develop.

|Identity vs. Role Diffusion: learning who they are | |Early adulthood |Genital continues |Intimacy vs. Isolation: forming adult loving relationships | |Middle adulthood |Genital continues |Generativity vs. Stagnation: leaving a legacy for the next generation | |Late adulthood |Genital continues |Integrity vs. Despair: accepting their lives as they have lived them | |

Illustration of Classical Conditioning

BEFORE CONDITIONING:

(A) Place a nipple in baby's mouth:

Touch of nipple (UCS) — — — —elicits — — — — — > Sucking reflex (UCR)

(B) Show baby a bottle with a nipple:

Sight of bottle with nipple (NS) — — — — — —elicits — — — — — > No sucking

DURING CONDITIONING:

(C) Show baby the a bottle and then place a nipple in baby's mouth.

Repeat a number of times:

NS (paired with) UCS UCS of nipple in mouth => UCR of sucking

Learning occurs! Infant learns that the sight of the bottle predicts a nipple being placed in it’s mouth and then becomes conditioned to start sucking when he/she sees the bottle before anything is even placed in his/her mouth!

AFTER CONDITIONING

(D) Show baby the bottle with nipple:

Sight of bottle with nipple (CS)— — — —elicits — — — — — > Sucking reflex (CR)

UCS=Unconditioned Stimulus UCR=Unconditioned Response NS=Neutral Stimulus CS=Conditioned Stimulus CR=Conditioned Response

Operant Conditioning

Response leads stimulus to be | |Rate of Response | | | |Increases |Decreases | | |Delivered |Positive reinforcement

(Increases behavior by delivering a desired stimulus)

Example:

Infant says, "cookie”

Mother gives praise

Infant says “cookie” more

|Punishment

(Decreases behavior by delivering an aversive stimulus)

Example:

Toddler throws toys

Father yells, "Stop it"

Toddler throws toys less

| | |Withdrawn |Negative reinforcement

(Increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus)

Example:

Child cleans messy room

Parent stops "nagging"

Child cleans room more

|Punishment

(Decreases behavior by removing a desired stimulus)

Example:

Teenager out past curfew

Parent grounds teenager

Teenagers out past curfew less

| |

Piaget’s Cognitive Development

Stage |Description | |Sensorimotor

b-2 yrs |-exploration through direct sensory and motor contact. Object Permanence and separation anxiety develop | |Preoperational

2-6 years |-use of symbols (words/images) to represent objects but does not reason logically. Pretend Play. Egocentric. | |Concrete Operational

7-12 years |-logical thought about concrete objects. Passes conservation tasks | |Formal operational

12 years + |-can reason about abstract concepts and think hypothetically | |

Theories: Core Concepts, Continuity, Differences & Nature/Nurture

Theory |Core Concepts |Continuity |Differences |Nature/Nurture | |Psychoanalytic |Emphasizes internal conflicts, mostly unconscious, which

usually pit sexual or aggressive instincts against

environmental obstacles to their expression.

|Discontinuous (stages) |Deficits emerge when stages are not positively resolved |More nature (innate urges etc.) | |Behaviorism |Emphasizes learning, through stimulus substitution, patterns of reward and punishment, and modeling

|Continuous |Deficits are learned and can be unlearned |More nurture | |Cognitive |Emphasizes mechanisms through which people

receive, store, retrieve, and otherwise process information.

|Discontinuous (Piaget), Continuous (Info-Processing) |Although children learn actively, deficits emerge if the environment doesn’t support learning |More nature (brain) | |Sociocultural |Emphasizes the influence of Society and Culture and

learning as an interactive process

|Stages depend on the culture/society |Deficits occur when one is unable to function in whatever culture you live in |More nurture | |

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory:

0. Individual: sex age health etc.

1. Microsystem: Within this system the person has direct interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and others.

2. Mesosystem: This system involves the linkages between microsystems such as family and school, and relationships between students and peers.

3. Exosystem: This system works when settings in which a child does not have an active role influence the student’s experiences.

4. Macrosystem: This system involves the broader culture in which students and teachers live.

5. Chronosystem: The sociohistorical conditions of a student’s development.

6.

7.

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10.

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Developmental Methods

|Approach |Description |Advantages |Disadvantages |

|Cross-Sectional |Comparison of children of different |Requires less time; less costly than |Cannot study individual patterns of |

| |ages at the same point in time. |longitudinal study. |development or the stability of |

| | | |traits; subject to cohort effects |

|Longitudinal |Repeated testing of the same group of|Can examine the stability of |Requires a significant investment of |

| |children over an extended period of |characteristics. |time and resources; problems with |

| |time. | |participant attrition; can have |

| | | |age-history confound. |

| | | | |

|Cross-Sequential |Observation of children of different |Avoids cohort and age-history |Even longer and more expensive than |

| |ages over an extended period of time.|confound effects |longitudinal studies |

Matching Exercise:

|Term |Matching definition |

|Evolutionary theories |A. Emphasize the uniqueness and potential of human development. |

|Humanistic theories |B. Learning by observation/imitation |

|Cognitive theories |C. Emphasize conflict bet. Indiv and society, unconscious forces and |

| |the childhood |

|Psychodynamic Theories |D. Focus on efficiency, speed and capacity of thought |

|Freud’s Psychosexual theory |Emphasize the role of the environment |

| |and observable behavior |

|Erikson’s Psychosocial theory |F. 4 stages: sensorimotor, preoperational etc |

|Behavioral Theories |G. Emphasize the role of heredity in Dev. |

|Classical Conditioning Theories |H. Learning through stimulus substitution |

| |and temporal association |

|Operant Conditioning Theories |I. Emphasizes what people know and think |

|Social-Cognitive Learning Theories |J. 5 stages: Oral, Anal, etc |

|Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory |K. Connections bet.all levels of environ |

|Information Processing Theories |L. Learning: actions and consequences |

|Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory |M. 8 stages: trust v. mistrust, etc. |

|Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory |Focus on the effects of culture on dev. |

Exercise Two: Your biases and distinguishing theories

Most students come to class with a bias or predisposition toward one or more of the four basic theoretical frameworks. Answer the following questions to see whether you can discern a pattern in your responses that might indicate a bias toward one theory or another. You may check more than one answer if both reflect your opinion.

The father of a 2-year-old finds that he becomes very impatient with his daughter when night after night, she claims she cannot fall asleep because of a "monster that comes out in the dark." Although each night the father tries to reassure and comfort his daughter, the next morning she does not remember his attempts to reason with her regarding her fear. He should probably:

a. try to understand the hidden causes and meaning of his daughter's dreams.

b. give his daughter a reward the following morning if she stayed in bed until falling asleep the night before.

c. realize that, because of her limited intellectual abilities at age 2, she cannot be rationally reasoned with.

d. consider how he can structure his interactions with his daughter to "mentor" her through her fear.

e. recognize that fears of the dark are partly genetic, because they undoubtedly helped our species survive.

Most adults become physiologically aroused when they hear the sound of a baby's cry. This is because:

a. the baby's cry evokes unconscious memories of their own painful childhood.

b. at some time during their past, the sound of a baby crying became associated with another stimulus that naturally elicited physiological arousal.

c. they unconsciously become irritated by the distracting sound.

d. nurturing young babies is a developmental challenge that all humans face and address in culture-specific ways.

e. humans are biologically predisposed to respond favorable to an infant crying

A preteenage boy is not interested in having sexual experiences. The most reasonable explanation is that:

a. he feels threatened: he is denying his true feelings, possibly without realizing what they are.

b. he has probably had anxiety-producing experiences with sex and wants to avoid any repetition of these experiences.

c. his ideas and values make sexual experiences seem wrong or inappropriate for him right now.

d. his social, or cultural, background has not yet fostered such interests.

e. his biological immaturity means he has not yet experienced the hormonal surge of puberty

Nine-year-old David is more aggressive in the classroom than Maria. His teacher should probably:

a. refer David to a therapist who can get him to talk about his repressed urges.

b. give him stars and privileges whenever he behaves appropriately.

c. find out why he is not concentrating on the material; to begin with, have his vision, hearing, and other perceptual abilities tested.

d. realize that David's history of social interactions have not challenged him to develop certain social competencies.

e. consider that boys are naturally somewhat more aggressive than boys

Advertisers often incorporate "babyishness" in their promotional symbols because:

a. most adults have hidden consummatory urges stemming from their childhoods.

b. people are conditioned to act impulsively (and, perhaps, spend money) around children.

c. they are afraid of making their sales pitches too intellectually complex for the average consumer.

d. people in most cultures are socialized to respond favorably to babies.

e. adults are genetically predisposed to respond favorably to images of infancy.

(“a” answers represent the psychoanalytic perspective, “b” the behaviorist, “c” the cognitive, “d” the Sociocultural and “e” the biological/evolutionary. Remember, there is no “right” or “wrong” perspective!

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