INFORMATION SOCIETY AS SURVEILLANCE SOCIETY
Environmental Studies
Implications for Sustainability
Florida Tech - BME
Partnership Programme
Yearbook 2005
Edited by
Gordon Nelson – Imre Hronszky
2005.
The programme was morally supported and sponsored by USIAP Partnership Programme from 2001 to 2004.
Lectored by Éva Vámos
Technical Edition by
Tünde Balog, Ágnes Fésüs and László Várkonyi
ISBN 963 86670 4 4
2005. Arisztotelész Publishing Co., Budapest
FORWORD
Florida Tech (Florida Institute of Technology) and BME (the Budapest University of Technology and Economics) have been developing a close cooperation over the last several years. This cooperation has involved numerous researchers from different faculties from BME and Florida Tech. and was based on a generous supporting grant from the US Department of State over three years. One of the results of this fruitful cooperation was the publication of two volumes in a series established to document the research results.
It is my greatest pleasure to add my greetings to this third volume as one sign of the importance of the ongoing cooperation.
Károly Molnár
Rector of BME
Contents
FORWORD 3
INTRODUCTION 7
1. Imre HRONSZKY and Gordon NELSON: A Short History – Initiating a Forum on Sustainable Technological Development in a Globalizing World 7
A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 15
2. William F. CARROLL, Jr: Sustainability Through Green Chemistry, Green Engineering and Commodity Chemicals 15
3. William F. KOCH and Ellyn S. BEARY: Doing More with Less Through Better Measurements and Modeling - the Role of NIST 31
4. Duane E. DE FREESE: “Sustainability Horizon” Perspectives on Sustainability 47
5. Thomas MARCINKOWSKI and Susan CARLSON: An Introduction and Overview – “Planning for Sustainability in East Central Florida: Contributions, Issues and Prospects” 63
6. Susan CASWELL: The Regional Planning Council’s Role in a Sustainable Future 69
7. Bill KERR: The St. Johns River Water Management District – Partnering for Sustainability 75
ECOTOURISM 81
8. Michael H. SLOTKIN: Educational partnerships, sustainability, and ecotourism project development 81
9. Karen CHAMBLISS: The Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival 91
10. John G. MORRIS: Festival prerequisites: Hungary’s biological, cultural, and infrastructure assets 97
11. Gabrielle GRIFFIN: Hungary’s Comparative Advantage: Birds and Migration Pathways 107
12. Alexander R. VAMOSI: Hungarian Birding and Wildlife Days: Is There a Market Interest? 117
SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 125
13. Márton HERCZEG and Kálmán KÓSI: Sustainability Issues in Hungary: How companies deal with it? 125
14. Charles BOSTATER: Sustained Safe Environment: Remote Sensing and Remote Sensing Platforms 139
15. Alan B. BROWN: Sustained Safe Environment: (Photochemistry As) Green Chemistry 147
16. Szabolcs CZIFRUS, Gyula CSOM and Attila VÉRTES: Sustainability of nuclear power generation 155
17. György POKOL and Virender K. SHARMA: Chemistry and Environmental Sustainability 165
ROLE OF IRON IN THE ENVIRONMENT: INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION 171
18. Virender K. SHARMA: Iron(VI)[Ferrate(VI)]- Green Chemistry 171
19. Virender K. SHARMA and Jenő FEKETE: Inorganic and Organic Pollutants in the Hungarian Environment 183
20. Attila VérteS, Zoltán Homonnay, Ernő Kuzmann, Petra Á. Szilágyi, Krisztina Kovács, Alexander A. Kamnev and Virender K. Sharma: Iron(III)-EDTA-(H2O2) and Iron(III)-(indole-3-alkanoic acids) Systems: Environmental Significance and Mossbauer Studies in Frozen Aqueous Solutions 195
21. Libor MACHALA, Radek ZBOŘIL, Miroslav MASHLAN, Jiří TUČEK and Virender K. SHARMA: Nanoparticles of Iron(III) Oxides from Thermal Processes – Syntheses, Characterization and Applications 209
22. János MADARÁSZ, Virender K. SHARMA, György POKOL and Zoltán HOMONNAY: Mössbauer Spectroscopic and Thermal Characterization of Potassium Ferrate(VI) 223
23. Jia-Qian JIANG, S. WANG and A. PANAGOULOPOULOS: Comparative Disinfection/ Coagulation Performance of Potassium Ferrate(VI) in Water and Sewage Treatment 231
24. Karel BOUZEK and Zuzana MACOVA: Green chemical Ferrate(VI) – An Electrochemical Approach 243
25. Ján HÍVEŠ and Michaela BENOVÁ: Electrochemical Study of Iron in a Molten Eutectic NaOH-KOH System 255
EAST-EUROPEAN CONTRIBUTION 267
26. Galyna CHYBISKOVA: Environmental Deterioration through Technologies in Ukraine 267
27. Svitlana V. DEM’YANOVA: Sustainable Development Strategy and Foresight Programme as Mechanisms of National and Regional Development of Ukraine 283
AFTERWORD 307
28. Imre HRONSZKY: Cognitive methodological remarks on „sustainability” 307
INTRODUCTION
Imre HRONSZKY and Gordon NELSON: A Short History – Initiating a Forum on Sustainable Technological Development in a Globalizing World
Abstract
Modern societies are engaged in innovation. Developing any new technology, as any innovation, is also engaging in a semi-structured ‘social experiment’. This ‘experimentation’ leads to partly foreseeable, partly unforeseeable results that are realized through the interaction of technology with its natural and social environment. Most of us are eager to utilize new technologies for our purposes, but simultaneously their safe utilization is required. Currently, using or abusing technological development for mankind gets an even more shocking dimension by the threat of worldwide terrorism. With globalization, we can say that the complexity of interactions in the entire social-nature system is growing, and with it the uncertainty surrounding us. Two universities, Florida Institute of Technology (Florida Tech) located in Melbourne, Florida, and the Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME) have cooperated beginning in 2001, supported by a U.S. State Department CUAP Grant for 3 years in the field of environmental protection and environmentally sustainable technologies (environmental studies).
Keywords: sustainability, technological development, global complexity, logistics
1.1. Introduction
Why do we need a Forum on Technological Development? The answer requires a bit of explanation. Modern societies are engaged in innovation. A substantial part of innovative effort occurs as technological innovation. We live more and more through technology. Our lives and our social relationships change with new technologies. Developing any new technology, as any innovation, is also engaging in a semi-structured ’social experiment’. This ’experimentation’ leads to partly foreseeable, partly unforeseeable results that are realized through the interaction of technology with its natural and social environment. This ‘experimentation’ needs as much conscious reflection on it as possible, anticipating and learning the consequences of applying new technologies, to try to orient them.
While this social experimentation through developing new technologies repeatedly opens evolutionary possibilities for society, even to develop new values through utilization of new technologies, all these raise problems of safety. Most of us are eager to utilize new technologies for our purposes, but simultaneously their safe utilization is required. Currently, using or abusing technological development for mankind gets an even more shocking dimension by the threat of worldwide terrorism. Security of technologies, to differentiate it from simple safety (the socio-technical system as a whole being different in both cases, and with this having a strong effect on the construction of technologies) is becoming an unavoidable requirement for technological innovation. So, sustainable technological development for a sustainable society (based on its natural dimensions) needs a complex series of innovative efforts and anticipatory actions of safety and security on a global level. This balancing effort can only be realized through the co-operation of the most probable actors in the “technological arena.” The widest variety of social agents, from individuals and groups, to firms, movements, institutions, states, etc., must be called upon to engage in conscious reflection and ongoing co-operative discussion on the complexity of both strategic and tactical measures for developing sustainable technologies.
1.2. Problems of Sustainability
The problems of sustainability in relation to nature may now be widened to the problems of sustainable societies. Among other things, a deeper understanding of the dynamics of poverty is needed for the successful construction of these expected sustainable societies. Furthermore, quick technological progress brings with it the pressing problem of exclusion through missed access to new technologies, on a worldwide, regional, country, or community level, down to individuals (i.e., the digital divide). With any new technology we risk developing new technological divides, with subsequent social and political tensions. Each new technology brings with itself the new overall problem of the ethics of artificially produced resources of life worthy of human beings.
We have learned that the original problem of sustaining nature as the basis for all social development is a problem that must be handled through managing a complexity of different types of social sustainabilities. This has led to the so-called three pillar understanding of the sustainability of nature. Balanced technological development is a main element of successful transition toward sustainable societies. If we want to put a slightly different emphasis on the technological dimension, we must emphasize the needed development toward sustainable technologies not only in their relation to nature but also in the possible “social divides” emerging from such new technologies. This is one specialty of our Forum. Further, the realization of a balanced technological development needs a continuously reflected co-evolution of technology and society toward sustainable development. To emphasize this is the second feature of the Forum. An integrated, transdisciplinary body of work, called “Prospective Technology Studies”, appropriate for this purpose, is already beginning to develop. Third, the history to date indicates that the appropriate management of the problems of new technologies needs a conscious effort among the various agents of technological change. To provide a discussion forum devoted to cooperative efforts is also a prime purpose in establishing this Forum.
1.3. Global Complexity
With globalization, we can say that the complexity of interactions in the entire social-nature system is growing, and with it the uncertainty surrounding us. Social processes are more non-linear than earlier and the inherent uncertainty in the processes of the natural environment is not negligible anymore. Further, knowledge needed to make rational policy decisions is also getting strongly uncertain. All these argue for an introductory reflection on more narrow technology topics, like the discussion of the chances and dangers of the development of “converging technologies”. This reflection should be on the nature of uncertainty and its rational management. The first workshop of the Forum was entirely devoted to this topic.
1.4. Origin of The Forum
A brief discussion about the origin of the Forum and organization of the first workshop is also in order. Two universities, Florida Institute of Technology (Florida Tech) located in Melbourne, Florida, and the Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME) have cooperated beginning in 2001, supported by a U.S. State Department CUAP Grant for 3 years in the field of environmental protection and environmentally sustainable technologies (environmental studies). The Department of Innovation Studies and History of Technology at the BME also recalled the long period of cooperation with the Institute of Technology Assessment and Systems Research at the Research Center of Karlsruhe (ITAS/Forscungszentrum Karlsruhe), with the University of Basque Country and with the earlier head of the Research Evaluation Unit of DG Research of the European Committee, Dr. Gilbert Fayl, in his personal role (he recently became foreign secretary of the European Academy of Sciences and the Arts). When BME and Florida Tech personnel met, in June 2002, in the beautiful small Hungarian town of Eger to conduct a “Sustainable Tourismus” workshop, Professors Gerhard Banse and Imre Hronszky explained their idea to Professors Gordon Nelson (Florida Tech) and Nicanor Ursua (University of Basque Country) to initiate and develop a process to provide for a (loose) organizational forum for discussing how technological development can be made sustainable. It was decided that these institutions would try to develop and realize an annual international workshop devoted to this goal. Professor Imre Hronszky, Vice-President, and Mr. Peter Gresiczki, Secretary General of the Hungarian UNESCO Commission promised that the Hungarian UNESCO Commission would also do its best to support the Forum.
1.5. Sustainability Ideas & Topics
Three main ideas were put into focus. One was that a continuous discourse between European and US institutes could make the discourse trans-Atlantic. To this was added the perspective of UNESCO, and through this the thought that the views and interests of less developed countries should also be represented. It was also agreed that a continuous effort should be made that the workshops be multi and transdisciplinary as far as possible and should represent different research and participant perspectives, including not only scientific researchers but also students, representatives of firms, the government and NGOs.
The topic for the first year was chosen to be: Rationality in an Uncertain World, for the second year International Sustainability, and for the third to look at the social visions around so-called ”Converging Technologies”, the recent and expected developments of the nanotech, biotech, infotech and cognitive sciences.
Concerning the third topic, the NSF initiated a comprehensive research program and the EC followed it 4 years later. It seems that the perspective of the less developed countries, that a new type of technological, and on this basis, social exclusion will emerge in the field of converging technologies, should be added to the first two research perspectives. The initiators of the Forum hoped, with the help of UNESCO, to turn attention to a possible new, coming exclusion process, after recognition of the existence of the social exclusion in informatics.
1.6. Meeting Logistics
Based on the invaluable importance of a trans-Atlantic discussion, the initiators decided on trying to realize yearly workshops alternately in Florida and in Europe. So, the first Forum was held in Budapest, with BME as the local organizer in December, 2003. The second Forum was realized in February, 2005, in a modified form in Melbourne, Florida, at Florida Tech, and a third is planned at the BME in Budapest in December, 2005.
The first workshop was jointly organized by Imre Hronszky and Gerhard Banse with thirty participants from 13 countries and 3 continents. They were mostly professors in their speciality, but also students and governmental specialists, including the EC. Natural science, technology, social science and humanities were represented in the presentations.
The 2003 Workshop was opened by the Pro-Rector for Education at BME, currently Rector of the same university, the Secretary General of the Hungarian Academy of Science, and representatives of the Hungarian UNESCO Commission, of Florida Tech and of ITAS/Forschungszentrum Kalsruhe. The introductory presentation was given by Armin Grunwald (ITAS/Karlsruhe). The workshop was organized into 5 sessions:
• Rationality in an Uncertain World (led by Armin Grunwald)
• Sustainable Technological Innovation in a Changing Social Environment (led by Nicanor Ursua)
• Politics of Technology in a Globalising World (led by Gerhar Banse and Gilbert Fayl)
• Conclusions for Policy Making (led by Imre Hronszky)
• Conclusions for Higher Education (led by Peter Gresiczki)
1.7. Second Forum
The second Forum held February 21-23, 2005, on the campus of Florida Tech is captured in this volume. The Forum was entitled “Sustainability’s New Age, Preservation & Planning (SNAP).
Sustainability means different things to different people. How do we know that an activity or product is truly sustainable and for how long? Does sustainability mean 1 year, 100 years, 1000 years or longer? Sustainability assessment requires a detailed factual basis, i.e., a comprehensive scientific foundation. The Forum’s annual mission encompasses the humanities, social sciences, sustainable development, economics, environmental sciences as well as legal and policy aspects as they broadly intersect with the theme of environmental studies.
The February, 2005 meeting focused on introducing European colleagues to a typical US understanding of sustainability problems in the context of the environmental issues, science drivers and practices used in Florida – where rapid development and one of the world’s largest tourism industries impact a particularly sensitive environment. The meeting explored ways such strategies could be useful in establishing sustainable economic development in the emerging countries of Europe.
Available funding provided travel, lodging and related expenses for ten, non-US participants with critical expertise from the Czech Republic, Hungary, Korea, Romania, the United Kingdom and the Ukraine. The meeting brought together both environmental and social sciences, involving experts (and graduate students) in the fields of Biology, Business Management, Chemistry, Ecology, Economics, Engineering, Policy Making, Politics, Science Education, etc.
The meeting opened with a historical overview of Florida, given that Florida will be celebrating the 500th anniversary of Ponce De Leon’s landing near present-day Melbourne in 1513.
The five Forum sessions were:
• Planning for Sustainability in East Central Florida: Contributions, Perspectives, Issues and Projects (led by Sue Carlson and Thomas Marcinkowski)
• Our Florida-Hungary Ecotourism Exchange: What Did We Know? What Did We Learn? Where Do We Go From Here? (led by Michael Slotkin)
• Sustained Safe Environment (led by Gordon Nelson)
• Sustainability From A Central European Perspective (led by Imre Hronszky)
• Role of Iron In The Environment: International Collaboration (led by Virender Sharma)
Keynote speakers were Dr. William F. Carroll, President of the American Chemical Society, Dr. William F. Koch, Deputy Director of the Chemical Science & Technology Laboratory at the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) and Dr. Duane DeFreese, Vice President of Florida Research at the Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute.
A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
William F. CARROLL, Jr: Sustainability Through Green Chemistry, Green Engineering and Commodity Chemicals
Abstract
From the perspective of chemists, with regard to Green Chemistry, Green Engineering and Commodity Chemicals, this chapter explains how the public perceives us, some tools for improving our reputation and some fine differences between the definitions of green chemistry and green engineering that make all the difference for various parts of the chemical industry.
Keywords: green chemistry, green engineering, commodity chemicals, specialty chemicals, sustainable development
2.1. Introduction
Many of the members of the American Chemical Society (ACS) believe that the public takes the benefits of chemistry – and for that matter, the problem-solving potential of chemistry – for granted. They are concerned that the public has been taught that chemistry stinks, goes “bang,” and fouls everyone’s nest. On the other hand, this concern clouds their view of the amazing benefits chemistry has brought to modern life. When you make miracles commonplace as chemistry has done, it’s easy for people to take for granted things that are, in fact, miracles. It’s only been three generations since the public water system in the US was a source of deadly disease; we first started to disinfect water in 1908.
Now, it’s important to understand that opinion research shows the public doesn’t think nearly as badly of us as we think they do. In fact, they’re OK with “chemistry” and they’re OK with “chemists.” On the other hand, they’re not OK with “chemicals,” and they’re not really OK with “the chemical industry.”
2.2. Reputation
People, who study the creation and management of reputations, tell us that a reputation ( how you are perceived by others ( consists of Identity, Behavior and Communication: Who You Are, What You Do and What You Say. It is built on five principles: Distinctiveness, Transparency, Genuineness, Visibility and Consistency. Distinctiveness goes to “Who You Are;” Transparency, Visibility and Genuineness are part of “What You Do” and Consistency maps best against “What You Say.” Perhaps you’ll agree that we in industry have not always achieved a top score in many of those areas.
To return to the research on public perception, the public tells us that they are curious about chemistry; they know that they don’t know much and they would like to know more. They give industry high marks for innovation and technology. That’s Who We Are.
But they’re concerned, frankly, about What We Do and What We Say. They have an approach-avoidance conflict. People are interested in personally relevant benefits ( “What’s in it for them,” so to speak. And they are open to hear more about chemistry. However, they’re concerned with our performance and the impact we may have on their world based on our size, the risks they perceive and their lack of knowledge to put these risks in context.
To that end, research and implementation of safer, cleaner, more transparently-managed processes ( like Green Chemistry, Green Engineering, Responsible Care® and other environmental research and management systems ( takes them where they want to go on What We Do. And with a better feeling on What We Do combined with a better idea of What We Say we can accomplish our goal: better recognition of the benefits of chemistry and better acceptance of chemistry by the public.
2.3. Green Chemistry
Most of what you hear about Green Chemistry is only actually being done on a relatively small scale ( mostly in the laboratory or in pharmaceutical businesses.
Many are familiar with Green Chemistry and particularly with the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Awards, which are cosponsored by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the ACS. The canonical definition of Green Chemistry coined by Green Chemistry Institute Director, Paul Anastas, and found on the US EPA website is, “To promote innovative chemical technologies that reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and use of chemical products.”
While respecting the heritage of the Green Chemistry Institute, “Reducing or eliminating the use of hazardous materials” might be a part of the picture but in my opinion it is insufficient as a definition, and it is particularly insufficient as the scale of chemical operations increases, especially in the light of sustainable development.
2.4. Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is, in its own way, a paradoxical statement. Sustaining something seems to imply keeping it the same. Developing something implies evolving or changing it.
Nearly 20 years ago, Gro Harlem Brundtland, in “Our Common Future” described the aspirational solution to this problem ( Sustainable Development ( as “meeting the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” It is important to know the difference between “needs” and “wants.”
And while the Brundtland definition is probably a good one and is the one usually cited, it doesn’t say much operationally about how to make it happen or how to measure if it is happening. For a more pragmatic view we can turn to John Elkington, founder of a company called SustainAbility. Elkington, in his book “Cannibals with Forks,” points to what he calls the “triple bottom line.” Now, in business when we talk about the “bottom line” we’re really talking about the scorecard, usually profitability. But Elkington suggests that there are really three scorecards for our times: The traditional one, (Economic) as well as Environmental and Social. SustainAbility says:
“At its broadest, the “triple bottom line” is used to capture the whole set of values, issues and processes that companies must address in order to minimize any harm resulting from their activities and to create economic, social and environmental value.”
At its heart, these are the same principles that really underlie Green Chemistry, and, of course, being a huge advocate for chemistry, Paul makes the following point himself: Chemistry, done correctly, is profitable, minimizes its footprint, and provides products that make access to a good life more equitable and affordable across geographic and socio-economic borders.
2.5. Green Engineering
Now, the canonical definition of Green Engineering, also found on the US EPA website is similar to the “triple bottom line”:
“The design, commercialization and use of processes and products, which are feasible and economical while minimizing 1) generation of pollution at the source and 2) risk to human health and the environment.”
In a couple of examples that follow, here’s why Green Engineering provides a better operational definition for many of us in industry.
Example 1: Designing a more environmentally benign process that has a markedly increased cost and provides no discernable customer benefits over a competitive process will never be commercialized. Despite “reducing or eliminating hazardous materials” it’s not operationally green if it stays in the laboratory.
Conversely, here’s Example 2. Many of the things that have been done to reduce the cost of individual chemicals and thus allow them to grow in volume are indistinguishable from principles of green chemistry ( regardless of the presence or absence of hazardous materials. That’s because there are very few ways of taking the cost out of production of a material, and most of them come down to eliminating waste or becoming more labor, capital, material or energy efficient.
2.6. Commercial Chemicals – Fine versus Specialty versus Commodity
Chemicals have a growth cycle. Virtually all of them start out as laboratory curiosities. There are over twenty-five million chemicals that have been given a Chemical Abstracts number, but well less than 0.5% of those are even marginally commercial. When chemicals enter commercial production at small scale, they are called “fine chemicals,” are very expensive, and may find a home in custom synthesis. Think of volume on the order of a few hundred pounds a year, and maybe 50,000 chemical entities.
If they are broadly useful at a competitive price, demand increases and they can grow to be “specialty chemicals.” Think of volume up to maybe 10,000,000 lbs/yr and a few thousand chemical identities.
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Figure 2. 1. Cost, Volume & Number of Chemical Entities
There is, in general, an inverse relationship between the price of a chemical and the amount of it that is produced (Figure 2.1.). There is generally a direct relationship between the utility of a chemical and the amount of it that is produced.
Some materials have extraordinary utility and can be made so efficiently and inexpensively that billions of pounds are made. These materials are called “commodity chemicals” and there are really only a few: sulfuric acid, nitrogen, oxygen and ethylene (which we will discuss in a minute) are examples.
Commodity chemicals are building blocks from which most other chemicals are made. They are typically high-volume materials whose use is fundamentally driven by price. They are fungible; this means that there is little to differentiate one company’s version of the product from another’s in actual use. Their cost structure is largely driven by the cost of the raw material used to make them, and the price is not much higher than that of raw material. Because they are used in large ( that is, railcar quantities ( transportation costs are an important component as a percentage of total price.
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Figure 2.2. Chemical Marketing 101
2.7. Chemical Manufacturing &Marketing Commodity Chemicals
Generally, your strategy as a maker and marketer of commodities is to vertically integrate; that is, to purchase or ally yourself with producers of your raw materials upstream and products downstream until you reach a technological point that is outside your competency. Another strategy is to increase market share by grassroots expansion or acquisition.
Importantly, because all these materials are traded on price, the market is efficient; everyone knows what you’re paying for raw material, and everyone knows what you’re selling the product for, so they sell to you and buy from you with the leverage of that knowledge. Your cost structure ( the spread between those two ( determines your profitability. That spread stays roughly the same as the prices of both raw materials and products rise and fall as a function of supply and demand. The only person whose total cost usually doesn’t change is the one who digs it out of the ground in the first place.
Thus, if you’re in the polyethylene resin business, you’re probably also in the ethylene business and the natural gas exploration and recovery business. While the raw material purchase price and the product sale price for everything downstream varies with the market, natural gas is different. Only the sale price fluctuates. Discovery and recovery costs stay relatively constant in good times or bad, absent significant depletion of a field.
Finally, commodity markets renew themselves by purging high cost producers who cannot compete. Usually the person with the newest, most efficient technology is the low-cost producer and the master.
The key word for commodities is cost. The best example of a consumer commodity is gasoline. It competes mostly on price and whatever station happens to be a right turn from where you are.
2.8. Specialty Chemicals
Specialty chemicals have a different dynamic. They are lower volume and higher price. People buy them for their properties, and thus products are not fungible, they are unique. Typically their manufacturing, R&D and sales costs are a significant, if not the largest component of their cost structure and raw material can be a significantly smaller component than it is for commodities. Smaller volume typically means smaller quantities shipped and the higher price means that transportation costs, while higher per pound are not so large a component of the cost on a percentage basis.
If you’re in the specialty business you typically possess a particular chemical expertise. Your goal is to utilize that expertise to produce as many different products that can go into as many different uses as possible. These products may be mixtures or more fabricated compounds like lubricants or UV absorbent packages. In many cases your goal is to make your own products obsolete. That’s the way a specialty market purges itself.
The key word in specialties is properties.
2.9. Commodity Chemicals – History & “Eco-System”
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Figure 2.3. Commodity Chemicals
Commodity chemicals, shown in Figure 2.3., are such basic building blocks that they have very long product lives. The twenty top chemicals in pounds produced annually have hardly changed in thirty years. It’s difficult, for example, to find a better, cheaper all-purpose alkali than sodium hydroxide, also known as caustic soda.
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Figure 2.4. Commodity Organics
Commodity chemicals cascade through the chemical market “ecosystem” ( and I call it an ecosystem because products throughout the landscape are interdependent so what happens to one ( especially if it’s a commodity ( impacts lots of others. In Figure 2.4, the largest commodity organics are shown first by rank, and then by the other commodities upon which their synthesis depends. For example, it’s not obvious that the price and availability of xylene could directly impact the price of a soda bottle, but the polyethylene terephthalate plastic from which the bottle is made is derived from xylene. Eliminating one might have great unintended consequences on others.
Notice in Figure 2.5. how ethylene works its way through the system. Ethylene is a basic raw material for all the large volume plastics in the marketplace and a number of other commodity and specialty chemicals.
As the utility or demand for a material grows, chemists and engineers streamline the synthesis chemistry, and increase the size of the “pots and pans” to reduce the cost per pound, and allow for more production called “Economies of Scale”.
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Figure 2.5. Commodity Monomers
2.10. Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry
Now, let’s review the twelve principles of Green Chemistry.
1. Prevention: It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created.
2. Atom Economy: Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials.
3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses: Wherever practical, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment.
4. Designing Safer Chemicals: Chemical products should be designed to affect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity.
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries: The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used.
6. Design for Energy Efficiency: Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure.
7. Use Renewable Feedstocks: A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable.
8. Reduce Derivatives: Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/deprotection and temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized or avoided whenever possible.
9. Catalysis: Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
10. Design for Degradation: Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into innocuous degradation products.
11. Real-Time Analysis: Analytical methodologies should be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances.
12. Accident Prevention: Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen so as to minimize the potential for chemical accidents.
Principles 1, 2, 5, 8 and 9 describe ways of reducing the complexity of synthesis or the need for reagents, and thus, ways of reducing waste. Principles 3, 4, 11 and 12 relate to safety or toxicity. Principle 6 relates to energy and Principles 7 and 10 to renewability of resources.
The real leverage for Green Chemistry techniques is at the laboratory or fine chemical phase when you’re still discovering and optimizing synthetic parameters like reaction conditions, solvents and the like. These techniques can impact at least eight of the twelve principles.
2.11. Process Improvement: Waste Intensity Index & Energy Intensity Index
Buz Cue, formerly VP of R&D for Pfizer likes to point out the “Waste Intensity index,” which is pounds of waste per pound of product. In the pharmaceutical industry, sometimes small amounts of final product can involve relatively large amounts of reagents and waste. That’s usually true because the price structure can support it. But at the same time there are plenty of potential synthetic routes to explore with the goal of reducing that waste and think how much cost could be saved.
On the other hand when you reach commodity scale, short of abandoning that particular commodity (which might be Principles 4 and 12), pretty much the only knob you have left to turn is energy intensity, although you may make incremental improvements in efficiency or catalysts. A billion dollar plant is tough to totally redesign or for that matter to abandon; as a result, the tendency is to fix a process rather than to abandon it.
In this sense, there is a rough continuum between Green Chemistry and Green Engineering. The Green Chemistry definition regarding reduction of toxic and hazardous material is most useful for small volume specialty materials; the triple bottom line definition of Green Engineering is most useful as you scale a process up, ultimately to billions of pounds a year, squeezing out waste and cost as you go.
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Figure 2. 6. How Ethylene Is Made
Let us consider an example of the two ways to approach “Greening” a commodity chemical. First, improve the process to make that commodity. Consider the production of ethylene ( C2H4 shown in Figure 2.6. There are two approaches used to make ethylene, both of which involve “cracking.” Cracking is the process of breaking molecules up and reforming them into lower molecular weight materials, and usually the processes involve high heat and a catalyst.
For ethylene, you can either crack naphtha, which is a hydrocarbon of about C10 and above, or you can crack ethane. Since the latter is conceptually simpler, and is the majority of ethylene capacity in the US, we’ll stick with that.
Now, for an ethane cracker, the yield of products is virtually quantitative: about 84% is ethylene, 3% propylene, 3% butadiene, 4% butenes and butanes, and the remainder is either the equivalent of natural gas or fuel oil all of which has economic value. There is a small amount of material that builds up as coke in the process and must be cleaned out a couple of times a year, but as you can see, virtually all of the raw material ends up as a product of some kind. 85% of the cost of the operation is ethane, fuel and electricity in a 1.5 billion lb/year plant.
At this scale you no longer have solvents, blocking groups, stoichiometric reagents or any of the other “chemistry” variables to work on. The only place you can realistically make a difference is energy, because it is a very high temperature process.
Despite the risk of totally redesigning a process, sometimes that kind of basic work is done to affect a major change. Recently, the US Department of Energy granted $3.2 million to Dow, Pacific Northwest National Labs and Velocys to develop a bench-scale “microchannel” ethylene process. The technology is proprietary but seems to be based on smaller, flow through reactors that are designed to reduce the amount of energy input to the process. By the way, these microchannel reactors can apparently be bundled in ways that make them far more easily scalable than traditional reactors.
It’s difficult to say, when the capital cost to retrofit or abandon an old plant or to build a new technology plant is taken into account, whether this process will beat the existing process. But the gain is potentially very large. A penny in energy costs saved on 70 billion pounds of ethylene made in the US each year is $700 million, and is significant. Moreover, some of that reduced cost cascades forward in the chain of commerce to customers who make polyethylene, or trash bags or house wrap or other materials.
To measure how the scale-up process for ethylene has gone, we might evaluate it versus the twelve principles by assigning a percent of “theoretical” best performance (Figure 2.7.). The scores assigned and shown on the radar plot are arbitrary but show that ethylene does well in most, poorly in a couple, and there may be potential for improvement in those.
Specifically, when it comes to safety (Principles 3, 4 and 12) ethylene is a two-carbon hydrocarbon that is used under very high pressure. It is flammable and explosive and can also present a suffocation hazard. Those are inherent properties of a tremendously useful molecule, and nothing can be done about that. But, after all, you have a limited suite of two-carbon unsaturated hydrocarbons to choose from, and those are the properties of the material.
Ethylene could be made from renewable resources by dehydrating ethanol (Principle 7), and originally was; but that’s a hugely more expensive process, both in cost and in energy. So, on some green chemistry principles ethylene may be sub-optimized but changing one parameter may materially change another and reduce overall “greenness”.
[pic]
Figure 2.7. Scoring Ethylene
2.12. Eliminating & Replacing A Product
Beyond process improvement, the other approach to “greening” is to totally eliminate a product and replace it with something else. Now, eliminating ethylene means eliminating other commodity products like polyethylene, and that is an absolutely huge risk. Everyone downstream must be taught how to use a new product, and it has to work in all the billions of pounds of applications.
Look at the Design for Degradability on the radar plot. Ethylene is degradable; in fact, it’s a plant ripening hormone. On the other hand the major products made from ethylene, particularly plastics, are not degradable. In some cases, that’s more than appropriate. Plastic pipe has a lifetime in use estimated to be well over 100 years. One reason the water delivery system in the United States loses 6 billion gallons of water a day to leakage and unmetered uses ( enough to fill the drinking water needs of every man, woman and child on earth ( is because metal pipe in use degrades by corrosion.
For single-use or packaging plastics we have a good example of an attempt to change out a commodity in play right now. A joint venture was formed between Cargill and the Dow Chemical Company, and these companies built a plant to make polylactic acid ( a biodegradable material ( which is marketed to replace many applications of other plastics. This material is a winner of a Green Chemistry Challenge Award. Curiously, recently Dow sold its interest to Cargill saying “people will not pay more for a biodegradable material.” Cargill is still very enthusiastic about the prospects. We’ll watch and see how it turns out and whether it can replace polyethylene in certain chosen applications.
2.13. Conclusion – The Life Cycle & Technology
The bottom line is that it’s good that we’re teaching students the principles of green chemistry. It’s not good enough to design a reaction that gives you a spiffy molecule at 5% yield using benzene as a solvent. It wasn’t even a good idea cost-wise in the last century, but in this century, we surely must think harder. Drive the efficiency up. Drive the waste down. Think about what it will take to build a plant and keep the workers safe and the government happy. Don’t stop with “a solution,” work for better ones, continuously, but start at the small scale when you have lots of knobs to turn, not twenty years down the line.
Beyond the Green Chemistry of manufacturing, economics, customers and business plans, sales and marketing ( in fact the total life cycle of products matters when it comes to product greenness. Here’s something to think about a bit: the environmental impact of many products occurs during the use phase and not the manufacture or end-of-life phase. Consider: What’s the longevity of a product, no matter how benign the synthesis? Does it require more maintenance? All three phases of a product’s life-cycle matter.
If chemists keep the “triple bottom line” and the total life-cycle in mind as they work to improve products, they may still be less than perfect, but they’ll be better, and that’s the idea. Do better. But really doing better and making your operations transparent so as to be seen as doing better is important especially in terms of the things that go into making a reputation. People know it’s tough to solve a problem, but they’ll take it off the “Worry List” if progress is being made.
When you discuss quality of life and its meaning for sustainability, high school and college students believe the largest problems that they see developing over the next fifty years of their adult lives will be pollution, population, water quality and disease, but most of them boil down to the need for cheap, plentiful energy.
Twenty percent of the world lives like us and eighty percent wants to. Couple that with a projected population increase of 50% in the next 30 years. You will not save your way into sustainability by reducing quality of life for the developed countries; it’s not politically viable. This leaves only one alternative. As Stuart Hart points out, we need a factor of ten improvement in the efficiency of everything we do, and that, means technology.
So the only way out is through. There has never been a more exciting or necessary time for science. I can only hope that we have the courage as a society to invest in innovation rather than to wallow in retrenchment.
William F. KOCH and Ellyn S. BEARY: Doing More with Less Through Better Measurements and Modeling - the Role of NIST
Abstract
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a non-regulatory, federal agency within the US Department of Commerce. The NIST’s mission is to develop and promote measurement, standards, and technology to enhance productivity, facilitate trade, and improve the quality of life. The Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory (CSTL) is one of seven Laboratories at NIST and serves as the United States’ reference laboratory for chemical, chemical engineering, and biochemical measurements. CSTL activities support a variety of industrial sectors as they move toward more sustainable practices. NIST enables a better and sustainable future by strengthening the innovation infrastructure. It achieves these outcomes through effective partnerships with industry, academia, and other government agencies.
Keywords: data, measurements, standards, sustainability, technology
3.1. Introduction
Founded in 1901, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a non-regulatory, federal agency within the US Commerce Department's Technology Administration. The NIST's mission is to develop and promote measurement, standards, and technology to enhance productivity, facilitate trade, and improve the quality of life. NIST strengthens the Nation’s innovation, trade, public safety and security and thus is integrally involved in sustainability at all levels. NIST has a 100-plus-year track record of serving US industry and the public with a mission and approach unlike any other agency of government.
According to the Brundtland Commission’s Report, the key concepts for sustainability include the following:
• Today’s needs should not comprise the ability of future generations to meet their needs;
• A direct link exists between the economy and the environment;
• In order for our environment to be protected, the economic conditions and needs of the world’s poor must be improved; and
• In all our actions, we must consider the impact upon future generations.
Accurate measurements, modeling and data underpin all of these concepts. For example, process optimization, minimizing overall industrial footprints, waste reduction or elimination, and discovering alternate energy sources or more efficient uses of existing resources, all depend on the ability to take better measurements.
Technology-based innovation remains one of the nation’s most important competitive advantages. Today, more than at any other time in history, technological innovation and progress depend on NIST’s unique skills and capabilities. NIST’s vision is to be the global leader in measurement and enabling technology, and deliver outstanding value to the Nation. NIST provides scientific leadership for the Nation's measurement and standards infrastructure and ensures the availability of essential reference data and measurement capabilities. To discharge these responsibilities, NIST maintains expertise in a broad range of science and technology areas. The new technologies that are determining the global winners in the early 21st century – Biotechnology, Nanotechnology, Information Technology, and Advanced Manufacturing – depend on NIST-developed tools to measure, evaluate, and standardize. And the technologies that emerge as a result of the NIST laboratories’ work on these tools and through cost-shared research projects are putting US companies at the forefront of innovation and sustainability.
The well-being of global citizenry relies every day on NIST’s measurement and standards work since hundreds of millions of measurements are traceable to NIST. The quality of the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the food we eat depends in part on that work. NIST standards ensure fairness for consumers, whether buying a gallon of gas or paying electric bills. These standards offer banking protection at ATMs as well as for online purchases. They improve the accuracy of medical tests and treatments and help define the nutritional content of food products. They help to convict criminals and free the innocent through more accurate and faster DNA testing. They provide crucial timekeeping for navigation, telecommunications, financial transactions, and basic research. And they improve the readiness of first responders, and support other homeland security applications.
NIST carries out its mission in four congruent programs:
• The NIST Laboratories conduct research that advances the nation's technology infrastructure and is needed by US industry to continually improve products and services;
• The Baldridge National Quality Program promotes performance excellence among US manufacturers, service companies, educational institutions, and health care providers, conducts outreach programs, and manages the annual Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award which recognizes performance excellence and quality achievement;
• The Manufacturing Extension Partnership is a nationwide network of local centers offering technical and business assistance to small manufacturers; and
• The Advanced Technology Program accelerates the development of innovative technologies for broad national benefit by co-funding R&D partnerships with the private sector.
NIST employs about 3,000 scientists, engineers, technicians, and support and administrative personnel. About 1,800 NIST associates complement the staff. In addition, NIST partners with 1,400 manufacturing specialists and staff at affiliated centers around the country. NIST operates in two main locations: Gaithersburg, Maryland, (headquarters – 234-hectare/578-acre campus) and Boulder, Colorado, (84-hectare/208-acre campus).
3.2. Chemical Science and Technology
The Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory (CSTL) is one of the seven Laboratories at NIST and serves as the United States’ reference laboratory for chemical measurements. CSTL is entrusted with developing, maintaining, advancing, and enabling the chemical measurement system for the US, thereby enhancing US industry’s productivity and competitiveness, assuring equity in trade, and improving public health, safety, and environmental quality. CSTL is responsible for measurements, data, and standards in chemical, biochemical, and chemical engineering sciences. Building on a hundred-year history of technical excellence, today’s CSTL has the most comprehensive array of chemical, physical, and engineering measurement capabilities and expertise of any group worldwide working in chemical science and technology.
CSTL is organized to reflect the technical expertise that is the foundation of our technical programs. The Laboratory consists of five Divisions: the Biotechnology Division, the Process Measurements Division, the Surface and Microanalysis Science Division, the Physical and Chemical Properties Division, and the Analytical Chemistry Division. Each Division employs a group structure in its technical program area. The website provides more detail.
CSTL Is Driven By Three Goals:
1. Measurement Standards: Establish CSTL as the pinnacle of the national traceability and international comparability structure for measurements in chemistry, chemical engineering, and biotechnology, and provide the fundamental basis of the nation’s measurement system. This objective is achieved by:
• Developing and demonstrating international comparability for chemical and physical measurements;
• Supporting and strengthening the traceability structure in the US; and
• Supporting and strengthening voluntary standards organizations.
2. Chemical & Process Information: Assure that US industry has access to accurate and reliable data and predictive models to determine the chemical and physical properties of materials and processes. This objective is realized by:
• Developing benchmark data for the properties of important substances, classes of substances, and systems;
• Developing data collection and prediction methods, and models to meet high-priority industrial and national needs;
• Contributing to the development of consensus standards for key properties, substances, and processes; and
• Developing procedures or protocols for data access, facilitating data exchange, and disseminating formatted data.
3. Measurement Science: Anticipate and address next-generation
measurement needs of the Nation. This final goal is achieved by:
• Maintaining a strong and cutting-edge research program to support the Nation’s measurement and standards infrastructure, and
• Establishing new measurement capabilities to support new and advanced technology development and dissemination.
To achieve its goals, CSTL maintains an experienced, well-educated professional staff. The full-time, permanent staff numbered 249 in FY04, in addition to 79 temporary and part-time employees. Also, there were 237 guest researchers working closely with CSTL staff in various aspects of the research program. The technical capabilities of CSTL staff are extensive; they hold advanced degrees in chemistry, physics, engineering, biology, and computer science. A capable technical-support staff augments the professional staff. Approximately 80% of our scientists have PhD degrees.
CSTL’s physical facilities are located at the major NIST sites in Gaithersburg, Maryland and Boulder, Colorado. In addition, CSTL shares facilities at the Center for Advanced Research in Biotechnology (CARB) with the University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute in Rockville, Maryland. The Hollings Marine Laboratory (HML) in Charleston, South Carolina is a cooperative research facility involving NIST, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, the College of Charleston, and the Medical University of South Carolina.
CSTL activities support a variety of industrial sectors as they move toward more sustainable practices. For the energy sector, CSTL provides reference data and models, fuel SRMs, metering standards, and flow calibrations. NIST’s accurate and reliable flow standards and databases are critical to this industry for process optimization, development of new technologies, and use in custody transfer applications. CSTL also provides standards that allow this industry to verify compliance with environmental regulations. The Environmental Technologies industry sector, part of an estimated global market of $530 billion, depends on NIST/CSTL for world-recognized artifact standards as well as reference data and models to demonstrate compliance with environmental regulations, and for reliable decision-making for environmental remediation, waste disposal, emissions trading, and other applications. Following are some examples of CSTL outputs that support a more sustainable future.
3.3. Environmental Specimen Banking
Environmental specimen banking is the long-term preservation of representative specimens for deferred analysis and evaluation. A systematic well-designed specimen bank program is a valuable component of real-time monitoring and basic research. In addition, it enables both current and future investigators to extend their research into the past and better evaluate “yesterday’s” environment with “today’s” technology. This look at the environment that is present, past, and future is itself a closed cycle that supports the understanding of what is sustainable and what is not. Formal environmental specimen banks are recognized internationally as integral parts of long-term environmental monitoring and research. There are two national environmental banking systems in the US, each having a different purpose. The CDC – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the ATSDR – Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry make up the first one – the CASPIR™ Specimen Packaging, Inventory and Repository. CASPIR™ cryogenically archives specimens for national public health investigations. The second is NIST’s National Biomonitoring Specimen Bank (NBSB) that cryogenically archives specimens for environmental research. Both specimen banks include well-developed banking protocols, computerized sample tracking (chain-of-custody) systems, maintenance of many forms of data associated with original specimens, and large investments in state-of-the-art facilities and equipment required to store specimens over relatively long periods of time. Both programs have emphasized cryogenic storage, using ultra-cold (-80 °C) electric freezers and liquid nitrogen vapor storage (-150 °C), security systems, and monitoring of storage conditions 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
The NBSB was originally established in 1979 by NIST and is located on the main campus in Gaithersburg. In 2002, a NBSB satellite facility was established at the HML in Charleston, SC. This facility, the Marine Environmental Specimen Bank (Marine ESB) is devoted to the cryogenic banking of environmental specimens collected as part of ongoing research and monitoring programs conducted by other agencies, such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the US Department of the Interior (DOI), in the marine and coastal environments of the US.
Banking of marine specimens has always been a major part of the NBSB. Some examples include the banking of mussels and oysters for NOAA’s Mussel Watch Program, sediments and fish tissues for NOAA’s National Status and Trends Program, and marine mammal tissues for NOAA and DOI. However, the establishment of the Marine ESB at the Hollings Marine Laboratory in association with NOAA, two institutions of higher learning and research, and a State marine research laboratory has provided major resources and support for expansion of specimen banking nationwide. The National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank (NMMTB), which was established by Federal legislation in 1992, is maintained by NIST for the National Marine Fisheries Service and the Fish and Wildlife Service as a component of the NBSB and Marine ESB, with the Marine ESB providing the lead. Presently, NIST maintains 2,504 tissue samples collected from 885 individuals representing 37 species of marine mammals from throughout US coastal waters, including Alaska. These samples are collected from strandings, animals taken incidentally in fishing operations, and animals harvested by Alaska Natives for food. Since the establishment of the Marine ESB, NIST has used its cryogenic banking expertise to develop protocols and to collect and archive: blood and blubber samples for NOAA’s ongoing bottlenose dolphin health assessment studies, eggs collected as part of a DOI environmental monitoring program on Alaskan seabird colonies, and eggs and feathers collected as part of a DOI peregrine falcon monitoring program. To date, blood and blubber have been collected from 215 bottlenose dolphins, 434 eggs have been archived from five species of arctic seabirds throughout Alaska as have 9 eggs and 26 feathers from the peregrine falcon program.
The primary function of the Marine ESB is to provide samples for retrospective analysis. In 2004, sections of blubber specimens collected from California sea lions from 1993 to 2002 and banked in the NMMTB were analyzed by NIST for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), which are synthetic flame retardants that have now become ever present contaminants. Chronological trends have indicated concentrations are increasing rapidly in many matrices. These banked samples were analyzed to determine if temporal trends for these compounds are also discernable in this species of marine mammal that is common on the west coast of the US. The results indicate a significant temporal trend with HBCD with a doubling time of 2 years. The specimens archived in the Marine ESB will provide a valuable resource for investigating environmental trends in these new compounds and for determining patterns of past exposure in marine biota.
The NIST staff is presently working with the HML partners and other Federal Agencies to expand environmental specimen banking. These expansions include: adding banking as part of a future sea turtle health assessment program; re-instituting banking as part of the Mussel Watch Program; establishing a genetic cryo-bank as part of a National Genetics Archive initiative for marine biota, and expanding the banking of bird specimens to include other species and types of tissue samples on a national and international level. In addition, existing specimens being held by the bank are being identified for future work on identifying and measuring new contaminants of interest as related to issues on ocean and human health. In 2004, efforts were expanded in the HML to Marine Health and Bioscience, and opportunities were explored for collaboration with the NOAA in their major initiative in Ocean and Human Health. CSTL is part of the expansion, which includes new areas of research in protein characterization and in the development of critical Mass Spectral Databases. Efforts and research in marine genomics are also increasing and being leveraged through collaboration with the Department of Marine Genomics at the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, one of the HML partners. In addition, future opportunities for collaboration with the NOAA that utilize new facilities at the HML such as the Biohazard Level 3 laboratories and new NMR laboratory are being looked at.
3.4. Measurements and Standards to Support Global Climate Change Research
Several species of gases found in the atmosphere that are known to contribute to the change in the radiative environment of the earth have been used to develop gaseous Primary Standard Mixtures (PSMs). These gases are considered greenhouse gases and have been monitored throughout the atmospheric environmental community worldwide for many years. These gases have also gained increased importance since the Kyoto Protocol was designed and implemented to promote reduced emissions of greenhouse gases. PSMs were developed previously for methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), tetra-fluoromethane (CF4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
This past year an additional compound, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (Halocarbon 134a), was studied and standards were developed for the State of California Air Resources Board. This compound is a replacement for halocarbons previously used as refrigerants but being phased out due to high warming potential. Additionally, new PSMs were prepared at atmospheric levels and added to a suite of previously prepared standards. These compounds include carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, trichlorotrifluoroethane (CFC-113), 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and trichloroethylene.
A total of 22 gravimetrically prepared CH4-in-air primary standards now exist and are used to define the NIST primary calibration methane scale for laboratory measurements and traceability. The entire suite of primary standards ranges in concentrations from 0.8 µmol/mol to 10 µmol/mol. Eight of these PSMs also contain nitrous oxide, dichlorodifluoromethane, and trichlorofluoromethane. Two PSMs were submitted by NIST for evaluation in a BIPM – Bureau of Weights & Measures International comparison. One PSM contains methane in air and the second mixture contains carbon dioxide in air. Three PSMs containing methane in air were also compared to methane-in-air PSMs prepared at the Climate and Diagnostics Laboratory at NOAA. A suite of three standards containing CF4 and SF6 were prepared to value assign another BIPM Comparison sample. A suite of four standards containing carbon tetrachloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, chloroform, trichlorotrifluoroethane, and trichloroethylene in air and five standards prepared in nitrogen containing the same compounds now exist at NIST. This suite of primary gas mixture standards ranges in concentrations from 5 pmol/mol (ppt) to 100 pmol/mol. The PSMs containing these halogenated species can now be used to analyze real air samples as part of the World Meteorological Organization’s International Halocarbon Experiment Program.
3.5. Quality Assurance Activities to Support Measurements on Air Particulate Matter
In 1997, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued new standards for air particulate matter (PM) under national ambient air quality standards, including regulations for PM less than 2.5 µm (PM2.5), which is the respirable PM fraction, in addition to the existing PM10 (less than 10 µm) standards. Research recommendations have been made by the National Research Council at the request of Congress and the EPA to focus on evaluating what types of particles cause detrimental health effects. To support compositional analyses and other investigations on fine PM, quality assurance materials are necessary; however, few appropriate fine particulate materials are currently available to support this research.
The NIST/EPA agreement has focused on three projects with the goal of providing quality assurance and SRMs – Standard Reference Materials to support measurements of organic compounds in fine PM including: (1) establishment of an interlaboratory comparison program to assess measurement comparability, (2) development of solution SRMs for compounds of interest for PM measurements, and (3) collection of bulk PM2.5 for use as a future SRM. As part of the NIST/EPA collaboration, the Organic Speciation Working Group was formed in 2000 to assist in this effort by participating in interlaboratory comparison studies and by providing input for the development of SRMs to support these measurements. This group has participated in three interlaboratory comparison studies for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitrated PAHs, alkanes (including hopanes and cholestanes), sterols, carbonyl compounds (ketones and aldehydes), acids (alkanoic and resin), phenols, and sugars in PM-related samples. Based in part on the results of these studies and additional input from the Organic Speciation Working Group, priorities for the development of a number of calibration solution SRMs were identified including: aliphatic hydrocarbons, PAHs, nitro-substituted PAHs, hopanes/steranes, and 13C-labeled and deuterium-labeled levoglucosan (for use as internal standards). SRM 1494 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons in Iso-Octane was issued in early 2004. SRMs 2260a PAHs in Toluene and 1491a Methyl-Substituted PAHs in Toluene, which are redesigned solutions with an expanded list of 53 PAHs and alkyl-substituted PAHs, were completed in late 2004. Characterization of the remaining solution SRMs is in progress and will be completed in 2005.
Collection of a 200 gram bulk sample of ultra-fine particulate matter at a site in Baltimore, MD with a high-volume sampler has been only partially successful. Two collections of 20 g each have been used to prepare interim reference material and for distribution in the NIST/EPA interlaboratory comparison exercises for the determination of organic compounds. The results from the second interlaboratory study using the interim reference material have been used in conjunction with NIST measurements to assign concentration values for the compounds of interest. This interim reference material is now available to laboratories involved in EPA PM2.5 research programs for use as a control or reference material. The second PM2.5 material collected in Baltimore has been distributed to over 20 laboratories as part of the third NIST/EPA intercomparison study, and results will be available in early 2005. In addition, alternative approaches to obtaining sufficient quantities of PM2.5 for preparation of an SRM are being investigated including preparation of a fine fraction material from existing PM SRMs and/or other total suspended PM. Additional organic compound classes have been identified by the EPA for development of solution SRMs including sugars, saturated and unsaturated acids, and organic compounds.
3.6. Determination of Sulfur Isotopic Composition in Environmental Samples
Recently the US National Research Council identified several “Grand Challenges” in environmental research for the next generation. Included in these is “understanding Earth’s major biogeochemical cycles and their interaction with the global climate.” The biogeochemical cycling of sulfur in the atmosphere and the formation of sulfate aerosol particles has important consequences for global climate. The variability of sulfur isotope ratios in nature, caused by mass-dependent fractionation during biogeochemical processing, provides a chemical tool for tracing the various sources of sulfur aerosols and a useful tool for understanding the sulfur cycle. Snow and ice core samples provide archives of the sources, sinks, and processing of sulfur that reflect changes in this cycle through time. These archives can be used to assess the current and historical changes in sulfur source contributions to remote regions of the Earth including polar, temperate, and tropical regions. Typical concentrations of sulfate in these regions are 25 ng/g to 100 ng/g (ppb); thus, 300 g to 4000 g of sample is required to obtain enough sample (approx. 33 μg S) for traditional isotope ratio mass spectrometric (IRMS) analysis. Global atmospheric sulfur cycling is a dynamic process that varies on short timescales and these large quantities of sample can mask seasonal changes in sulfur sources. Consequently, an analytical technique that allows the reduction of sample needed for analysis is required to minimize masking and increase the resolution.
CSTL researchers have developed a thermal ionization mass spectrometric (TIMS) method that shows considerable promise as a tool for the measurement of low concentration sulfate samples for both the isotopic composition of sulfur and its concentration. The availability of TIMS instruments in laboratories around the world will make this technique immediately available to the scientific community where it can be used for any applications requiring highly accurate and precise measurements of sulfur such as when measuring low-sulfur fossil fuels.
3.7. Measurements of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are flame-retardant compounds that are commonly added to many plastics, resins, and textiles that are then incorporated into products such as TVs, computers, furniture, and carpets. PBDEs can volatize or leach out of the products in which they are incorporated and be transported long distances in the environment, due to their physico-chemical properties. PBDEs are now considered ubiquitous environmental contaminants and much attention has been focused on their transport, uptake, and fate in both humans and the environment. Presently, there is an increased need for measurements of PBDEs in environmental matrices and human serum. SRMs with certified concentrations for individual PBDE chemicals are currently unavailable, and they are needed to ensure quality control for these measurements.
Ten existing natural-matrix SRMs have been analyzed for determination of a suite of 26 PBDE congeners. These SRMs include marine mammal tissue, fish tissue, mussel tissue, human serum, marine sediment, and house dust. The GC/MS method, which uses on-column cool injection, has allowed for the measurement of the fully brominated PBDE congener (2,2’,3,3’,4,4’,5,5’,6,6’-decabromodiphenyl ether; BDE 209) using an isotope dilution quantification approach. This congener has often been difficult to measure due to its thermal instability. BDE 209 was observed to be the dominant PBDE chemical in the sediment and house-dust SRMs, and thus, these SRMs will be useful for laboratories interested in routine measurements for BDE 209.
Other flame retardants such as hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) are now being used at higher rates as a replacement for PBDEs in some parts of the world. Thus, there is interest in the measurements of HBCD in environmental samples. Additionally, evidence suggests that PBDEs may be metabolized by some organisms to hydroxylated and methoxylated derivatives. Preliminary evidence suggests that methoxylated PBDEs (MeOBDEs) are present in the marine mammal blubber and cod liver oil SRMs. Measurements are planned for HBCD and MeOBDEs in these environmental-matrix SRMs to provide reference values for these new flame-retardant-related compounds.
3.8. Data and Informatics
For 30 years, NIST has provided well-documented numeric data to scientists and engineers for use in technical problem-solving, research, and development, including issues relating to sustainability. For example, data can enhance process design to minimize environmental impact, and combined with modeling can lead to “virtual” experimentation. “Virtual” experimentation can be more comprehensive providing more optimized and more sustainable solutions. These recommended values are based on data that have been extracted from the world's literature, assessed for reliability, and then evaluated to select the preferred values. These data activities are conducted by scientists at NIST and in university data centers. CSTL’s data and informatics activities impact all industry sectors from biotechnology and microelectronics to energy and instrument manufacturing. Versatile interactive databases provide easy access to high-quality NIST data. Many databases are now available via the World Wide Web. The NIST Standard Reference Database (SRD) series has grown to over 80 electronic databases in chemistry, physics, materials, building and fire research, software recognition, and electronics. Through this program CSTL provides SRDs for Analytical Chemistry, Atomic and Molecular Physics, Biotechnology, Chemical and Crystal Structure, Chemical Kinetics, Industrial Fluids and Chemical Engineering, Materials Properties, Surface Data, and Thermodynamics and Thermochemistry.
Over 2,500 NIST Mass Spectral Libraries are installed on GC/MS instruments each year. The most recent version of the library was released in 2002, and it remains the most comprehensive, reliable library of mass spectral “fingerprints” to assist in the task of compound identification by GC/MS. GC/MS is the most widely used analytical tool for low concentration analysis for food safety and environmental monitoring. In addition it is extensively used in general organic analysis, the development of new flavoring agents, the analysis of fragrances, and in many medical applications. However, at extremely low concentrations, it can be difficult to extract the trace signal from the mass spectrum due to the very complex background that is present. Therefore, a deconvolution software tool was developed by NIST. The Automatic Mass spectral Deconvolution and Identification Software (AMDIS) was originally developed for detection of chemical weapons in complex mixtures such as might be found in the environment or in chemical process streams. It was designed to work without analyst input as a method of insuring that sensitive business information that could be present in a process stream was not compromised. In the last year, the growth in the use of AMDIS by the organic analytical community has been very strong.
The NIST Chemistry WebBook remains one of the most used resources for chemical and physical property data. The number of users, between 10,000 and 20,000 per week, and the variety of users, in industry, government and academia, is a clear indication of the success of the WebBook. The NIST Chemistry WebBook has been awarded "Best Chemistry Site on the Web – Portals and Information Hubs" by Inc., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., and the Royal Society of Chemistry, UK. The WebBook is second in total use among chemistry database web sites (only the Chemical Abstracts site has higher usage) and over 2,500 sites directly link to the WebBook, including essentially every technical library in the world. This year the Chemistry WebBook has been made available in other language versions.
3.9. Pharmaceuticals in Wastewater
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are increasingly being recognized as a threat to human health and the environment. PPCPs are continuously released into the environment from human and agricultural waste and are frequently subject to waste treatment processes. Chlorination is the most widely-used chemical process for disinfecting wastewater and drinking water. Chlorine is a strong, non-selective oxidant that is capable of rapidly transforming pharmaceutical compounds. Understanding the chemical and toxicological nature of the transformation products is an important first step in determining what compounds should be measured in the environment.
The identification of unknown transformation products using mass spectrometric detection is critical in investigating this measurement problem. Four pharmaceutical compounds that are frequently detected in the environment were evaluated and included acetaminophen, metoprolol, sulfamethoxazole, and diclofenac. We have begun investigations of the pharmaceuticals transformations using calibrated doses of chlorine (added as hypochlorite). Liquid chromatography was used to separate reaction products, which were evaluated and identified using four detection modes. All compounds were significantly transformed by reaction with chlorine. Acetaminophen was shown to form two toxic products, benzoquinone and N-acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine, and at least ten additional products. Metoprolol reacted to form one major product, a chloramine. Sulfamethoxazole formed two major products, both of which have a chlorine atom in the molecule, but only one of which appears to be a chloramine. Diclofenac forms at least five products, one of which has an additional chlorine atom. For all compounds, the products of the reactions tended to be more hydrophobic than the parent pharmaceutical, which might make them more bioaccumulative.
This project is still in its early stages, so there are many important aspects that need to be addressed. The transformation rates of the pharmaceutical compounds need to be evaluated at the ng/g levels typically found in wastewater to verify that the reactions will be significant. Also, as products are identified, targets for measurement in the environment need to be determined based on the potential for toxicity and/or bioactivity. In addition, there are other chemical processes including chloramination, dechlorination, and ozone-disinfection that might transform pharmaceutical compounds. The effects of these water treatment processes on pharmaceuticals will be investigated.
3.10. Summary and Conclusion
Sustainability requires a common framework for discussion. The NIST enables a better and sustainable future by strengthening the innovation infrastructure to advance manufacturing and service, to facilitate trade, to enhance public safety and security, and to improve the quality of life. It achieves these outcomes through effective partnerships with industry, academia, and other government agencies.
Bibliography
United Nations’ World Commission on Environment and Development: “Our Common Future”, 1987
Willie E. May and William F. Koch (2005): Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory Annual Report ( FY2004, NISTIR 7202, Gaithersburg, Maryland
Duane E. DE FREESE: “Sustainability Horizon” Perspectives on Sustainability
Abstract
In this chapter, the author introduces a concept called the “Sustainability Horizon”. A horizon is defined as “a line where the sky or earth and sea appear to meet” or “the limit of one’s mental vision”. Taken together, the Sustainability Horizon is used as a term to describe a theoretical preferred future. This preferred future can become a realistic goal if strategic planning is coupled with decisive actions to steer a favorable course to achieve sustainability. Challenges to achieving sustainability are linked to how decisions at different spatial and temporal scales influence the complex dynamics of social, economic, environmental, governance and leadership issues. Examples of sustainability decision-making are provided from three perspectives: a Small Business perspective (associated with a major expansion of a scientific research institute in Florida), a Florida Regional perspective (7-county regional visioning initiative called “”); and a Global perspective. In all three perspectives, sustainability is viewed as an economic, social and environmental imperative. The author challenges the often-used term “balance” as a misleading and often misinterpreted sustainability concept that suggests humans have an absolute ability to manipulate evolutionary pathways of ecosystem change with political or economic will. In cases of severe ecosystem or habitat alteration, and all cases of species extinction, these pathways are irreversible.
Keywords: sustainability, horizon, small business, regional, global
4.1. Introduction
Everywhere you look today, you see the word sustainable – sustainable growth, sustainable economy, sustainable industry, sustainable enterprise, sustainable environment, sustainable development, sustainable technologies, sustainable ecotourism, sustainable society, sustainable fisheries, global sustainability, the Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI)[1], etc. Variations on the term sustainability abound. One often-referenced economic-based definition is that of Paul Hawken (Hawken [1993]).
“Sustainability is an economic state where the demands placed on the environment by people and commerce can be met without reducing the capacity of the environment to provide for future generations”.
The great challenge to realizing the promise of sustainability is to understand the implications and impacts of human population growth on social, economic and environmental change. For those of us who work in the biological sciences or conservation, these challenges are most often grouped in a series of symptoms described in local, regional or global scales (i.e. habitat loss, fragmentation or alteration; loss of biodiversity; altered watershed functions; invasive exotic species; emerging diseases; pollution; over-exploitation; climate change and sea-level rise). But we often fail to effectively address and integrate the underlying causes for many of these symptoms (i.e. human population growth; poverty, economic and social inequity; failures in policy; failures in economic market dynamics, failure to recognize long-term value; inadequate frameworks to effectively address complex issues; and lack of knowledge) (Cincotta and Engelman [2000]).
Humans face many challenges as a result of our failure to understand the complicated mechanisms of ecological processes. While the long-standing mantra of “Think Globally – Act Locally”[2] still resonates with conservationists today, there is a growing urgency to address actions at the local, regional, national and global scale and to understand the complex processes that control ecological, economic, social and environmental change. This Chapter shares some thoughts about sustainability from three Florida perspectives: a Small-Business perspective, a Regional community perspective and a Global perspective. As Vice President of an independent, non-profit, Marine Research Institute in Florida, my comments have a Florida coastal and ocean-based bias. This is both self indulgent as well as strategic, because there is no more valuable resource in Florida or the world than the shared resource assets of our global ocean. What differentiates these examples is the perspective of scale. What connects them is the need to understand a process to achieve sustainability that includes: 1. Understanding forces that create change; 2. Recognizing new global patterns; and 3. Capturing opportunity to create value. (Modified from Gallis [2004]).
4.2. A Small Business Perspective
“The Ultimate purpose of business is not, or should not be, simply to make money. Nor is it merely a system of making or selling things. The promise of business is to increase the general well-being of humankind through service, a creative invention and ethical philosophy.” (Hawken [1993]).
Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute (HSWRI) was founded in 1963 by marine scientist, Dr. Carl Leavitt Hubbs, and businessman/entrepreneur Milton Shedd (the founder of Sea World Inc.). These community leaders and conservation visionaries recognized that a for-profit tourism destination (SeaWorld) and a non-profit ocean research facility (HSWRI) could work together to address the diverse needs for ocean research, conservation and education. They had the foresight and insight to understand the potential education value of entertainment when coupled with active learning experiences. As a result, HSWRI was founded as an independent not-for-profit research organization to serve as a scientific knowledge resource for the public and SeaWorld Inc. The Institute was founded with a mission, “to return to the sea some measure of the benefits derived from it.” That mission statement (and its expressed restoration ethic) preceded today’s sustainability concepts by several decades.
In September 2004, An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century, the final report of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy (as mandated by the Oceans Act of 2000), was submitted to the President of the United States and Congress. This report represents the first time in over 3 decades that America has taken a comprehensive look at the promises of and threats to ocean resources and ocean-based economies (Commission [1969]), (US Commission [2004]). The report documents that the quality and quantity of many ocean resources are changing rapidly. As an example, between 1990 and 2000, there was a significant shift from goods to services in the global ocean economy (Colgan [2003]). While this represents a great opportunity and good news for tourism and recreation, the living-resources sector saw dramatic declines (Florida [2002]).
At this dawn of a new century, one might think that it is a perfect time to be a scientist or a growing scientific research organization planning major program expansions. And in fact, HSWRI is expanding its scientific research and education programs in Florida in response to global ocean needs and opportunities. But these program decisions require significant long-range planning discussions, concern about the stability of the global economy, evaluation of the Institute’s scientific research strategy and core values, and creation of an implementation strategy to secure long-term financial and programmatic sustainability. Hubbs expansion in Florida is a direct result of a vision that began in the early 1990’s to create a world-class marine research facility associated with the Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge (ACNWR). The ACNWR is the most important sea turtle nesting area in North America and one of the world’s great sea turtle nesting sites. In 1997 and 2004, the Richard King Mellon Foundation donated lands to HSWRI to build a center for marine research and conservation within the boundaries of the refuge. This donation was the catalyst for the largest expansion in the Institute’s 40-year history.
How does HSWRI as an independent, non-profit, non-advocacy, scientific research institute compete, survive and thrive in the 21st century?
4.2.1. Focus on Core Values
The Institute’s day-to-day challenges are similar to any small business: How do we sustain and grow our programs to serve and benefit society? How do we address massive and unpredictable increases in operational costs associated with health care, workers compensation, liability insurance, construction costs, gas costs, research costs? How do we attract and retain world-class scientists? How do we compete in a marketplace where competition is growing in every sector and available funding from public and private sectors is not keeping pace with the needs? How do we apply science and technology in responsible and common-sense ways to solve complex environmental problems? The key to long-term sustainability is to understand and to adhere to the core values of the Institute and to make sure that sustainability is considered at all levels (Table 4.1.).
HSWRI addressed this sustainability question by adopting a restorative philosophy in its development efforts. One of the properties donated by the Richard King Mellon Foundation had hazardous waste contamination and land-use that was inconsistent with current and future zoning. The acquisition of the property and donation to HSWRI for scientific research, conservation and education purposes addressed two immediate issues: a. Clean-up of hazardous waste associated with leaking underground fuel storage tanks which had begun to contaminate the groundwater on site; and b. Modification of the land-use pattern on the property that was incompatible with the residential nature of the community.
Table 4.1. Core Values for Sustainability
HSWRI scientists, staff and trustees are dedicated to the following Core Values to guide scientific research, Institute growth, and communication with scientific peers and the public:
ORIGINAL AND INDEPENDENT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. Pursue scientific discovery through independent and original basic and applied research in the inspiring tradition of Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, an innovative, dedicated, and highly skilled marine scientist and conservation advocate.
SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY AND HONESTY. Conduct research in a professional, open and honest manner commensurate with the conduct expected from a world-class research organization.
Shared knowledge as THE FOUNDATION FOR responsible ocean stewardship. Responsible management of ocean resources requires that policy and management decisions are founded with the best available scientific knowledge. HSWRI is dedicated to maintaining an independent, non-advocacy role as a public service organization. We share knowledge to benefit ocean resources, the economy, and society.
COMMON SENSE. Seek common-sense scientific solutions to complex environmental problems.
PUBLIC SERVICE. Provide a public service benefit to both human and animal populations and to the environment that all of these living resources share.
HIGHEST STANDARDS FOR ANIMAL CARE AND WELFARE. Minimize, and whenever possible eliminate, pain and discomfort caused to research animals while conducting research either in the laboratory or in the field.
SAFETY AND EFFICIENCY. Provide an efficient, safe and well-organized work environment to support the Institute’s mission.
CREATIVE AND PRODUCTIVE WORKPLACE. Nurture a professional, creative, and dynamic work environment that enhances the quality of work produced at the Institute, rewards achievement, and promotes HSWRI as a superior and highly desired workplace.
How does HSWRI promote smart, high-quality growth on a barrier characterized by fragile natural areas, a world-class barrier island conservation land network and high value residential development?
HSWRI made sustainability a core value of its business and development plans. HSWRI contracted with an architect and engineering team that would be responsive to the needs of a first-class research laboratory and sensitive to the needs of this fragile barrier island ecosystem. HSWRI recognized that construction must meet the needs of a broader scientific and educational community to ensure sustained and efficient use of the facilities. The best way to derive sustainable value and net benefits from this facility was to design and build it to address the needs of a broad national ocean research and education community. When viewed collectively, these sustainability values helped to define a new business model for HSWRI (Figure 4. 1.).
[pic]
Figure 4.1. HSWRI Business Model
Is there a need for Hubbs in Florida? HSWRI believes there is. At no time in history have ocean resources been more important to quality of life, economy, or human survival. HSWRI occupies a unique niche as an independent, non-advocacy research Institute dedicated to a long-standing set of core values and a business strategy that will prepare the Institute for the future. HSWRI is afforded unique opportunities through its geographic location, strategic partners, and relatively small size to make a difference, contribute value, and seek scientific solutions to complex environmental problems.
HSWRI is positioned strongly to address current and emerging issues in ocean research and conservation, but recognizes that the Institute must work in a highly competitive and under-funded marketplace. The Ocean Research Institutes face tremendous challenges to bridge public understanding of ocean issues and public willingness to financially support scientific research. For HSWRI, the challenges of this financial reality are placed in clear perspective based on data about how Americans gave to charitable organizations in 2003 (a total of $240.72 billion with only 2.9% given to environment and animal organizations) (Giving USA [2004]). For HSWRI to achieve sustained prosperity and provide social value, the Institute must understand the forces that are creating environmental change in ocean ecosystems, strategically respond to the need for scientific solutions to address new global patterns and problems, and capture opportunities to create lasting value through scientific discoveries and technology development. For HSWRI, and most (if not all) emerging small business ventures, sustainability must be an essential core value and business strategy to ensure long-term success.
4.3. Florida: A Regional Perspective
“With the advent of global travel, advanced technology, the Internet and the digital revolution, the world has changed in ways we never imagined. The immediacy of business, the fragility of the world’s people in need and the relationships among nations has never been more acute. Communities across the globe are struggling to identify and secure their place on this global stage”. (“” [2003]).
The state of Florida has experienced dramatic changes in population growth and land-use over the past fifty years which challenge our ability to effectively plan for and manage the quality of growth and the stewardship of Florida’s natural resources. Central Florida is one of the fastest growing regions of the state which includes seven counties and 84 cities (“” [2003]). This region is recognized as a world center for tourism, an emerging center for technology, the world’s gateway to space, and a region with diverse natural land and water resources of national and global significance.
With a population of approximately 17 million residents that grows by approximately 800 people per day and hosts over 70 million tourist visitors each year, Florida represents a case study for testing the effectiveness of sustainability principles and actions. In 2000, eighteen public and private organizations came together as funding partners to create “”. This regional community initiative had a goal to “build the new framework for a better community” (“” [2003]). With organizational support from the Orlando Regional Chamber of Commerce and a strategic planning and research analysis by Michael Gallis and Associates (Gallis [2004]), widely considered one of America's leading experts in large-scale metropolitan regional development strategies, the central Florida region is leading a significant regional sustainability initiative.
Thirteen regional systems were evaluated (culture, demographics and diversity, development, economy & workforce, education, environment, governance, healthcare, history, infrastructure, public safety, tourism, and transportation). A leadership structure was created and has been sustained. Seventy people serve on the Board and total leadership is approximately 300 community leaders within the leadership structure. Numerous public hearings were held over a 2-year period (over 3,000 people participated in public workshops); thousands of public comments were collected and evaluated from the website (number of website “hits” at peak of Phase I: 3000-5000 hits per week); and over two years of community leadership discussions provided basic informational data, a sense of community core values and major issues and concerns which became the basis for development of a regional information sourcebook “The New Regional Agenda, Central Florida”. This document represents the informational foundation to build a new framework for a better Central Florida community (“” [2003]).
identified regional priorities (quality of life, education, smart quality growth, economic leadership, environment, regional fragmentation) and ten resolutions (or “regional resolves”) requiring actions that will enhance the future of Central Florida. has adopted a focused message, core values and a leadership structure to guide regional decision-making (Figure 4.2.).
One area of community leadership where Florida and Central Florida are leaders is in the acquisition of environmentally sensitive lands as a non-regulatory tool for local government growth management planning. This vision had a historic beginning in 1903 with the dedication of Pelican Island as America’s first wildlife refuge by President Theodore Roosevelt. Florida’s long-standing commitment to protect lands for public use and conservation has evolved to make Florida one of the great conservation leaders in America (“” [2003]) with a long history of acquiring lands for conservation and public use.
Figure 4.2. Leadership and Core Values for a successful regional approach
to sustainability ().
The most recent programs: Preservation 2000 and Florida Forever have contributed $6 billion over two decades to acquire and protect the most important natural lands in Florida for conservation and public use. Together these programs include a wide range of conservation initiatives (i.e. acquisition of pristine natural areas, habitats for rare, threatened, endangered and endemic species, natural floodplains, wetlands, fragile coastlines, groundwater recharge areas, significant water bodies and sustainable forest lands; acquisition of archaeological & historic sites; restoration of damaged environmental systems, water resource development and supply, increased public access, public land management and maintenance, and increased protection of land by acquisition of conservation easements). Over 1 million acres of lands have been protected under the Preservation 2000 and Florida Forever Programs. Local governments, water management districts and other local and regional programs have partnered in many acquisitions over the past fifteen years (Florida Division [2004]).
At a local level, over 30 counties and municipalities have operated independent land acquisition programs or partnered with the Preservation 2000 and Forever Florida Programs using voter-approved ad valorem bond revenues, sales tax revenues or other voter-approved revenue sources. In 2005, this local financial contribution for conservation and recreational land acquisition represented over $1 billion. In November 2004, voters in Florida counties and several municipalities approved an additional $541 million for conservation land acquisition. Eleven out of thirteen ballot initiatives were passed by Florida voters with most by wide margins (i.e. Collier County (73%), Lake County (71%), Brevard County (69%), Palm Beach County (68%) (Trust [2005]). When viewed from a strictly economic perspective, these programs have served as significant economic stimulus programs in Florida – injecting billions of dollars of cash into the Florida economy. Public support for the acquisition of environmentally sensitive and park lands is a growing trend occurring throughout America. According to the Trust for Public Lands (Florida Division [2004]), in 2004, voters in 159 communities in 25 states passed ballot measures to create $3.29 billion in new public funding to protect land for conservation, parks and open space (Trust [2005]).
These are excellent examples of the power of a big idea which resonates with the passions and values of citizens and communities. This is especially true in a state like Florida where dramatic population growth is recognized and experienced on a daily basis as its citizens commute to work, look for recreational opportunities for kids, or search for natural areas or scenic vistas that disappear daily. The state is recognizing unique benefits from these land acquisitions through the expansion of nature-based tourism, green transportation corridors, enhanced quality of life and added value to property. In fact, nature based tourism represents a significant reason why people visit Florida. A recent telephone survey of Florida visitors (2004 data by the Florida Tourism Commission, FLAUSA) documented that over 70% of Florida visitors took part in a nature, historical or cultural experience during their visit. This percentage increased from a similar FLAUSA survey it conducted in 1999 (48%).
Many Florida conservation land success stories were a dream three decades ago. One example of an similar ‘big idea” on a national scale is the Wildlands Project’s vision for North American "MegaLinkages" – vast pathways that tie natural places together. Each proposed MegaLinkage is made up of regional "Wildlands Networks." Within the “Spine of the Continent MegaLinkage”, six Wildlands Networks have been proposed (Wildlands [2003]). While this is a bold concept, it is important to remember that the success of conservation land acquisition is driven by economic and market realities. Successful acquisition or the application of less than fee simple land protection strategies are the first step toward long-term stewardship of land and water resources. If the ecological qualities of natural lands and waters are to be protected in perpetuity, these areas will require active stewardship, long-term land management strategies, restoration, and adequate funding.
4.4. Global Perspective
Most people have a difficult time comprehending the scale and level of urgency of global issues (i.e. global population growth, global climate change, biodiversity loss, sea level rise, etc.). The complexity and scale of these issues is simply too large. In most cases, people disconnect the global issue from their immediate, day-to-day lives. As an example, few people were concerned about a tsunami in the Indian Ocean before 2004. The threat was theoretical, even though the seismic realities and statistical probabilities may have supported and predicted potential dangers and catastrophic consequences. This disconnect has been documented with global warming. Surveys show that most Americans believe that global warming is real, but advocate delayed action until more evidence is gathered (Sterman and Sweeney [2002]). Unfortunately for pressing environmental issues, indecision is not a responsible strategic planning option.
The challenge to sustainability is to build a philosophical and practical understanding of issues and actions on multiple scales (local, regional, national and international). This understanding must effectively address issues that affect quality of life and resonate with individual and community values. And, issues like biodiversity, depletion of ocean fisheries, or global climate change must be addressed in ecological, social and economic terms.
The environmental community must rethink how we approach and deliver the environmental message. Most importantly, scientists need to communicate the complexities of ecosystem functions and threats from the perspective of a human value system. In 1997, Dr. Stuart L. Pimm (Doris Duke Chair of Conservation Ecology, Duke University) wrote about economists and the difference between price and value: “Economists self effacing definition… one that knows the price of everything and the value of nothing.” (Pimm [1997]). Unfortunately, most people confuse the price versus value concept. The ultimate challenge for businesses and communities is to recognize and protect natural assets as a source of long-term value and a fundamental basis for sustainability.
To present the sustainability message in a more compelling manner, scientists and community leaders must re-think their vocabulary, develop strategic processes for decision-making, and challenge some long-standing concepts that represent barriers to understanding and achieving sustainability. Here are three concepts that can initiate progress in sustainability thinking and action:
1. Reconcile The Tensions Between Competing Human Values
In the Book Civic Revolutionaries (Valen [1973]), the authors Douglass Henton, John Melville, and Kim Walesh recognized the critical importance of understanding individual and community values and that tensions are a component of a natural community process that represents a “competition between two goods”. This reconciliation of tensions requires that all stakeholders understand the forces that create change, appreciate and respect the diversity of views among stakeholders, and make a committed effort to work together as a community for meaningful change.
2. Understand The Social Network And Values Of A Community
Every citizen lives, works, and plays within a community of values and social networks. Whether it is the community of Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute, Central Florida, or the world, it is important to understand what connects people, ignites their passions and drives their actions. Robert Putnam and Lewis Feldstein (Better Together, 2003) (Holmes [1858]) discussed the values and differences between “bonding social capital” and “bridging social capital”. They asked: “How do we bridge the various divides that influence the sustainability of a community?” Those divides exist between public understanding of and appreciation for science and technology; development and natural land conservation; economic growth and environmental regulation; and a sustained long-term economic growth strategy. For a community to resolve these tensions and close the gap between competing human values (i.e. create a unified vision or preferred future), a community visioning process must be honest, open, inclusive and continuous. The path to community consensus is never easy. The challenge is to get diverse stakeholders and interests supporting a common vision and to transform that vision into an action-based process for change.
3. Re-Think The Concept Of “Balance”
We must re-think the common use of the term “balance”. It is used most often by policy makers, community planners and resource managers as a way to find “win-win” solutions among competing stakeholders. This is a noble goal to be sure. But the term “balance” is often grounded in a fundamental belief or assumption that one can actually achieve “balance” in a complex and dynamic ecosystem through the sheer brute force of economic investment or political will. With the complexity of ecosystem processes and the rapid rate of change in some environments, the ability to restore an ecological system to some pristine original condition is rarely a realistic option.
There is an ecological concept called the “Red Queen Hypothesis” (Cincotta and Engelman [2000]), (Valen [1973]) that is based on the premise that evolving ecological systems are dynamic and in continual development. If one component of a system gains competitive advantage, another loses competitive advantage and must keep running just to keep up. In our quest for sustainability, we must face the possibility that with global population growth and rapid ecosystem change, we may find ourselves like the Red Queen in Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking Glass" – as fast as we can run, the more the world moves and the less progress we make (Cincotta and Engelman [2000]), (Valen [1973]).
4.5. Conclusion
For sustainability to have a chance as a business and community development principle, we must begin with an understanding that the decisions we make today will have long-term impacts well into the future. In Florida, we know from experience that decisions made decades ago had profound impacts on the quality of our lives today and the options available to us to create better communities. Our decisions over the next decade will have profound influence on both environmental and economic sustainability and prosperity. Both are inter-dependent components of the global ecosystem. Without knowledge, experience, good decision-making, and a clear destination it is easy to lose our way.
What is the final message as it relates to the sustainability horizon? In order to move from talking about sustainability to realizing the promise of sustainability, we must build a convincing case for proactive change and take appropriate actions. Whether we are dealing with sustaining a small business in the 21st century, sustaining the quality of life in a regional community, or addressing the global scope of sustainability, we are like crewmembers on a ship at sea. If true sustainability is our destination, we will need to steer a decisive course in what may be at times a stormy sea. If we fail to do so, sustainability will continue to remain a distant horizon.
Bibliography
Cincotta, R.P. and Engelman, R. (2000): Nature’s Place, Human Population and the Future of Biological Diversity, Population Action International, Washington D.C., 80 pgs.
Colgan, Charles, S. (2003): Living Near…And Making a Living From…The Nation’s Coasts and Oceans, Prepared for the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. Appendix C (C1-C27) in U.S., Commission on Ocean Policy. 2004., An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century, Final Report, Washington, DC., 2004. ISBN#0–9759462–0–X., 522 pgs.
Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources (“Stratton Commission”) (1969): Authorized by Public Law 89-454. Enacted by Congress on June 17, 1966. Report submitted 1969.
Florida, Richard (2002): The Rise of the Creative Class, Basic Books, New York. ISBN 0-465-02476-9. 404 pgs.
Florida Division of State Lands – Department of Environmental Protection (2004): Florida Forever Five Year Plan, 2004. Tallahassee, FL. 505 pgs., (available in electronic format at dep.state.fl.us)
Gallis, M. and Associates, Charlotte, North Carolina (2004): Strategic Planning for 21st Century Communities, Personal communication and corporate website ()
Giving USA (2004): American Association of Fundraising Counsel, 2004.,
Hawken, Paul (1993): The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability, Harper Business, A Division of Harper Collins Publishers. New York, ISBN 0-88730-655-1, 250 pgs.
Holmes, Oliver, W. (1858): The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table
“” (2003): The New Regional Agenda, Central Florida, available at at Orlando Regional Chamber of Commerce. Orlando, FL, 23 pgs.
Pimm, Stuart, L. (1997): The Value of Everything, Nature 387, 231-232 (15 May 1997) News and Views
Sterman, John. D. and Booth-Sweeney, Linda (2002): Cloudy Skies: Assessing Public Understanding of Global Warming, System Dynamics review, 18(2), 207-240.
Trust for Public Lands Florida Newsletter (2005): Florida voters approve 541 million for conservation, Winter, Volume (6), Number 1, Page 5.
U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy (2004): An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century, Final Report, Washington, DC., 2004., ISBN#0–9759462–0–X, 522 pgs.
Valen, V. (1973): "A New Evolutionary Law", Evolutionary Theory, 1, p.1-30.
Wildlands Project (2003): Room to Roam, Saving Wildlife Linkages Along the Spine of the Continent, Wildlands Project, Richmond Virginia,
Thomas MARCINKOWSKI and Susan CARLSON: An Introduction and Overview – “Planning for Sustainability in East Central Florida: Contributions, Issues and Prospects”
Abstract
A sizable number of sustainability issues affect the East Central Florida region. In Florida, state, regional, county and municipal agencies have different and sometimes overlapping responsibilities for addressing these issues. For the Forum entitled “Sustainability’s New Age: Preservation and Planning (SNAP)”, a group of papers was organized to describe the roles and contributions of regional and county agencies to sustainability planning, and to explore prominent sustainability issues in the region. This paper introduces the planning behind and participants involved in the effort and serves as an introduction to papers by Bill Kerr and Susan Caswell.
Keywords: sustainability issues, growth management, regional planning, agency jurisdiction, public forum
5.1. Introduction
For a broader Forum on sustainability, a discussion of sustainability in East Central Florida had several roles to play. First, it was designed to help kick off the SNAP Forum. Second, for invited participants from Central Europe, it was intended to serve as an orientation to sustainability in the region in which the forum was to be held. Third, for Florida Tech faculty and students, it was intended to serve as a lively, open discussion of a number of sustainability problems and issues facing the East Central Florida region. Lastly, due to the regional focus of the panel, Commissioner Carlson urged planners of the SNAP Forum to invite members of the wider community to the panel, thereby allowing it to serve as another in the continuing series of public forums on growth and growth management in Brevard County. In the present “Forum in Print”, those purposes continue to be served.
5.2. General Views on “Sustainability”
In 1983, the Secretary-General of the United Nations (U.N.) asked Gro Harlem Bruntland of Norway to establish and chair a special, independent commission to address long-term environmental concerns and issues facing, and strategies for achieving “sustainable development” within the world community. Thus, the World Commission on Environment and Development, and often referred to as the Bruntland Commission, was formed.
The Bruntland Commission brought environmental and developmental concerns under one large umbrella, rather than leaving these as two separate spheres of concern, each vigorously advocated and defended by those with an interest in one or the other. The Commission also sought to obtain and present a balanced view of perspectives from both northern and southern nations regarding these concerns.
The definition of sustainability most often quoted was provided by the Commission in the report entitled Our Common Future:
Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable –
to ensure that it meets the needs of the present [present
generation] without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. ([1987], p. 8, emphases added)
The Commission further described the concept, as follows:
The concept of sustainable development does imply limits –
not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present
state of technology and social organization on environmental
resources and by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the
effects of human activities. ([1987], p. 8, emphases added)
Building upon this definition and concept, the World Resources Institute identified and described four significant dimensions of Sustainable Development (later simply Sustainability):
• Economic Resources: which includes concerns about land/resources, employment/labor, capital, and infrastructure;
• Basic Human Needs: which includes potable water, nutrition, health care, education, and cultural integrity;
• Environmental Protection: which includes ecological integrity/biodiversity, natural resources, pollution/waste, environmental health, and population growth/migration/ settlement; and
• Technologies: which include technological needs in agriculture, energy, industry/manufacturing, construction/building, transportation, and communications. (World Resources 1992-93, [1992], pp. 1-8)
5.3. Sustainability Issues In East Central Florida
The initial plan was that the Panel would be introduced and opened by Commissioner Carlson, and would consist of both presenters and reactors. More specifically, the panel would include four presenters, each of whom represented an Agency involved in sustainability planning that affects East Central Florida:
• A representative of the Council for Sustainable Florida, a statewide organization that has administered a statewide award program for businesses, local governments, and non-governmental organizations that address the “triple bottom line,” as well as with the development of case study materials for use in Business Schools in cooperation with the Education Alliance for a Sustainable Florida;
• A representative of the St. John’s River Water Management District (SJRWMD), which has responsibility for the management of surface and ground water resources in the St. John’s River Basin, a 16-county area along Florida’s East Coast that runs from Indian River County in the south to Nassau County in the north;
• A representative of the East Central Florida Regional Planning Council (ECFRPC), the primary body that works with communities within the six-counties that comprise East Central Florida to expand and enhance their ability to resolve regional issues and plan for a shared future; and
• A representative of the Brevard County Planning and Zoning Office, which oversees land and growth management for the county in which Florida Tech is located, including development and management of Brevard County’s Comprehensive Plan.
Those representatives who agreed to serve as presenters on the panel were:
• Mr. Bill Kerr, Governing Board Member, St. John’s River Water Management District;
• Ms. Susan Caswell, Director of Operations, East Central Florida Regional Planning Council; and
• Mr. Mel Scott, former Director, Brevard County Planning and Zoning.
Each presenter was encouraged to select the issue on which they would speak from a wide range of sustainability issues facing the region:
• Current Needs or Priorities (e.g., revenue streams for planning and building schools);
• Foreseeable Or Future Needs (e.g., fresh water supply);
• Ongoing Political Controversies (e.g., setting aside of environmentally endangered lands and or habitats for federally listed species); and
• Recent Opportunities (e.g., proposed state reforms to existing growth management laws).
The presenters were not the only participants serving on the panel. Professionals from the region who had knowledge of and experience with these regional planning agencies, and with regional sustainability issues were identified to serve as reactors to the panel:
• Mr. Truman Scarborough, Esq., County Commissioner, Brevard County Commission;
• Mr. Paul Gougelman, Esq., City Attorney, City of Melbourne; and
• Dr. John Windsor, Program Chair, Department of Marine and Environmental Systems, Florida Tech, and former Chair, Technical Advisory Committee, Indian River Lagoon National Estuary Program.
The day of the panel, the three panelists and three reactors met to review and finalize plans. Commissioner Carlson opened the panel, introduced panelists, and oriented the audience as to the nature and sequence of the panelists’ presentations. Two of the three presentations are summarized in the papers by Mr. Bill Kerr and Ms. Susan Caswell that are included in this volume. These papers serve as a basic overview of sustainability topics and issues that were addressed by presenters and reactors.
Hopefully, this introduction and overview provides sufficient information so that the planning, purposes, focus, geographic scope, agency representatives, and structure of this panel are reasonably clear. It is also our hope that this provides sufficient information to describe the context for which the papers by Mr. Kerr and Ms. Caswell were prepared and in which they were presented and follow here.
Bibliography
World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987): Our Common Future: The Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
World Resources Institute, in collaboration with the United Nations Environmental Program and the United Nations Development Programme. (1992): World Resources, 1992-93., Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Susan CASWELL: The Regional Planning Council’s Role in a Sustainable Future
Abstract
The East Central Florida Regional Planning Council was established in response to the increasing rate of growth in the area. The Council provides information on how systems in the region are functioning and maintains a planning and advisory role assisting local governments with addressing regional-level issues. Several of the Regional Planning Council’s recent projects showcase their efforts to help local governments work at a regional scale, including Ecological Design, Four Corners, Greenways & Trails, Lake Apopka Planning Initiative, and the Regional Mapping Program.
Keywords: regional planning council, sustainability, developments of regional impact, ecological design, four corners, greenways and trails, Lake Apopka planning, initiative, , regional mapping program
6.1. Historical Background of the Regional Planning Council
The East Central Florida Regional Planning Council is an association of local governments that covers Brevard, Lake, Orange, Osceola, Seminole and Volusia counties. The agency was formed in 1962, primarily in response to the increasing rate of growth generated by the space program. Throughout the 1960s, the Regional Planning Council’s primary role was to provide data and information to local governments to guide local decision-making. In the 1970s, the focus turned to developing federally-funded reports describing how systems in the region were functioning (water and stormwater, housing, transportation, coastal zones, etc.). With passage of DRI (Developments of Regional Impact) legislation in the 1970s and the Growth Management Act in 1985, the agency’s focus shifted again, this time to a semi-regulatory role of DRI and comprehensive plan review. But in the 1990s, The Environmental Land Management Study Committee (ELMS III) changed the RPC role from regulatory to planning and advisory. In light of this change, the agency has redefined its role and mission to assist local governments in addressing regional-level issues.
6.2. Sustainability Issues
The overriding issue affecting sustainability in Central Florida is the lack of a Regional context or process for planning at that level even though almost all issues are regional in nature. Local governments plan for their own jurisdictions, but their planning has limited, if any, ability to affect systems that operate at a Regional level. For example, in its first Comprehensive Plan, one of the region’s counties created an urban service area, and in so doing designated its west side to be rural. But the adjacent county had no such designation immediately west of the first county, and road construction on the west side made the second county more accessible. Consequently, development leaped over the west side of the first county into the second, a consequence that might not have happened but for the designation of the urban service area. Planning at the local level in an area with a regional housing market resulted in exactly the opposite consequence than was intended.
Local communities often find themselves addressing issues that are regional in nature. In order to resolve such issues, they need the capacity to function effectively at a level traditionally viewed as beyond the scope of their local responsibilities and interests. This capacity includes the technical and organizational means to work across political and administrative boundaries, as well as having knowledgeable community leaders involved who are capable of exercising regional leadership.
The Regional Planning Council’s mission is to work with communities in expanding and enhancing these abilities, and, in doing so, connect with one another in planning their shared future. Our role in the coming years is to provide the context for that planning. We will do this by developing regional data sets; educating ourselves fully on the issues (including the connections between and among issues); and helping local level actors develop solutions that take the regional context into account.
6.3. Recent Projects
Several of the Regional Planning Council’s recent projects showcase their efforts to help local governments work at a regional scale. The projects involved developing partnerships with local governments and other organizations to address regional-level issues. Following are descriptions of some of these projects.
6.3.1. Ecological Design
This project's goal was to illustrate how development objectives and natural resource protection needs in a high-growth area can be addressed through the physical design of residential projects. The changes development brings to an area are so strong and pervasive that no natural system can retain the same character it would have had if development were not present at all. At the same time, it is possible – with use of what we know about ecological processes – to intentionally design projects so that they contribute to preserving an area’s most important attributes and maintain the health of the ecosystem in which the project is located.
Traditional development practices provide minimal protection to environmental systems. Even cluster development, designed to aggregate and direct development activity to portions of a site, often fails to provide meaningful conservation of an area’s natural resources. The open space remaining often is comprised of leftover, undesirable areas such as stormwater management facilities or land under high-tension lines. Although these practices have produced a few small conservation islands here and there, they fail to provide permanent blocks and corridors of ecologically viable open space. Regional and state permitting requirements are not designed for ( and therefore are incapable of ( addressing this problem. While successful at reducing and mitigating some site impacts, the sum of the permits issued for an area does not add up to conservation of its ecological resources.
The Eco-Design Manual developed for this Project illustrates the practical application of conservation design and landscape ecology principles. Shown within the Manual are 12 development scenarios demonstrating how communities can use the basic concepts behind conservation design to create an interconnected network of permanent open space. The open space can serve to protect environmental resources, preserve an area’s rural character, and offer a high quality lifestyle supportive of Lake County’s marketing slogan, The Countryside of Orlando. Though this project was originally focused on Lake County, the end product is applicable to all six of the region’s counties.
6.3.2. Four Corners
The area known as Four Corners is one of the fastest growing portions of central Florida. Positioned midway between the expanding Orlando and Lakeland urban areas, it has the unique characteristic of being part of four counties, four school districts, seven ZIP codes, three area codes, three water management districts, two regional planning councils and multitudes of service providers.
To better understand the public services provided in this area, and to begin the process of planning for more efficient delivery of future services, the Board of County Commissioners for each of those counties asked the Central Florida and East Central Florida Regional Planning Councils to coordinate an inventory and assessment of public services needed to support the growing Four Corners area population. Though each service provider prepares detailed plans for how it will provide services, what sometimes is lacking is an overall view of how this multi-county and multi-service district area is being supported. Opportunities for cooperation between providers do exist, but without a broad view and compilation of current service efforts, such opportunities can be missed. Providing this big-picture view and identifying future service needs – at least in a general way – was the objective of the report.
6.3.3. Greenways and Trails
To facilitate regional trails and coordination of trail planning among governmental agencies in east central Florida, the Regional Planning Council set up a Regional Greenway and Trail Workgroup that brings together greenway and trail planners throughout the six county region, as well as staff from state agencies and non-profit organizations. In coordination with this workgroup, there are a number of greenway and trail initiatives at the Regional Planning Council, including the Volusia Trails Plan, prepared in conjunction with Volusia County, its cities and its citizens. The planning process and its resulting proposed trails network is summarized in a bound „Volusia Trail Plan Report” available for download.
Other activities include regional mapping – as part of the Regional Greenway and Trail Workgroup's efforts, a regional system of trails was identified by compiling county plans and creating one regional map.
Another project was the East Central Regional Rail-Trail. The Regional Planning Council coordinated an application for acquisition of lands for a trail spanning Brevard and Volusia counties. In January 2002, the application won approximately $1.4 million in funding from the state Office of Greenways and Trails. The 425-acre right-of-way will provide an opportunity to establish a linear park system with a trail that would connect with existing trails, facilitate movement of wildlife, and provide residents with an alternative route for transportation.
6.3.4. Lake Apopka Planning Initiative
Lake Apopka has received extensive attention with regard to restoring the quality of its water. To protect these improvements, the Regional Planning Council supported the Lake Apopka Basin Planning Initiative to look at activities in the basin that could take advantage of and protect these improvements through cooperative efforts. This initiative was directed by a Steering Committee of elected county and city commissioners and mayors from Orange and Lake counties and the municipalities of Apopka, Clermont, Montverde, Oakland, Ocoee and Winter Garden. The committee was chaired by ECFRPC member and Lake County Commissioner Bob Pool. Committee meetings also served as a public forum for raising current basin issues including identifying needs and opportunities and for coordinating other efforts by the Friends of Lake Apopka, Oakland Nature Preserve, St. Johns River Water Management District, Apopka Farm workers and others.
This project involved identifying needs and opportunities in the basin, and the Regional Planning Council continues to support implementation of some of these ideas, as well as continued discussion of current basin issues.
6.3.5.
The Regional Planning Council and the Orlando Regional Chamber of Commerce co-sponsored the planning effort. This project made the case that metropolitan regions are increasingly the dominant economic, environmental and social forces in our lives. Further, metropolitan regions have become the basic building block of the global economy, and it is metropolitan regions – as opposed to individual communities – that have the size and resources needed to establish a successful global presence.
The Regional Planning Council was active in this project, designed to build such a coalition. This project – – covered seven central Florida counties and brought together representatives from government, business, and institutions to explore the future of the region as a global economic competitor.
An informational framework illustrating how these forces play out in Central Florida was prepared. It includes a series of 250 maps demonstrating how cities and counties have become interdependent parts of a shared economic region – and outlining the threats and opportunities this change presents.
Recognizing the linkage between economic vitality and community livability, focused on an array of topics, including the environment, development, transportation, governance, healthcare, public safety, tourism, education, culture, diversity, workforce, infrastructure, and history. Each of these topics was explored in detail during the project’s three-year planning effort. Seven counties were included in the Project – Brevard, Lake, Orange, Osceola, Polk, Seminole and Volusia.
The project produced a set of initiatives designed to move the region forward as a sustainable economic unit, capable of competing effectively in the face of continuing worldwide economic restructuring. As a broad-based effort involving the public, private and institutional sectors, the initiatives represented a consensus as to what needs to take place to build a successful regional community.
6.3.6. Regional Mapping Program
To develop regional data and information, the RPC is building on the sense of place created by , by collecting, assembling and making available on the Internet a broad range of spatial data for the seven-county Central Florida Region. The ability to combine diverse information such as spatial datasets is fundamental to growth analysis. But at a regional scale this information is not easily accessible – it is separated by geography and organization. Additionally, the data is not consistently maintained to ensure current information across the seven-county region. The data and information developed by the RPC will provide a spatial framework for growth/change analysis and forecasting.
Bill KERR: The St. Johns River Water Management District – Partnering for Sustainability
Abstract
Sustainability is at the core of water supply management. This includes ensuring an adequate supply of water to meet current and future needs, while preventing unacceptable impacts to related natural systems. The example of a fast growth region is discussed including alternative water supplies, surface and ground water protection and conservation measures necessary to sustain needed water resources for the future.
Keywords: Saint Johns river water management district, water demand, technical studies, water supply development, education, alternative water supply cost-sharing, program, water supply governance
7.1. St. Johns River Water Management District
In 1972, the Florida Legislature formed the State’s water management districts and tasked them with managing and protecting the State’s water resources. These resources include the lakes, rivers and springs that feed Florida’s natural splendor, awing millions of visitors every year, as well as the aquifer system that provides for a majority of the state’s public water supply.
The St. Johns River Water Management District stretches from the Georgia border south through Indian River County, and from the Atlantic Ocean west to Alachua County. Though much has changed in the state in the last three decades and the responsibilities of the water management districts have increased, the District’s primary goals have not wavered. Its mission statement today retains its original purpose: “to ensure the sustainable use and protection of water resources for the benefit of the people of the District and the State of Florida.”
Indeed, sustainability is at the core of all of the District’s efforts. This includes ensuring an adequate supply of water to meet current and future needs, while preventing unacceptable impacts to related natural systems.
The District is required by state statute to publish a water supply plan. The plan is required to have a 20-year planning horizon and to be updated every five years. The first regional plan was published in 2000. The 2000 plan is currently being updated and will take us through the year 2025.
1995 is the base year the District uses for population and water demand projections. Population within the St. Johns River Water Management District was about 3.5 million people in 1995. By 2025, population within the District is projected to be almost 6 million.
Like the population increase, total water use is projected to increase from 1,364 million gallons per day (mgd) in 1995 to 1,880 mgd in 2025. The vast majority of the increase in water use will come from increases in public demand. In fact, public water use in the St. Johns District is projected to almost double by 2025 – from 450 mgd in 1995 to 800 mgd in 2025.
7.2. Providing Water To Meet Demands
Providing water to meet these growing demands will require significant changes for the District, local government, and public supply utilities. The Florida aquifer currently provides almost all of the public water supply and a large part of the agricultural and other self-supply. All future water supply needs within the District will not be able to be met by available fresh groundwater alone without likely incurring unacceptable environmental impacts to lakes, wetlands or springs, as well as unacceptable saltwater intrusion. Unacceptable impacts will not be allowed to occur.
An area of particular concern for the District is the east-central Florida region, which stretches from Flagler County to Brevard County, and west to Lake and Marion counties. In east-central Florida, we anticipate a shortfall in available fresh groundwater between 100 mgd and 200 mgd. So, to support projected economic growth and increased water demands in this area, alternative water supply management strategies must be implemented, and alternative water sources must be developed.
Fortunately, more than adequate sources of water and management strategies have been identified to supply the additional water to meet projected demands through 2025. Some of the management strategies include:
• Increased water conservation
• Increased use of reclaimed water
• Artificial recharge
• Facilities interconnections for optimization of groundwater withdrawals and efficiency of reuse
• Wetland augmentation
Implementing water supply management strategies is critical to sustaining existing supply, but in the east-central Florida area, management strategies alone will not meet all of the increase in demand. Alternative water sources will need to be developed. To help meet future demand, the District has identified potential alternative water sources, including:
• Brackish groundwater
• Surface water from the St. Johns River and the Taylor Creek Reservoir
• Seawater
7.3. Numerous Investigations, Pilot Projects & Technical Studies For Water Supply Development
Numerous investigations, pilot projects and technical studies are underway to provide critical information that water suppliers and others can use to evaluate options, complete engineering and design, and support permitting for facilities needed for water supply development.
For example, at the Taylor Creek Reservoir in eastern Orange County, the District and several local governments are exploring using the St. Johns River as a water supply source in east-central Florida. Currently the city of Cocoa operates a water supply facility at the reservoir, withdrawing approximately 10 mgd. There is potential that the reservoir could yield as much as 50 mgd.
In addition to these projects, the District is committed to reducing demand through increased water conservation and beneficial use. Water conservation practices we strongly encourage water supply utilities to implement include:
• Conservation rate structures for potable and reuse water
• Dual meters for potable and lawn irrigation uses
• Rain sensors on irrigation systems
• Mobile irrigation labs to improve efficiency
• Landscape ordinances
• Public education
7.4. Public Education
Public education is critical to reducing demand through conservation. The District has partnered with water supply utilities to implement a mass media public awareness campaign to broaden the reach of the conservation message. The campaign has been very successful in reaching more than 80 percent of the public within our District and changing the behavior of more than 700,000 people.
Increasing the beneficial use of reclaimed water will help reduce demand on our freshwater supplies. District-wide, only about 46 percent of the available reclaimed water is currently being used for beneficial reuse, so we do have significant quantities still available. Some of the issues we are working on to enhance beneficial reuse include:
• More wet weather storage
• Augmenting reclaimed water flows
• More cooperative, regional projects
7.5. Alternative Water Supply Cost-Sharing Program
The District’s Alternative Water Supply Cost-Sharing Program has helped implement dozens of reuse projects. One million dollars annually is contributed to these projects. Developing alternative water sources and implementing management strategies will not be as easy or inexpensive as water supply development has been in the past.
In many cases, public supply utilities will have to go beyond their service area boundaries for the first time to develop additional water supplies and will have to transport this water greater distances than before. The additional water supplies will most likely be more expensive sources of supply, such as surface water or seawater.
Technology exists to convert almost any of the water sources on the planet into freshwater, and if done properly, it can be done without significant negative environmental impacts. But new sources will increase the cost of water. The costs to develop and distribute these alternative supplies could pose major affordability issues for small utilities (with relatively small customer bases) unless these utilities cooperatively develop the supplies.
7.6. Water Supply Governance
Nothing is more important to successful water supply development than finding and implementing the right form of water supply governance. Establishment of multi-county or countywide types of utility organizations could result in an appealing cost distribution scenario. Resolving regional water supply issues will require coordination and cooperation among local governments and water supply utilities. Working together to plan for future water needs avoids lost time and money in legal battles over existing supplies, reduces total costs to develop new water supplies and maximizes benefits for all water users.
An important consideration when discussing sustainability and the development of alternative water sources is to ensure that surface water withdrawals don’t harm a water body’s ecological systems. To achieve this goal, the District establishes minimum flows and levels for water bodies being considered as sources. Using complex scientific modeling, minimum flows and levels determine how much water can be withdrawn from a source without significantly harming the water resources or ecology of an area.
The District’s permitting programs also work to protect the region’s water resources. The District issues two kinds of permits ( consumptive use permits, or CUPs, and environmental resource permits, or ERPs. The goal of the CUP program is to provide water for reasonable-beneficial uses while protecting the water resources of the District.
Municipalities, utilities, companies and individuals wishing to withdraw and use significant amounts of water must apply for a CUP. Before approving a permit, the District works with applicants to identify conservation and resource development measures that become part of the permit agreement.
The ERP program benefits Florida by preventing stormwater pollution to Florida’s lakes and streams and by protecting wetlands and floodplains. Anyone proposing construction of new facilities, including governmental agencies, developers building new residential or commercial areas, or anyone who wants to fill in wetlands must have an ERP prior to construction.
In the process of reviewing CUP and ERP applications, the District works with applicants to find the balance between human needs and those of the environment.
7.7. Conclusion
Collaboration is key in effectively protecting these vital resources. By working together, we can reduce the impact of Florida’s growth on surface and ground water resources.
Alternative water supplies, surface and groundwater protection and conservation measures can all help sustain this resource for our future. But the important thing is that we address these critical issues now. Ours is a quickly growing region, and water is a resource we all share. Cooperation in planning and carrying out resource-guided efforts is crucial to sustaining our prosperity.
For additional information on water supply topics, please visit the St. Johns District’s Web site at .
ECOTOURISM
Michael H. SLOTKIN: Educational partnerships, sustainability, and ecotourism project development
Abstract
This essay provides an overview of a transatlantic research exchange between faculty members from the Department of Environmental Economics at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics and business and biological science professors from the Florida Institute of Technology. Six multi-week exchanges, transpiring between May 2002 and August 2004, culminated in the completion of a feasibility study which assessed the viability of inaugurating a national birding festival in the Hortobágy-Tisza Lake area of Hungary’s eastern puszta. The development of this ecotourism project would serve to sustain both local culture and natural capital by creating conservation stakeholders.
Keywords: educational partnerships, sustainability, ecotourism, birding
8.1. Introduction
In September 2001 the U.S. Department of State awarded a three-year, $120,000 educational partnership grant for collaborative research exchanges between faculty of the Florida Institute of Technology (Florida Tech) and the Budapest University of Technology and Economics (Budapesti Műszaki és Gazdaságtudományi Egyetem or BME). The grant’s principal investigators, Florida Tech’s Gordon L. Nelson, Dean of the College of Science and Liberal Arts and BME’s Imre Hronszky, Head of the Department of Innovation Studies & History of Technology, sought to “[initiate] a permanent partnership between the two universities…[that would] contribute directly to Hungary’s efforts to confront urgent environmental problems and also to the region’s efforts to achieve a market economy within the European Union (Nelson and Hronszky [2001]).”
For three faculty members of Florida Tech’s College of Business, Karen Chambliss, Michael H. Slotkin, and Alexander R. Vamosi, a collaborative relationship was quickly established with BME’s János Szlávik, Head of the Department of Environmental Economics and Miklós Füle, an associate professor in Szlávik’s department. At an early juncture in the partnership, John G. Morris, a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at Florida Tech, joined the ecotourism collaboration. The centerpiece of the relationship, a subject which Chambliss, Slotkin, and Vamosi had written about extensively, concerned ecotourism. By definition ecotourism adheres to the notion of sustainability, whether it involves conservation of nature, community well-being, or local heritage and culture (Wood [2002]; TIES [2005]). In the context of the overall educational partnership, ecotourism research would constitute a market-based approach towards preserving the natural and historical capital of Hungary, assets which in Hungary, as in many parts of the globe, are continually threatened by the spectre of rural poverty.
Ecotourism’s sustainability dividend is paid by creating local environmental stakeholders: those who materially profit from the region’s biologic diversity and have a vested interest in maintaining ecological functionality. For Hungarians, the salient question is one of incubation; in short, how to transform an embryonic market niche into a viable, lucrative, tourism draw. Public policy is directed towards that goal, with various agencies (e.g., government ministries, national parks, tourism offices) devoting financial resources and personnel for ecotourism planning and project design. Hungarian private enterprise, however, has marginally explored ecotourism’s market potential, but as a transitional economy, entrepreneurship is not yet firmly embedded in the Hungarian mindset.
Thus, the raison d’être of the Florida Tech-BME ecotourism partnership evolved into a project development exercise; namely, to unveil a marketable nature tourism theme that would exploit, in a sustainable manner, a currently underutilized Hungarian environmental asset. Fortunately, the Florida Tech business faculty had amassed substantial research and practical experience examining a burgeoning ecotourism market niche in the United States: birdwatching or birding. In particular, Chambliss, Slotkin, and Vamosi, during the past five years, have conducted several economic impact studies of birding and wildlife festivals held in the state of Florida (e.g., Chambliss et al. [2005]).
Would it be possible to incorporate the birding and wildlife festival theme in Hungary, and in so doing, catalyze a nascent birding market? In essence, the three year ecotourism partnership coalesced around that pursuit, effectuated by a feasibility study, conducted in conjunction with the Hungarian National Tourism Office, to determine whether a first ever Florida-style birding event could be staged in Hungary’s eastern puszta. The balance of this essay reviews this collaborative effort.
8.2. Birding and Festivals: The Transplantable Theme
The impetus for developing Hungarian bird-related tourism is derived from its enormous market potential. In the United States, demographic and economic trends associated with bird and wildlife viewing observation noteworthy. According to a National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Association Recreation (2001), 66.1 million people age 16 years and older engaged in wildlife observation, spending almost $40 billion per year, with birding comprising about 80 percent of that total. In Britain, a likely target draw for the Hungarian market, the Royal Society for the Preservation of Birds has seen its membership increase by over 500,000 during the past twenty years (The Economist [2005]).
Unknown even to most Magyars, Hungary, in fact, is one of the premier birding locales in central Europe, a subject which Gabrielle Griffin explores in a companion essay in this sustainability yearbook. But the birding industry is in its infancy, typically serviced by a small number of low-volume tour operators. A signature event such as a national birding festival may serve to promote the development of a broader birding industry by introducing visitors to a diversity of landscapes and species they would not ordinarily experience.
So how then would one describe the birding and wildlife festival niche? In short, these events are typically 3 to 4 day celebrations of birds, indigenous plants, and wildlife. Festival organizers utilize wildlife refuges, parks, and other protected lands, seeking to educate visitors about specie and habitat conservation as well as generate an economic impact for the local community. These organizers may be private individuals who accept personal financial risk in organizing the event; indeed, the success of birding and wildlife festivals, like any enterprise, adheres to the standard financial trade-off of risk versus reward. It is likely that in Hungary, with its paucity of entrepreneurial activity, a potential festival would materialize out of a public undertaking with some private backing.
In the state of Florida, the proliferation of birding events is evidenced by the festival calendar during the autumn migratory season (see Table 8.1.). The Space Coast Birding & Wildlife Festival, the oldest and most significant birding festival in Florida, is less than a decade old. Since the turn of the millennium, five major festivals have been added to the register spanning all regions of Florida and southern Georgia. In North America, festivals are being organized from Texas to Nova Scotia, reflecting the increasing popularity of birding both nationally and internationally.
Table 8. 1. Autumn Birding & Wildlife Festivals, Florida & Southern Georgia
Nature Coast Birding & Wildlife Experience September 29-October2, 2005
Cedar Key, Florida
Florida Keys Birding & Wildlife Festival September 30-October2, 2005
Marathon, Florida
Florida Panhandle Birding & Wildflower Festival October 6-8, 2005
Port St. Joe, Florida
Florida Birding & Nature Festival October 6-9, 2005
events-fbf.html St. Petersburg, Florida
Georgia’s Colonial Coast Birding & Nature Festival October 7-9, 2005
Jekyll Island, Georgia
Space Coast Birding & Wildlife Festival November 16-20, 2005
fly Titusville, Florida
It is the Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival, however, that provides the suggested template for a potential Hungarian celebration, a subject Chambliss discusses in this volume. This is due to the organizational scope and maturity of the festival, the breadth and diversity of activities and talent brought to bear, and the historical experience that Florida Tech professors have with the event. The next section details the six ecotourism exchange visits that transpired between May 2002 and August 2004.
8.3. Chronicles
In hindsight, the idea of assessing the feasibility of transplanting a Florida-style birding festival in Hungary seems perfectly obvious; yet truth be told, the idea only crystallized at the collaboration’s midpoint. For the ecotourism exchange participants, 2002 marked an introductory period where American and Hungarian professors were exposed to their international colleagues’ academic environments, cultures, environmental assets, and students. Szlávik and Füle embarked on a month long exchange to Florida Tech during the late spring where they offered public lectures and classroom seminars delving into the environmental issues faced by Hungary. In addition, regional ecotourism visits were conducted to familiarize the Magyars with state of the industry in the southeastern U.S. Finally, several planning sessions were held in preparation for an early summer visit to Hungary by Florida Tech faculty for ecotourism workshops, to be held in Eger at Eszterházy Károly College.
The workshops, sponsored by a $20,000 grant from Hungarian Science & Technology Foundation, U.S.-Hungarian Science & Technology Joint Fund, brought together professors from Florida Tech, BME, Colorado State University, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe and Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea. In addition, Hungarian ministry and tourism officials as well as regional development and national park personnel also participated. The idea of utilizing birding and wildlife festivals as an ecotourism promotional device was introduced to a moderately receptive audience. The balance of the Florida Tech contingent’s two-week stay was comprised of site visits (e.g., Hortobágy National Park, Tisza Lake Preserve) and discussions with officials from the Institute for Environmental Management, the Department for Strategic Planning and Cooperation, and the Regional Environmental Center.
During autumn 2002, Morris traveled to Hungary for a visit designed to plan a summer ecotourism course for Florida Tech students. A number of site visits were conducted (e.g., Aggtelek National Park, Tokaj, Kis-Balaton, Lake Fertő) as well as an informative meeting with a lead official of the Ministry of the Environment and Water. Morris’ visit closed ecotourism exchanges for 2002. The next visit would occur approximately nine months later.
In early summer 2003, Florida Tech professors again journeyed to Hungary for an exchange which included site visits and interviews, but this time they carried a specific proposal. For the duration of the partnership the ecotourism exchange participants would assess the feasibility of establishing a Florida-style birding festival in the Hortobágy-Tisza Lake region. Preliminary assessments by Morris (see his essay in this yearbook volume) affirmed the infrastructural support (i.e., lodging, amenities, etc.) for a festival at Hortobágy-Tisza Lake, and the diversity of bird species, a critical determinant in forming a decision about a prospective locale, was confirmed in interviews with birding experts (e.g., Markus Ferenc of WWF-Hungary). Perhaps most importantly, a beneficial partnership in conducting the feasibility study was formalized when the Hungarian National Tourism Office agreed to co-sponsor the project, providing research support and an agreement to publish the study upon its completion (see Figure 8.1.).
[pic]
Source: M. Slotkin
Figure 8.1. HNTO Meeting Establishing Co-sponsorship of Feasibility Study
Standing left to right: Z. Szilágyi, Product Manager, HNTO; M. Slotkin; A. Vamosi; and K. Chambliss; M. Herczeg, Ph.D. Student, BME-Environmental Economics (standing behind Chambliss); and L. Oláh, Director of Product Development, HNTO. Budapest, 25/06/03
During late autumn 2003, Szlávik and Füle journeyed back to Florida Tech to witness first-hand the Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival and to participate in a feasibility study seminars. One critical component of any feasibility study is ascertaining who comprises the potential market. It was decided that market research would be gathered by surveying British birders at the British Birdwatching Fair, one of the premier birding events in Europe. For several reasons which Vamosi discusses in a later chapter in this yearbook, British birders comprise a likely target market for a prospective Hungarian Birding Festival. Thus, the final exchange visit between Florida Tech and BME ecotourism researchers, planned for late August 2004, transpired in the United Kingdom at the Egleton Nature Reserve near the town of Oakham, England. Data collected at the British Birdwatching Fair led to the completion of the feasibility study in winter 2005. Table 8.2. provides a chronology of the visits that occurred during the three-year partnership.
Table 8.2. Florida Tech-BME Ecotourism Exchange Visits
May 6, 2002-June 8, 2002
Szlávik and Füle visit Florida Tech
Key activities: regional ecotourism visits; public and classroom lectures
June 22, 2002-July 7, 2002
Chambliss, Morris, Slotkin and Vamosi visit BME
Key activities: ecotourism workshop held in Eger; field excursions at Bükk National Park, Hortobágy National Park, and Tisza Lake Preserve; discussions with the Institute for Environmental Management, the Department for Strategic Planning and Cooperation, Ministry for Environment, and the Regional Environmental Center
September 28, 2002-October 5, 2002
Morris visits BME
Key activities: site visits for the purpose of designing a summer ecotourism course in Hungary (e.g.,) Aggtelek National Park, Tisza Lake, Tokaj, Kis-Balaton, Lake Fertő; meeting with Head of the Department of Environmental Awareness, Ministry of the Environment and Water
June 20, 2003-July 5, 2003
Chambliss, Morris, Slotkin and Vamosi visit BME
Key activities: meeting with the Hungarian National Tourism Office (letter of commitment for National Hungarian Birding Festival feasibility study is established); discussions with World Wildlife Fund-Hungary; site visits to Aggtelek National Park and Gemenc Forest; interview with BME student newspaper
October 29, 2003-November 25, 2003
Szlávik and Füle visit Florida Tech
Key activities: feasibility study workshops; observation of the Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival; classroom lectures
August 9, 2004-August 23, 2004
Chambliss, Morris, Slotkin, Vamosi, Szlávik, and Füle visit the British Birdwatching Fair in Oakham, England
Key activities: data gathering at the largest birding festival in Europe
8.4. Defining Success
Whether the proposed Hungarian birding festival actualizes is contingent upon many factors, not the least of which are the financial, logistical, and cultural hurdles faced by transplanting a foreign theme into a transitional economy. One cautionary note which surrounds this project is the appropriate definition of success. Birding and wildlife festivals can be contributory measures towards alleviating rural poverty, promoting conservation, and achieving a more sustainable way of life. Residents of Hungary’s untouched regions may find income generation opportunities which supplement wages earned in their traditional occupations. For some, ecotourism ventures may become their sole livelihood. For most, ecotourism may offer the potential for augmenting their livelihoods during certain seasons of the year.
But birding and ecotourism are not singular cures for the regional development issues which afflict Hungary’s rural communities. Regional unemployment difficulties will not be rectified by transitioning untouched areas into a land of ecotourism guides. Nor, for that matter, would the advocates of this event want it that way. Those searching for the big idea, the so-called quick fix, will be disappointed. The big idea occurred when Hungary transitioned to a market-based economy. Economic development occurs foremost due to productivity advancements and the unleashing of a multitude of smaller ideas, to which birding and ecotourism belong. The ecotourism research partners look forward with optimism towards developing this project in Hungary.
Bibliography
Chambliss, Karen, Slotkin, Michael H. and Vamosi, Alexander R. (2005): The economic impact of the 8th annual Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival, Center for Applied Business Research, Florida Institute of Technology, [Online] fly
The Economist (2005, March 19): Birdwatching: Starling-struck, p. 63.
Nelson, Gordon L. and Hronszky, Imre (2001): Addressing environmental obstacles to developing a market economy through a partnership program in environmental studies, proposal submitted to the U.S. Information Agency, U.S. Department of State.
TIES (The International Ecotourism Society) (2005): [Online]
U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (2002): 2001 national survey of fishing, hunting, and wildlife-associated recreation, [Online]
Wood, Megan E. (2002): Ecotourism: Principles, practices & policies for sustainability, UNEP & TIES, Burlington, VT.
Sustainability’s New Age, Preservation and Planning (SNAP), An International Sustainability Forum (2005): Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA
Karen CHAMBLISS: The Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival
Abstract
Birding and wildlife festivals in the United States, particularly Florida, have proliferated in recent years. Benefits derived are an economic impact to the local economy and renewed or initial appreciation by area residents for local ecosystems, treasures little known or acknowledged prior to the publicity generated by the festivals. Here the birding and wildlife festival is described and the transplantation of a similar ecotourism event to Hungary is discussed.
Keywords: economic impact, ecosystems, ecotourism, birding
9.1. The origin of The Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival
The Space Coast Birding & Wildlife Festival (hereafter referred to as the Festival) was the first such festival in the state of Florida. Birding expert, Pete Dunne, Director of the Cape May Birding Festival, considers this the third ranked festival in the entire United States, a monumental feat when one considers that the annual Festival is a mere eight years of age.
The Festival was the brainchild of Ms. Laurilee Thompson, a successful entrepreneur and fifth-generation Floridian. Ms. Thompson, an avid outdoorswoman, noted that the state of Texas had begun developing birding and wildlife festivals. Realizing that Florida, particularly the east central coastal area, had a unique abundance of flora and fauna that would attract birders and ecotourists, she organized the first festival in 1997. As an added incentive, she wanted to make local residents more aware of the treasures in their own community. The Festival has metamorphosed into a role model for ecotourism events throughout the state under the guidance of Ms. Thompson and Ms. Neta Harris, Director of the Brevard Nature Alliance. A dynamic team, Ms. Thompson functions as the outside coordinator and Ms. Harris as the internal coordinator. A steering committee, comprised of diverse, experienced members, leads dozens of volunteers and oversees the proper management of the grants, donations, and sponsorships from governmental, private and corporate entities.
Ms. Thompson maintains an extensive network of environmental experts, many of whom participate as guides and keynote speakers for the annual event. Ms. Harris, an accomplished grant writer, has garnered her own network of financial resources that has a vested interest in the Festival’s success.
9.2. The present state of the Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival
Today, the Festival is comprised of more than one hundred seventy activities, providing educational seminars, workshops, keynote speakers, adventures such as field trips in airboats and kayaks, pelagic boat trips to view sea birds, and bird banding in the field. Birders, from beginners to experts, search for a glimpse of many of the endangered and protected species that inhabit the area, including but not limited to the Florida Scrub Jay, the Whooping Crane, and manatee in their natural habitat. (Ecotourists have an added incentive to return in a few months to observe the sea turtles laying their eggs or, later, the hatchlings emerging from their nests on the Brevard County shores.) The Festival also offers instructional workshops led by world-renowned experts in nature photography and digiscoping, a term coined for digital photography using a zoom lens. Skilled experts offer tips on where to find birds and butterflies and how to identify them. A variety of workshops are targeted to ecotourists of all skill levels.
Brevard County, the host county for the Festival, has an abundance of protected lands, thanks to the foresight and diligent planning of a small group of inspired local citizens. Protected areas include the Merritt Island and Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuges, the Enchanted Forest, the Canaveral National Seashore, and many other protected lands. Indian River County’s Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge provides registrants the opportunity to explore a unique national treasure. Just south of Brevard County, the Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge, the first refuge in the national refuge system, was dedicated in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt. Brevard County, home to the Kennedy Space Center, provides a dramatic contrast between nature and human efforts to explore beyond Earth’s boundaries.
9.3. Economic Impact
The economics of protected lands serve as an incentive for environmental stewardship beyond the aesthetics of preserving ecosystems. Ecotourism events typically do not dominate the economy of an area; however, their potential to enhance local economies can be dramatic. Although the Festival spans only five days, in November 2003 Brevard County’s economy was enriched by nearly $500,000 in direct and induced spending. The half-million dollar figure does not include spending beyond the timeframe of the Festival; this distinction is relevant as many visitors arrive early or remain in the area for a period of time outside the Festival’s official scheduled period. Measurement of the economic impact realized from the extended visits is outside the scope of the cited economic impact study.
The economic impact was determined by surveying Festival attendees. Folks attending the 2003 Festival are categorized into two population groups: (1) birding enthusiasts, who are primarily non-local registrants, and (2) vendors, sponsors, exhibitors, and presenters who constitute the nucleus of the Festival. Registrants are defined as those individuals who visited the area specifically to attend the Festival. In some instances, participants registered months in advance of the celebration.
Data collected from surveying the Festival attendees also were used to determine profiles of the visitors who spawn this economic benefit. Spending patterns of Festival registrants show distinct differences between the two groups cited above, and within sub-categories in the first group. The first group, birding enthusiasts, is sub-categorized as:
(a) non-local registrants who spent, on average, about $550 per person, and
(b) other birding enthusiasts who spent, on average, about $140 per person.
The second group (vendors, sponsors, exhibitors, and presenters) spent just under $300 per person on average.
Visitors assigned their spending to one of five categories. The greatest proportion (35 percent) of total direct spending was for recreation. Retail purchases made up 24 percent, lodging comprised 23 percent, while food and drink accounted for 13 percent of direct spending. Only 5 percent was attributed to auto expenses. Transportation costs to and from the Festival were not included, as those dollars did not economically impact Brevard County.
9.4. Visitor demographics
Who are these visitors? The Festival attracts more highly educated individuals than the general population ( one in four held a Ph.D. or professional degree. As would be expected with a higher education level, the visitors are wealthier ( one in five reported a household yearly income exceeding $100,000.
More females than males attended the Festival and most registrants (84%) were more than 46 years of age. The peak age groups were 46-55, 56-65, and 66-75.
9.5. Festival Financing
Organizers of the Festival delineated income sources for the Festival in two distinct categories: cash sources and in-kind donations. Eighty-nine percent of the organizers’ budget emanates from grants and sponsorships, registration and exhibitor fees, donations, and proceeds from a silent auction of items donated by various businesses and organizations.
In-kind donations account for the remaining eleven percent of the budget. Examples of the in-kind donations are advertising, administrative services, and use of the facilities. Of course, use of public lands and personnel employed by the state, county, and federal agencies are difficult to quantify and are not included in this total. Ann Birch, elsewhere in this publication, addresses the importance of protecting ecosystems both from a biological and an economic perspective.
9.6. Conclusions
Before visiting Hungary in the summers of 2002 and 2003, the immense biological wealth of Hungary was unrealized by the Florida Tech ecotourism team. Hungary has protected a vast amount of its ecosystems. Attribution centers on two factors: (1) the foresight of Hungarians in a position to influence the set-aside of unique and varied areas of the country, and (2) the benign neglect of most areas outside Budapest due to political unrest and occupation by various political powers.
Regardless of the causes, the fortunate outcome is that Hungary is a perfect setting for an ecotourism event such as a birding and wildlife festival (see Griffin in this publication). Dr. John Morris, elsewhere in this publication, examines Hungary’s natural capital, cultural heritage, and infrastructure from a viewpoint of opportunity strengths and weaknesses.
Bibliography
Harris, Neta (2004): 2003 Festival Wrap-Up and Observations
The Brevard Nature Alliance’s Year-Round Guide to Space Coast Birding, Wildlife & Paddling, 2003
Chambliss, K., Slotkin, M.H., and Vamosi, A.R.: The Economic Impact of the 7th Annual Space Coast Birding & Wildlife Festival, Hosted in Brevard County, Florida, November 2003
John G. MORRIS: Festival prerequisites: Hungary’s biological, cultural, and infrastructure assets
Abstract
This paper examines the biological, cultural, and infrastructure assets of the Hortobágy-Tisza Lake area to ascertain if they are sufficient to support ecotourism and in particular a bird and wildlife festival. Biological assets are examined with respect to the support and protection of the present day biodiversity. Ecotourism and its impact on the biological assets are examined along with some of the cultural assets and the opportunities they afford the ecotourist. Infrastructure assets are examined with a SWOT analysis especially transportation, accommodations, the work force, and financial capital.
Keywords: eoctourism, sustainability, biological and cultural assets, infrastructure assets
10.1. Introduction
Ecotourism is one of the most rapidly growing areas of the tourism industry with a reported 30 million international travelers participating in this type of tourism in 1998. (WTO) [2001]. It has been estimated that the demand for this type of tourism in the international market will increase 20 percent annually. Ecotourism satisfies the demands of the tourist to visit exotic and far away locations but it also places tangible value on natural and cultural resources. This form of tourism will generate green incomes for both tour companies and the local people of the visited area. The World Tourism Organization [2001] reported that safari tours in Kenya generated $54 million in 1995 with 23 percent of the revenue paid to the communities adjacent to the parks and reserves. Vámosi [2003] reported a total economic effect of $2.86 billion for wildlife viewing in Florida.
An ecotourism event HUNGARIAN BIRDING AND WILDLIFE DAYS is being proposed for Hungary, modeled after a Florida bird and wildlife festival described by Chambliss [2003]. The proposed venue is the Hortobágy National Park and the Tisza Lake area of eastern Hungary. Since the 1960s Hungary has promoted rural tourism (Slotkin [2003]) but with only modest success due to low international demand, lack of financial resources, and a weak infrastructure. Since sustainable ecotourism requires many of the same assets as rural tourism the following question must be asked. Are the necessary prerequisites in place to support the proposed the event and future ecotourism events? The major prerequisites to be examined are the biological, cultural, and infrastructure assets of Hungary in general and in particular the Hortobágy National Park and the Tisza Lake area.
10.2. Biological Assets: Natural Capital
Hungary is a relatively small country (93,000 km²) located in the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe. In spite of its size Hungary has a rich biodiversity represented by 45,000 animal species, and 2.200 plant species. The target group with respect to a bird and wildlife festival, the aviafauna of Hungary, is well represented with between 323 species (McDonald [2004]) and 373 species (Fallon [2000]). This biological diversity is the result of Hungary’s geographic position, and its geologic, historic, and political background (Tardy [2002]).
Hungary’s geographic location positions the country in a transition area of the north temperate climate zone resulting in a variety of climatic conditions. The northeastern region of Hungary experiences the transition from the cold temperate continental climate to the warm temperate climate zone. Southern Hungary has another transitional region separating the humid and semi-arid climatic zones. The diversity of climatic regions in Hungary supports a diverse assemblage of animal and plant species ranging form those with cold northern affinities to species with humid subtropical affinities.
The geologic history of Hungary has resulted in the formation of a variety of landscape types and six biogeographic zones. The biogeographic zones can be reduced to three major zones, the Northern Hills, the Transdanubian Uplands, and the Great Plain (Gorman [1996]). The Northern Hills (15,000 km²) extend from the Danube bend to the north-eastern corner of Hungary with a maximum elevation of 1015 m. This zone consists of seven ranges covered primarily by decidous forest with many southern exposures planted with vineyards. This zone also includes karst landscapes with some of the most beautiful caves in Europe. The Transdanubian uplands (25,000 km²) west of the Danube River consist of rolling forested hills and low elevation plains. The Great Plain (53,000km², approximately 50 percent of the Hungarian land mass) is located east of the Danube River and south of the Northern Hills This biogeographic zone is divided approximately in half by the Tisza River. The characteristic ecosystem is the grassland or Puszta. Floodplain and riverine forests can be found along the Tisza River. These diverse landscapes and their contained ecosystems provide the heterogeneity necessary to further support the rich biodiversity observed in Hungary.
Throughout its history, other political groups have periodically occupied Hungary. As a result of each of these occupations Hungary was left economically devastated and underdeveloped but the natural systems were not greatly fragmented. This mosaic of ecosystems has maintained their biodiversity throughout the periods of occupation and into the new millennium (Tardy [2002]).
The protection of Hungary’s biodiversity has been facilitated through changes in land use practices, conservation legislation and land preservation (Tardy [2000]). The deforestation practices prevalent since the ninth century are being restructured and the area of land under cultivation has decreased steadily. By 2000 the area taken out of cultivation grew by 80 percent compared to 1970 (Szabó and Pomázi [2002]). Hungary has been very proactive in their conservation efforts since the 15th century. In 1426 King Sigismund decreed the considerate use of forests, Charles III regulated hunting of wild animals and birds in 1792, and Leopold II decreed the prevention of deforestation in 1879. The 1900s was a period of the passage of extensive legislation protecting wildlife, natural areas, and the establishment of the natural park system (Tardy [2002]). Since 1990 the extent of protected areas has grown a dramatic 35 percent with a three fold growth in national parks (Szabó and Pomázi [2002]). At present approximately 10 percent of the land area of Hungary is under protection. This value is expected to increase to 30 percent with current conservation practices and legislation (Tardy [2002]).
10.3. Ecotourism and Its Impact on Biological Assets
Every ecotourism event has a negative impact on the environment (Leung and Marion [2000]). These impacts could result in the elimination of or a reduced tourist interest in a particular venue (Morris and Griffin [2003]). Sustainable ecotourism is only possible if the negative impacts can be eliminated or reduced to an acceptable level. One way to address this problem with respect to the proposed Hungarian Birding and Wildlife Days is to designate the Hortobágy National Park and the Tisza Lake area as the main venue and select other sites such as Aggtelek National Park, Bükk National Park, Kisunság National Park, and Körös-Maros National Park as additional venues. All of the additional venues are within the Great Plain and the Northern Hills biogeographic zone and are less than a days travel from the main venue. Utilization of these sites would serve the dual purpose of reducing visitor impact at any one venue and expand the ecotourism experience by introducing the ecotourists to different ecosystems and their respective biodiversity.
10.4. Festival Venues
A comprehensive description of the ecosystems, their wildlife, and other significant features of each venue are provided by Füle et al. [2004]. An abbreviated description will be provided for this paper.
Hortobágy, Kisunság, and Körös-Maros National Parks and Tisza Lake are all located within the Great Plain biogeographic zone. Collectively they are characterized by saliferous grasslands or Puszta, sand dunes, marshlands, gallery forests and riverine forests along the Tisza River. These parks are well known for their abundant bird life especially the waterfowl and wading birds and they serve as essential resting and nesting areas for migratory waterfowl. Approximately 250,000 birds migrate through these parks annually. The habitats within these parks are also home to some of the most endangered species of wildlife and plants in Hungary, most notably the Great Bustard (Otis tarda) and the Transylvanian Pheasant’s Eye (Adonis transylvanicus).
Aggtelek and Bükk National Parks are located within the Northern Hills biogeographic zone. Decidous forests characterize the ecosystems of these parks with beech representing the dominant species. Several rare and unique species are found here some of which with affinities that date back to the last ice age. These parks are within the karst landscape of the northern hills and some of the most intriguing features are subterranean. Some of the most beautiful caves in Europe are located in the Northern Hills biogeographic zone of Hungary.
10.5. Cultural Assets
Cultural assets are a necessary and required component of any ecotourism event. Wight’s [1997] profile of the ecotourist describes a traveler interested in experiencing a broad range of activities from nature related activities to the cultural of the area. The cultural assets of Hungary are varied and over 10 centuries of cultural heritage awaits the ecotourists. This description of cultural assets in this paper will be confined to those of the Great Plain and the Northern Hills.
Depending on the interests of the traveler a myriad of cultural activities is possible. Most of the cultural heritage of the region will focus on folk art and crafts, the mineral spas, wine production, architecture, and the rural, pastoral lifestyle. There are numerous folk festivals held annually throughout the Great Plain and the Northern Hills celebrating the arts and culture of Hungary.
The folk art of the Tisza Lake area is best known for its beautiful and functional pottery. This pottery can be traced back to the Neolithic period (Füle et al. [2004]). Visitors have the opportunity to not only observe the master craftsman but to test their own abilities at making pottery. Other folk art of this area involves furniture and saddle making. A trip to the Northern Hills is not complete without visiting the city of Eger the gateway to the Northern Hills. Visitors have the opportunity to partake of the medicinal spas, view the Baroque architecture of the Lyceum and numerous churches, visit the historic castle, and sample the full-bodied and light wines in the numerous wine cellars of the area. The other wine producing area of Tokaj is located to the northeast of Eger. The Aggtelek area offers the tourist more glimpses of the past with a visit to the village of Jósvafő. Time honored methods of agriculture and husbandry are demonstrated, traditional bread baking with a hands on approach is possible. Some of the oldest churches in Hungary can be found in this area. Classes of one and a half hours to a week, involving bread baking, pottery and other crafts are available to the ecotourists. This ancestral lifestyle can also be experienced with a visit to the city of Hóllokő. The Hortobágy National Park area provides the possibility to slow down and step back in time while examining the traditional rural, pastoral lifestyle. The Shepherd Museum describes the typical life of the Puszta shepherd, their dress and the implements they used. The Hungarian grey cattle, buffalo, and spiral horned Racka sheep can be viewed throughout the Hortobágy. In the village of Máta is located the famous Hortobágy stud. The Nonius strain of horses has been bred there for at least three centuries. Farm holidays are possible in this area as well as other areas of the Great Plain.
10.6. Infrastructure Assets
The Tisza Lake Region Development Council [2004] conducted a SWOT analysis in order to assess the developmental capacity of the Tisza Lake area, one aspect of which would be ecotourism (Table 10.1.). The biological and cultural assets were found to be more than sufficient to support ecotourism. The principle issues of concern involve transportation, accommodations, financial capital and the labor force.
The transportation system to bring visitors to the area is well developed but once there travel within the area can be difficult due to narrow, poor quality roads. This problem is somewhat offset due to the shorter travel distances between locations (Füle et al. {2004]). Several branch lines provide railway access to the area.
Housing in the Hortobágy and Tisza Lake area can accommodate approximately 40,000 individuals per night in hotels, private residents, youth hostels, and campgrounds. Most recently a greater share of the accommodations have been taken by private residences many of which are of poor quality and offer few services.
The human capital of the area provides the work force, but this work force lacks the specialized knowledge required for ecotourism, and there is limited skill in other languages especially English. This can be remedied through language training and professional training related to tourism provided the funding is forth coming for the education of the labor force. Lack of financial capital will be somewhat abated as funds from the European Union become available.
Table 10..1. SWOT Analysis of the Developmental Capacity of the Tisza Lake Region
| |Strengths |Weaknesses |
|Opportu|Tisza lake has an almost intact natural |Lack of employment opportunities |
|nities |environment |Large proportions of enterprises undertaken by |
| |The M3 Expressway and Main Road 33 |necessity, lack of innovative competitive |
| |Thermal water reserves |enterprises |
| |Traditional lowland and mountain villages, |Brief tourist season |
| |cultural and folklore values |Lack of high quality lodging, low-level services |
| |Distinguished recreation area |Lack of specialized knowledge |
| |Existence of a Regional Development Council |Language skills |
| |Unique tourist attractions |Development of transit system infrastructure |
| |Great variety of tourist activities |Increase in profitable enterprises with solid |
| |Proximity to the Hortobágy National Park and |capital, development of industrial parks |
| |Mátra-Bükk |Demand for tourism related professional training |
| |Able skilled workforce |and education |
| |Access to EU funds | |
| |Overall management and development of | |
| |high-quality products and services in the field| |
| |of tourism | |
| |Lengthening the tourist season | |
| |Increase in environmental awareness | |
| |Appreciation of particular values of nature and| |
| |culture | |
| |Improvements in the cooperation between the | |
| |economic and social sectors | |
|Threats|Proximity to the Hortobágy National Park and |Low receptiveness to environmental protection |
| |Mátra-Bükk |Difficulties in the traffic system |
| |Aging and impoverished resident population |Lack of capital |
| | |Lack of specialized knowledge |
| | |Language skills |
| | |Slow improvement in the transit system |
| | |Increase market competition with nearby regions |
| | |Low budget sources for local governments, very |
| | |poor tendency to profit from available |
| | |opportunities |
| | |Lack of cooperation between the private and public|
| | |sector, respectively the local governments |
| | | |
Source: Tisza Lake Region Development Council [2004]
10.7. Concluding Remarks
The biological and cultural assets are more than sufficient to support ecotourism and a bird and wildlife festival in the Hortobágy-Tisza Lake region. The infrastructure assets especially those associated with accommodations and education must be improved before sustainable ecotourism will be successful in the Hortobágy-Tisza Lake region.
Bibliography
Chambliss K. (2003): Birding And Wildlife Festival As A Mechanism to Promote Nature Tourism In Hungary, in: How Science Can Support Environmental Protection: Florida Tech-BME Partnership Programme Yearbook 2003., Eds Gordon Nelson and Imre Hronszky
Fallon S. (2000): Hungary, 3rd ed. Pub. Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd.
Füle, M., Griffin,G., Morris, J. and Csigéné Nagypál, N. (2004): Antecedents for Change: Natural and Cultural Capital, in: Science Supporting Environmental Protection: Florida Tech-BME Partnership Programme Yearbook 2004., Eds Gordon Nelson and Imre Hronszky
Gorman, G. (1996): The Birds of Hungary, Christopher Helm Ltd., London
Leung Y. and Marion J. (2000): Recreation Impacts and Management in Wilderness: A State-of-Knowledge Review, USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-15- Vol-5
McDonald T. (2004): Hungary Hotspots,
Morris J. and Griffin G. (2003): Ecotourism: Challenges to Sustainability, in: How Science Can Support Environmental Protection: Florida Tech-BME Partnership Programme Yearbook 2003., Eds. Gordon Nelson and Imre Hronszky
Slotkin M. (2003): Ecotourism In Practice: Birding and Wildlife Festivals, in: How Science Can Support Environmental Protection: Florida Tech-BME Partnership Programme Yearbook 2003., Eds. Gordon Nelson and Imre Hronszky
Szabó E. and Pomázi I. Eds. (2002): Key Environmental Indicators of Hungary, Ministry for Environment, Budapest
Tardy J. Editor (2002): Cherishing Hungary’s Heritage: The National Parks and World Heritage Sites, TermeészetBÚVÁR Alapítvány Kiadó, Budapest
Tisza Lake Region Development Council (2004): Evaluation of the Tisza Lake Region
Vámosi A. (2003): The Economic Benefits of Wildlife Viewing: From The Space Coast To Magyarország, in: How Science Can Support Environmental Protection: Florida Tech-BME Partnership Programme Yearbook 2003., Eds. Gordon Nelson and Imre Hronszky
Wight, P. (1996): North American Ecotourists: Market Profile and Trip Characteristics, Journal of Travel Research (Spring): 2-10
World Tourism Organization (2001): Tourism Highlights,
Gabrielle GRIFFIN: Hungary’s Comparative Advantage: Birds and Migration Pathways
Abstract
Ecotourism can provide economic stimulation to nations that have the natural capital to attract people to their region. Hungary, and more specifically the Hortobágy, is ripe with opportunities for recreation, wildlife viewing, and birding. But what gives Hungary a competitive advantage over other nations in the region? This chapter serves to show how Hungary compares to other countries of Europe in terms of its birdlife and describes several species of interest which occupy the Hortobágy during some, if not all, of the year.
Keywords: Hortobágy, Hungary, birding, ecotourism
11.1. Introduction
Foreign tourism is an important source of income in Hungary (Gorman [2004]). But what is it exactly that draws tourists to this area? The answer to this question is simple: the bird life. Birders from around the world visit Hungary to behold the diversity of bird species that flock to this region. For this chapter, I will begin by describing the bird diversity in the surrounding region. I will then continue with a description of the spatial and temporal variations and biodiversity of birds in Hungary. I will follow with a description of some of the birdlife that can be viewed in an area of Hungary known as the Hortobágy.
11.2. Birding in Central Europe
Hungary has been described as having a value-for-money tourist infrastructure and as being one of Europe’s best birding destinations (Birding Hungary [2004]). But how does it compare to surrounding countries in terms of its bird diversity? Some authors claim that approximately 323 species of birds can be found within Hungary’s borders (MacDonald [2004c]) while others believe the numbers to be even higher (373 spp) (Fallon [2000]). If one were to consider only the most conservative species estimate (323 spp) Hungary would rank fourth below Austria (408 spp), Yugoslavia (348 spp), and Romania (343 spp) (Table 11.1.). In terms of the number of endangered species found within each country, Hungary ranks fourth surpassed only by Yugoslavia, the Ukraine, and Romania (Table 11.1.). Hungary may not have the highest number of species overall, but it still remains one of the premier birding countries in the region, possibly due to the political and economic stability in this region of Europe.
Table11. 1. Bird Diversity in Countries Surrounding Hungary
|Country |Number of Bird |National |European |Endangered Species |Source |
| |Species |Endemics |Endemics | | |
|Austria |408 |None |4 – Citril |3- Corn Crake, Ferruginous |MacDonald |
| |(50 families) | |Finch, Crested |Pochard, Great Bustard |[2004a] |
| | | |Tit, Parrot | | |
| | | |Crossbill, Rock| | |
| | | |Partridge | | |
|Slovak Republic|225 |None |None |4-Corn Cake, Great Bustard, |MacDonald |
| |(44 families) | | |Imperial Eagle, Greater |[2004e] |
| | | | |Spotted Eagle | |
|Ukraine |319 |None |None |10-Aquatic Warbler, Corn |MacDonald |
| |(48 families) | | |Cakes, Dalmation, Pelican, |[2004g] |
| | | | |Ferruginous Pochard, Great | |
| | | | |Bustard, Greater Spotted | |
| | | | |Eagle, Imperial Eagle, Lesser| |
| | | | |Kestrel, Red-breasted Goose, | |
| | | | |Slender-billed Curlew | |
|Romania |343 |None |1-Rock |11-Corn Crake, Dalmation |MacDonald |
| |(48 families) | |Partridge |Pelican, Ferruginous Pohard, |[2004d] |
| | | | |Great Bustard, Greater | |
| | | | |Spotted Eagle, Imperial | |
| | | | |Eagle, Lesser Kestrel, | |
| | | | |White-headed Duck, Lesser | |
| | | | |White-fronted Goose, | |
| | | | |Red-breasted Goose, | |
| | | | |Slender-billed Curlew | |
|Yugoslavia |348 |None |1– Rock |8 – Dalmation Pelican, |MacDonald |
| |(49 families) | |Partridge |Ferruginous Pochard, Great |[2004h] |
| | | | |Bustard, Imperial Eagle, | |
| | | | |Lesser Kestrel, Corn Crake, | |
| | | | |Lesser White-fronted Goose, | |
| | | | |Slender-billed Curlew | |
|Croatia |252 |None |1 –Rock |4-Corn Crake, Ferruginous |MacDonald |
| |(45 families) | |Partridge |Pochard, Imperial Eagle, |[2004b] |
| | | | |Lesser Kestrel | |
|Slovenia |225 |None |1- Rock |3-Corn Crake, Ferruginous |MacDonald |
| |(43 families) | |Partridge |Pochard, Lesser Kestrel |[2004f] |
|Hungary |323 |None |None |7-Aquatic Warbler, Corn |MacDonald |
| |(46 families) | | |Crake, Ferruginous Pochard, |[2004c] |
| | | | |Great Bustard, Imperial | |
| | | | |Eagle, Greater Spotted Eagle,| |
| | | | |Slender-billed Curlew | |
11.3. Birding in Hungary
The nation of Hungary is often divided up into three distinct geographical regions, each with its own assortment of habitats. Having such a wide assortment of habitats, many of which are key areas for both migratory and resident bird species, makes Hungary is an ideal spot for the serious bird watcher. Approximately 373 of the 395 species of birds found on the European continent spend some, if not all, of their time in Hungary (Fallon [2000]). Hungary is also home to several endangered species of birds which include the imperial eagle, corncakes, aquatic warblers, saker falcons, and great bustards (Fallon [2000])). Three hundred and forty-two, or approximately 90%, of the species in Hungary are protected by law with sixty-five of these species listed as strictly protected (Gorman [1996]). Several species of international importance use Hungary as a stop-over point during their seasonal migration across Europe and many of the bird populations in Hungary are of key importance in that region of Europe (Table 11.2).
Table 11.2. Hungarian Bird Species Abundance and Importance to Region
|Bird Species |Scientific Name |Number of Breeding Pairs/ |Importance to Region |
| | |Population Size | |
|Saker |Falco cherrug |> 140 pairs |Key European Population |
|Eastern Imperial Eagle|Aquila heliaca |70 pairs |Key European Population |
|Great White Egret |Egretta alba |>3000 pairs |Key European Population |
|Great Bustard |Otis tarda |1200 birds |Key European Population |
|Aquatic Warbler |Acrocephalus paludicola |> 600 singing males |Key European Population |
|Lesser White-fronted |Anser erythropus |100 birds |Key European Stop-over in |
|Geese | | |Autumn |
|Red-footed Falcons |Falco vespertinus |> 2000 pairs |Most in Europe |
|Common Crane |Grus grus |70,000 birds each October |Most on Passage |
|Slender-billed Curlew |Numenius arquata |- |Most on European Record in |
| | | |Recent Times |
|Dotterel |Charadrius morinellus |Up to 100 birds |World’s Largest Known Trips |
|Great Black-headed |Larus ichthyaetus |Rarity but Almost Annual |Only Regular Birds in Europe |
|Gull | | | |
Source: Birding Hungary [2004]
11.4. Trends in the Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Hungarian Birdlife
Hungary is often described as being located at an “ornithological crossroad” (Gorman [1996]). Cold air blowing in from Eastern Europe coupled with Atlantic and Mediterranean influences produce a slightly “altered” continental climate (Gorman [1996]). As a result, many species of birds found in Hungary are at the tips of their ranges, leading to high biodiversity due to extensive overlap in bird life (Gorman [1996]). Species distribution also varies on a temporal scale. Wetlands provide necessary stopover sites for migratory wading birds and waterfowl (Gorman [1996]). Species such as the Slavonian Grebe, Red-throated Diver, Black-throated Diver, Whooper Swan, Bean Goose, White-fronted Goose, Lesser White-fronted Goose, Barnacle Goose, Red-breasted Goose, Shelduck; Widgeon, Scaup, Goldeneye, Gadwall, Teal, Pintail, Long-tailed Duck, Common Scoter, Velvet Scoter, Smew, Red-breasted Merganser, Goosander, Pallid Harrier, Hen Harrier, Rough-legged Buzzard, Osprey, Oystercatcher, and Merlin all use Hungary as a refueling point during their winter migrations (Gorman [1996]).
11.5. Birding on the Hortobágy
Hortobágy National Park has been described as one of the premier sites to view birds in Hungary and may even offer some of the best birding in Europe (Fallon [2000]). Hortobágy National Park was Hungary’s first national park (NPS [2004]) and was established as a biosphere-reserve in 1979 (UNESCO [2004]). The Hortobágy consists of expanses of completely flat saliferous, semi-arid grasslands with numerous rivers, lakes, and wetlands (NPS [2004]). The Hortobágy boasts the largest protected steppes in Europe and was designated a World Heritage site in 1999 (Padányi [2003]). In the last 20 years or so, 344 of the continent’s estimated 410 species have been spotted within the national park (Fallon [2000]). One species of interest, the great bustard, is protected within its own reserve (Fallon [2000]). The numerous fishponds found on the Hortobágy provide excellent habitat for several species of heron, grebes, and terns (Fallon [2000]).
According to Padányi [2003], the Hortobágy region is the largest bird-migration point in Central Europe with over 80-100 thousand birds found near the reservoir during the peak spring migration. More than a quarter of a million birds pass through the area during the spring (Padányi [2003]) and many other species use this region of Hungary for breeding (Table 11.3.). In the next few paragraphs I will describe some of the species that can be viewed on the Hortobágy.
Table 11.3. Bird Species That Can Be Viewed In Hortobágy
|Species |Number of Pairs/Birds |
|Night Heron |400-500 Pairs |
|Great White Egret |250 Pairs |
|White Stork |200 Pairs |
|Spoonbill |400-450 Pairs |
|White-tailed Eagle |50-60 Birds (winter) |
|Red-footed Falcon |400 Pairs |
|Saker |3-5 Pairs |
|Great Bustard |150-200 Birds |
|Whiskered Tern |400-450 Pairs |
|Aquatic Warbler |200 Pairs |
|Lesser White-fronted Goose |100-250 Pairs (autumn) |
|Ruff |200,000+ Birds (spring) / 50,000+ Birds (autumn) |
|Common Crane |50,000+ Pairs (autumn) |
Source: Gorman [1996]
11.5.1. Wading Bird Species
Night herons, though crepuscular/nocturnal feeders, are still frequently spotted in wetland areas (Gorman [1996]). These birds are known to nest in riverine woodlands, willow lined feeder channels, and thicketed fish ponds (Gorman [1996]). Night herons often nest in the company of other wading bird species from April to September forming relatively stable colonies that are, to some, extent, predictable in both time and space (Gorman [1996]). Approximately 400-500 pairs utilize the Hortobágy for breeding and feeding (Table 11.3.).
Great White Egrets have been considered a protected species in Hungary since 1912 (Gorman [1996]). There are approximately 800 pairs of Great White Egrets that make up the nations breeding population, 250 pairs of which breed within the Hortobágy (Gorman [1996]). In fact, because of its large breeding population, Hungary is considered to be one of Europe’s most important countries when it comes to conservation of this wading bird species (Gorman [1996]). Great White Egrets normally form mixed species colonies within reedbeds with other species such as Spoonbills and Purple Herons between March and September (Gorman [1996]). Small groups of birds do remain in certain areas of Hungary during the winter but the most predictable viewing of this species occurs within the breeding season (Gorman [1996]).
Spoonbills are another endangered species for which Hungary is an important refuge (Gorman [1996]). There are approximately 400-450 pairs of Spoonbills that utilize the natural and man-made wetland habitats of the Hortobágy (Gorman [1996]). Spoonbills have a relatively specialized feeding strategy which may require them to fly several miles from their breeding site in order to procure food for themselves and their young (Gorman [1996]). Breeding sites are usually located on reed covered islands (Gorman [1996]) that offer breeding wading birds protection from predators. The best time to view Spoonbills is between late March and September when they migrate to the Mediterranean (Gorman [1996]).
11.5.2. Birds of Prey
The White-tailed Eagle, Red-footed Falcon, and the Saker can all be viewed within the Hortobágy. The White-tailed Eagle is strictly protected in Hungary where their population has been increasing over the past 20 years (Gorman [1996]). Approximately 50-60 birds are believed to inhabit the Hortobágy area year round (Gorman [1996]). The Red-footed Falcon population in Hungary is considered to be internationally important (Gorman [1996]). Approximately 400 pairs of birds are thought to nest in Hungary while countries surrounding Hungary only support small populations (Gorman [1996]). Red-footed Falcons are the only true colonial breeding bird of prey in Hungary and availability of nest sites often influence local distribution of these birds (Gorman [1996]). This species of falcon is present during summer months between May and September (Gorman [1996]). Hungary boasts the largest population of Sakers in Europe (Gorman [1996]). The Saker is strictly protected in Hungary where it is resident year-round (Gorman [1996]). The Saker normally uses the nests of other larger bird species but can benefit from the erection of artificial nests (Gorman [1996]). Given enough food, breeding adults may remain in a specific territory all year (Gorman [1996]).
11.5.3. Cranes and Storks
More than 50,000 Common Cranes are thought to use the Hortobágy for their autumn passage which makes this area one of the most significant stop-over sites in Europe (Gorman [1996]). Some birds do remain on the Hortobágy year round but the highest numbers are observed during October and November (Gorman [1996]). The main migration route of these birds runs east of Tisza (Gorman [1996]).
White Storks are strictly protected in Hungary and it is even considered an honor to have a pair of these magnificent birds choose to nest on ones roof (Gorman [1996]). The population of White Storks in Hungary is believed to be stable with approximately 5,000 pairs of birds residing within Hungarian borders (Gorman [1996]). Approximately 200 pairs are thought to reside on the Hortobágy, many of whom choose to nest on the many telegraph poles located in the small villages found in the area (Gorman [1996]). Birds can be observed on the Hortobágy between March and September (Gorman [1996]).
11.5.4. Other Avian Species
Several other species of birds occupy the Hortobágy for some, if not all, of the year. The Great Bustard is the emblem of the Hungarian ornithological society and an integral part of Hungarian folklore (Gorman [1996]). Efforts to conserve the Great Bustard have been intense, both in Hungary and internationally (Gorman [1996]). This species is strictly protected in Hungary and approximately 150 to 200 birds have been spotted within the Hortobágy (Gorman [1996]). Great Bustards are usually found in puszta and agricultural land, especially when the two types of habitats are adjacently situated, forming a habitat mosaic (Gorman [1996]). The Whiskered Tern can be found nesting in colonies on lakes, marshes, reservoirs, and fish ponds (Gorman [1996]). These terns often form multispecies colonies along with Black Terns, Black-necked Grebes, and Black-headed Gulls (Gorman [1996]). Ruffs are known to use Hungary’s wet meadows, flooded puszta, and partially drained fish ponds as stopping over points during their spring and autumn migrations (Gorman [1996]). The best time to view these birds is during April and May when colorful males display their breeding plumage in Hungary’s many marshes, pastures, and water logged fields (Gorman [1996]). Ruffs are protected in Hungary though their populations are considered stable in Europe (Gorman [1996]). The Aquatic Warbler is considered globally threatened and has even become extinct in many surrounding countries (Gorman [1996]). The breeding population in Hungary, however, has actually been shown to be increasing in recent years (Gorman [1996]). This particular species only breeds in strictly protected areas within the Hortobágy where approximately 200 pairs have been recorded (Gorman [1996]). The Aquatic Warbler arrives on the Hortobágy in late April and leaves the area in late August/early September (Gorman [1996]). The majority of Lesser White-Fronted Geese have been observed in the Hortobágy from mid September to November and also between February and March (Gorman [1996]). This species tends to favor shallow fishponds for roosting but may also be observed feeding on agricultural lands in the company of other geese species throughout Hungary (Gorman [1996]).
11.6. Concluding Remarks
The best time of year to view breeding birds on the Hortobágy appears to be in May or June when breeding is at its peak. August and September are the best months to spot passage birds and September and October are the best months to spot long-legged buzzards, saker falcons, imperial eagles, cranes, and geese (Fallon [2000]). Knowing what we know about the spatial and temporal distribution of birds in Hungary, it would be easy to schedule ecotourism ventures to coincide with the times of year that birds are at their peak numbers. Caution should, however, be exercised in order to minimize the impact of the tourism industry on the birdlife it is dependent upon. Numbers of tourists should be restricted to minimize disturbance to breeding birds and studies should be conducted to determine how each species is ultimately impacted by the tourism industry. With enough safeguards in place, and an increase in overall infrastructure, Hungary could support a budding tourism industry within its borders.
Bibliography
Birding Hungary. (2004): Birding Hungary: Why Hungary?,
Fallon S. (2000): Hungary, 3rd ed. Pub. Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd.
Gorman, Gerard. (1996): The Birds of Hungary, Christopher Helm Ltd. London
Gorman, Gerard. (2004): Fat Birder: Birding… Hungary,
MacDonald T. (2004a): Austria Hotspots,
MacDonald T. (2004b): Croatia Hotspots,
MacDonald T. (2004c): Hungary Hotspots,
MacDonald T. (2004d): Romania Hotspots,
MacDonald T. (2004e): Slovakia Hotspots,
MacDonald T. (2004f): Slovenia Hotspots,
MacDonald T. (2004g): Ukraine Hotspots,
MacDonald T. (2004h): Yugoslavia Hotspots,
National Parks Service (NPS) (2004): Hortobagy National Park,
Padányi Á. (2003): Hungary: Step-by-Step, Hungarian National Tourist Office
UNESCO (2004): The MAB Programme: World Network of Biosphere Reserves,
Alexander R. VAMOSI: Hungarian Birding and Wildlife Days: Is There a Market Interest?
Abstract
This essay reports on the market interest of British birders in attending a Hungarian birding festival at the Hortobágy National Park, Hungary’s richest birdwatching destination. British birders comprise one of the most significant avitourism populations in Europe, which make them an attractive target market for an inaugural event that we call Hungarian Birding and Wildlife Days. Data were collected at the 2004 British Birdwatching Fair, the largest birding festival held in the United Kingdom. Almost 60% of the people surveyed indicated that they would seriously consider attending Hungarian Birding and Wildlife Days. Within this market, 78% identify themselves as experienced birders.
Keywords: birding, ecotourism, regional impact, sustainability
12.1. Introduction
During the summer of 2002, the historic town of Eger played host to a two-day workshop exploring ecotourism and its applicability to Hungary. At the conclusion of the workshops, scholars from the Florida Institute of Technology (Florida Tech) and Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME) traveled to the Tisza Lake, an area situated near the Hortobágy National park and renowned for its birds and wildlife. Workshop participants were treated to an exhilarating morning of bird watching, taking in the immense beauty of these wetlands during a two hour excursion led by Lajos Szabó, project manager at Tisza Lake. It was here that the idea of transplanting a Florida-style birding festival to the Hortobágy began to take shape.
Subsequent exchange visits led to an agreement by members of the Florida Tech-BME ecotourism team (eco-team) and the Hungarian National Tourism Office to prepare a feasibility study. The purpose of the study is to assess the feasibility of staging a showcase birding and wildlife event in Hungary. The successful implementation of such an event entails certain prerequisites: (1) bird and other biologic diversity; (2) infrastructure such as accommodation, dining facilities, and roads and transportation; and (3) human capital, including guides, interpreters, biologists and other educators. Perhaps the most important of these conditions are the diversity of birds needed to attract birders from outside of Hungary. As reported by Griffon elsewhere in this volume, about 340 of the approximately 400 bird species on the continent have been spotted within the Hortobágy National Park. Thus, the bird diversity needed to attract birders to the region is more than adequate. But are birders willing to visit Hungary to view them?
To answer this question the Florida Tech-BME ecotourism team (eco-team) traveled to Egelton Nature Reserve in England to survey birders attending the 2004 British Birdwatching Fair (BBWF). This essay assesses the market interest of survey participants in attending a Hungarian birding festival at the Hortobágy National Park. It also reports regional economic impact estimates, for a five-day event, using data on acceptable daily cost.
The eco-team selected the BBWF to survey birders for a variety of reasons. First, British birders comprise a significant and vital birding demographic in Europe. Membership of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds exceeds one million; a figure that is larger than the three main political parties in Britain put together (The Economist, March 19, 2005). Second, the BBWF is a birding event of singular renown, drawing around 16,000 visitors annually, including exhibitors and guides worldwide. It is the largest birding festival held in the United Kingdom. Third, Britain is reasonably close in proximity to Hungary, making traveling moderately inexpensive in comparison to more renowned, exotic locations.
12.2. Survey Instrument and Results
The BBWF prohibits solicitation of it attendees in pedestrian corridors, making surveying somewhat problematic. But a couple of things worked to the advantage of the eco-team. First, the Florida Tech-BME booth was conveniently located near one of the Marquee entrances, ensuring a steady flow of traffic over the three-day event. Second, many attendees were puzzled by the connection between Hungary and Florida, which gave members of the eco-team an opening to establish a dialogue. The interaction with potential survey respondents had three common themes: (1) familiarity with birding in Hungary; (2) who we were and why were surveying; and (3) a brief description of the Hortobágy and proposed event. People were then asked to complete a survey. Those who did received a complementary gift from a group of items provided by the Hungarian National Tourism Office (the Hungarian paprika key chain was quite popular).
Visitors at the BBWF were asked to fill out a two-page survey that would take about 5-7 minutes to complete. The instrument began by describing a Hungarian ecotourism event named Hungarian Bird and Wildlife Days (HBWD). A set of Likert type questions were developed to assess attitudes towards the proposed event; in particular, to assess 1) the intensity of interest in the planned project; and 2) the types of lodging and amenities potential attendees would require. Survey takers were also asked to mark an acceptable daily cost per person, excluding travel to and from Hungary, from defined spending intervals denoted in pounds sterling (₤). A total of 263 usable surveys were collected.
Figure 12.1. shows that British birders have a significantly high level of interest in attending HBWD. Almost 60% of the people surveyed indicated that they would seriously consider attending HBWD; only 6% disagree or strongly disagree with the statement. Our informal dialogue with survey respondents revealed that many had heard of the Hortobágy National Park or had first hand experience birding in the region. The familiarity and reputation of the Hortobágy may explain why close to 80% of the people who would seriously consider attending HBWD identify themselves as experienced birders (see Figure 12.2.).
[pic]
Figure12.1. Interest in the Hungarian Birding and Wildlife Days (HBWD)
[pic]
Figure12. 2. Experienced Birders who are Interested in the HBWD
Figure 12.3. below reports on an acceptable daily cost, per person, among experienced birders in the target market. The mode belongs to the 40-60 pound class interval, where 43% indicate their preference. However, the cumulative proportion willing to spend over 60 pounds is also about 43%. A weighted-mean using the mid-points of the class intervals shows an acceptable daily cost for the HBWD of about 60 pounds.
An expected economic impact for the HBWD was calculated assuming a five day event, a daily cost of 60 pounds per person and a regional economic multiplier of 1.5. The conversion rate from pounds into dollars was set at ₤1 U.K. = $1.62 U.S (2004 purchasing power parity price). A visitor population ranging from 500 per day to 1000 per day would generate a regional economic impact between $364,000 and $728,000. The expected regional impact in dollars is comparable to estimates found by Chambliss et al. [2005] in their assessment of the 8th Annual Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival (SCBWF), held in Florida. The United States, however, has a per capita global national income (GNI) that is 3 to 6 times larger than in Hungary.[3] This means that the relative impact of a dollar will be 3 to 6 times larger in the Hortobágy than in Florida. Or equivalently, the relative regional impact of a single birding festival in the Hortobágy is equivalent to a range of three to six festivals of similar dollar size in Florida. Even a small-scale festival, a visitor population of 500 per day, would represent a substantial infusion of monies into the Hortobágy region.
[pic]
Figure 12. 3. Acceptable Daily Cost: Experienced Birders who are Interested in the HBWD
A SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) from the feasibility study shows that the Hortobágy lacks high quality lodging and services. This weakness, however, represents an opportunity for local homeowners who could supplement their incomes by providing a Bed and Breakfast option to foreign visitors. Figure 12.4. reveals significant market interests for this form of lodging, 55% of the experienced birders in the target market agree or strongly agree that they would consider renting a room at a local home.
If local homeowners in the Hortobágy are to take advantage of this Bed and Breakfast opportunity, many will need to be trained in English and basic management principles. Moreover, they will need funds to upgrade their homes to suitable lodging standards.
With its unique and varied blend of natural capital, the Hortobágy enjoys a distinct comparative advantage in ecotourism markets; yet, it remains one of the poorest regions in Hungary. Most of the economic rents associated with ecotourism are earned by foreign eco-tour operators and leave the region. If the Hortobágy is to capture a higher portion of these rents, then government officials in Hungary need to invest in the human and physical assets of the region. Such investment would foster the development of a sustainable ecotourism sector in one of the poorest regions of their country.
[pic]
Figure 12.4. Lodging at a Local Home: Experienced Birders who are Interested in HBWD
12.3. Summary and Conclusions
This essay reports on the market interest of British birders in attending a Hungarian birding festival at the Hortobágy National Park. Visitors at the British Birdwatching Fair indicated a remarkably high interest in the proposed event. Sixty percent agreed or strongly agreed that they would “seriously” consider attending the HBWD; within this target market, almost four out of every five individuals classify themselves as an experienced birder. Large segments of the sample, over one third, remained neutral (neither agrees nor disagrees) about their interest in the event and lodging at a local home. Perhaps these people needed more specific, detailed information with which to make a definitive choice. If true, an aggressive marketing campaign could convince many prospective birders to consider attending the HBWD and to consider lodging at a local home.
An acceptable daily cost for this subset of birders is about 60 U.K pounds per person, an amount that translates into an economic impact of around ½ million U.S. dollars for a five-day event that attracts a moderate size of 750 visitors. The relative impact of a dollar is much greater in Hungary than in the United States. A birding festival in Hungary will have a regional impact that is at least 3 times larger than a similar event held in Florida. Moreover, in Hungary much of the impact could be diffused to local homeowners who are willing to provide accommodations: over ½ of the target market would consider renting a room at a local home.
It is clear that a marketing campaign to attract visitors to the HBWD would be best served by targeting experienced birders. Numerous outlets for advertising exist including European bird and wildlife journals, ornithological societies and nature preservation organizations. The internet provides an additional source of advertising as penetration rates begin nearing 60% in the U.K. and 50% in the European Union.[4]
Hungary has abundant and varied natural capital that affords it a comparative advantage in ecotourism industries, most notably in avitourism. To date ecotourism has received little in the way of public investment. Government officials at the National Tourism Office endorse the idea of sustainable ecotourism and would like to position Hungary to play a leading role in ecotourism markets in central Europe. But current financial constraints stemming from market transition and European Union ascension has hindered this long term objective.
Perhaps a successful birding and wildlife event such as the proposed HBWD could act as a catalyst in the promotion and development of a sustainable Hungarian ecotourism industry. Strategically, HBWD might serve several other functions. In addition to generating “green incomes” for residents in the local communities of the Hortobágy, a proportion of the funds generated by the event could be put aside to help conservation efforts at the Hortobágy National Park, and to mitigate human impacts on the natural capital of the region.
Bibliography
Chambliss, K., Slotkin, Michael H., and Vamosi, Alexander R. (2005): The Economic Impact of the 8th Annual Space Coast Birding and Wildlife Festival, Center for Applied Business Research, Florida Institute of Technology, [Online] fly
Internet World Stats. (2005): Usage and Population Statistics, stats4.htm#eu
OECD (2005): Purchasing Power Parities for OECD countries 1980-2004, std/ppp
The Economist (2005, March 19): Birdwatching: Starling-Struck, p 63.
SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES
Márton HERCZEG and Kálmán KÓSI: Sustainability Issues in Hungary: How companies deal with it?
Abstract
This paper is to give a short summary on the socio-economic and natural environment, in companies of Hungary are to operate. These are the triple-bottom-line of sustainability or triple “columns” holding the “tympanum” of the desired sustainability to be achieved according to the academic view: social, ecological and economic sustainability. In the focus of this article is how enterprises utilize environmental management tools in order to comply with increasing legal, public and ethics driven environmental pressures and opportunities.
[pic]
Source: Dr. G. Winter
Figure 13.1. An Academic View of Sustainability
13.1. Economic Pillar
Generally perceived to be one of Central Europe’s most advanced economies, Hungary is relatively small in terms of GDP when compared to the European Union (EU) average. In comparison with the other nine New Member States (accessed to the EU in May 2004) , it is slightly less than that of the Czech Republic’s and just above one-quarter of the size of the Polish economy. Hungarian GDP per capita measured at the purchasing power parity exchange rate amounted to 13,900 USD in 2003 trailing the EU average of 25,700 USD (CIA Factbook, 2005). The economic gap between the EU average and Hungary is still sizeable, despite several years of impressive growth in Hungarian GDP, particularly in the late 1990s.
Hungary enjoyed a head start compared to other Central European economies in transition during the early 1990s, as the governments of the socialist era had already installed some basic features of a market-oriented economy in the 1980s. In the early stages of transition, the Hungarian government offered domestic businesses and foreign investors alike exceptionally attractive conditions for locating their operations in Hungary, including, among other features, tax incentives and special economic zones (REC, 2004). Attracted by these offers, the highly qualified work force, aggressive privatization of state property and the proximity to Western Europe, investors poured into Hungary in the early 1990s, making it by far the most popular country in which to invest early in the transition. On average, Hungary has attracted $2 billion in net FDI annually during the last 12 years. Most importantly, Hungary attracted investments into high-valued industries such as electronics and optical equipment, the automotive industry and data processing. Hungary has the highest share of high-tech sector in the region with 25% of the domestic industry being involved. Major multinational corporations such build greenfield plants in the country with the aim of exporting most of their production to developed countries utilizing their internal corporate distribution channels. At least 45 out of the 50 largest multinational corporations of the World were present in Hungary. In the process, Hungary has become the most economically integrated with the EU and the most export-oriented economy in the region. In the course of those developments, the portion of the country’s GDP generated by the service sector grew to 60% in 2004. More than 72% of total industrial sales are generated by companies at least partially owned by foreign investors (REC, 2004).
When combined with the slowdown in economic activity in its main export markets in the EU, Hungarian export growth slowed considerably over 2003-2004, dragging down industrial output as well. Despite continued weak external demand, Hungary’s year-on-year economic growth accelerated recent years. While the Hungarian economy is still experiencing problems adjusting to the prolonged slowdown in its major export markets in the European Union, the worst seemed to be over. Thanks to extensive FDI that has modernized the manufacturing, energy, and financial sectors, Hungary’s export competitiveness and performance should continue to improve.
Table 13.1. Main macroeconomic and social indicators of Hungary, 1996 and 2001- 2004
|Selected indicators |Measures |1996 |2001 |2002 |2003 |2004* |
|GDP |[Billion Current EUR]|34.5 |64.7 |72.4 |62.1 |58.2 |
| Per Capita GDP |[Current EUR] |3391 |6360 |7130 |6159 |5805 |
| GDP, Growth Rate |[Percentage] |1.3 |3.8 |3.5 |2.9 |3.2 |
| Average Annual Inflation|[Percentage] |23.6 |9.2 |5.3 |4.7 |6.2 |
| Population, End-Year |[Thousand People] |10174 |10175 |10154 |10090 |10026 |
| Unemployment Rate |[Percentage] |9.9 |5.6 |6.1 |6.0 |6.0 |
| Exchange Rate, End-Year |[HUF/EUR] |208.1 |247.7 |236.1 |262.2 |252.0 |
| Fiscal Balance |[Percentage of GDP] |-2.9 |-2.9 |-10.0 |-5.9 |-4.5 |
| Net Foreign Debt |[Percentage of GDP] |38.8 |44.1 |45.1 |37.6 |31.3 |
| Exports |[Million EUR] |10111 |34075 |36258 |37094 |36675 |
| Imports |[Million EUR] |12468 |37631 |39716 |41495 |40657 |
| Current Account Balance |[Percentage of GDP] |-2.7 |-3.4 |-4.1 |-6.5 |-5.6 |
Source: European Forecasting Network, Network of European Institutes for forecasting and Policy Analysis in the Monetary Union, 2004; * forecasted data
13.2. Social Pillar
In terms of population, Hungary with 10.0 million falls roughly in the middle of EU states. During the political and economic changes Hungary has experienced, the shift has meant serious problems for a large part of the population. One of the most direct and socially painful effects was caused by the gradual elimination of a large percentage of the various subventions, price distortions, and subsidies that had previously been in place. Other factors included the close-down and/or reorganization of the large factories, mines, and many firms; the privatization process; and the need for a full-scale reorientation of agricultural production due to the above-mentioned changes in international trading relations and so on (REC, 2004).
Population living below the national poverty line is estimated to be as high as 8 to 20%. One consequence of this process is that a serious restructuring in social stratification is taking place. In addition to the appearance of a new layer of entrepreneurs, there has been increasing unemployment and impoverishment among large social groups, especially in areas where heavy industry, metallurgy, mining, and other economic activities collapsed.
Currently, after a short period of rapid changes, the situation has stabilized, so the unemployment rate has stopped and decreased after, and the efficiency of enterprises is gradually improving.
13.3. Ecological Pillar
Hungary also enjoys abundant endowments of natural resources. However, Hungary is landlocked with no desert, but extensive meadowlands. Lying beneath Hungary are extensive hot mineral springs that provide baths as a tourist attraction. Geographically Hungary is centrally placed in Europe with one of the highest biodiversity of the European countries. Mammals are not typically important but birds and bird migrations are. Lake Balaton is the largest lake of Central Europe and popular resort area.
Despite its small territory of 93,030 sq km (approx. size of Indiana) the country has three climatic zones: atlantic, continental and sub-mediterranean. Hungary has 10 national parks, 36 landscape protected areas, 142 protected areas, local protected areas meaning that about 9.9% of the territory is under protection. There are approximately 3000 plant species that of 632 protected and 63 strictly protected. Regarding animals 828 are protected and 128 strictly protected of the 42000 species.
Source: Béla Berta
Figure 13.2. Gemenc Region
13.4. Progress in Environmental Performance
In the early 1990s the industrial sectors of Hungary and other transition countries shared numerous common environmental problems. This baseline had to be left behind towards a more competitive, less energy and resource intensive and less polluting economy.
Several sites had or still have historic pollution and contamination caused by industrial, agricultural and military activities. These pollutions are extremely cost-demanding to be cleaned up and the process to eliminate them is still going to last for many years or even decades.
Low level of penetration of clean technologies was going hand in hand with low nationwide resource efficiency and caused the majority of the technological stock to be obsolete. This was together with low efficiency of resource management within the companies. Inappropriate environmental legislations and standards lead to unsatisfactory standards of waste management; and high emissions of sulphur-dioxide (SO2) and carbon-dioxide and (CO2) mainly from the energy sector.
Economies had been operating with very high energy intensity per unit of production amounting to several times the EU average. These countries considered as a whole, energy intensity was five times higher than that of the European Union in 1990. Progress made in the candidate countries reduced this divergence to four in 1997. As seen on the chart Hungary is among the best performers of the region in energy intensity context. With the exception of Bulgaria, since 1990 the lowest performers have made major progress. Estonia improved its energy intensity by an average 5.3% per year, Romania and Lithuania by 3.2%, Poland by 2.9%, Slovakia by 2.7% and the Czech Republic by 1.5% (EC DG TREN, 2001).
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Figure 13.3. Energy intensity in the transition economies and OECD in 2000
(IEA Key energy indicators by country, International Energy Agency 2003)
13.5. Initiatives for Improving Environmental Performance
Different environmental management tools are promoted by the official EU strategy in order to comply with increasing legal, public and ethics driven environmental pressures and opportunities. The “EU Sixth Environment Action Programme Environment 2010: Our future, our choice” is also encouraging broadened working in partnership with business. This scope covers several progressive initiatives for the businesses:
1. encouraging a wider uptake of the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS);
2. encouraging companies to publish their performance and to comply with environmental requirements;
3. introducing company environmental performance reward schemes;
4. encouraging voluntary commitments;
5. establishing an integrated product policy;
6. promoting the use and evaluating the effectiveness of the eco-label scheme ;
7. the promotion of green procurement;
8. the adoption of legislation on environmental liability.
We are focusing this paper to the first priority, the uptake of the environmental management systems (EMS) complying with the European Union initiated EMAS and the international ISO 14001 systems.
13.6. Environmental Management Systems: ISO 14001 and EMAS
Environmental concerns, growing public pressure and regulatory measures, shareholders and other external and internal stakeholders are increasingly demanding environmentally-friendly products and services that are delivered by socially responsible companies. Therefore it is becoming increasingly important for organizations to demonstrate that not only their philosophies but also their investment strategies and day-to-day operations are sustainable. According to the EMAS Website (EMAS, 2005) an applied system may contribute to:
• quality environmental management due to the use of a highly developed scheme;
• contribution to environmental risk management of the organization;
• resource savings and lower costs according to the organization’s needs;
• reduction of financial burdens such as remediation, cleanups and paying penalties;
• financial benefits through better control of operations;
• incentive to eco-innovate production processes;
• learn from good examples of other companies and organizations;
• new opportunities in markets where green production processes are important;
• added credibility and confidence with public authorities, other stakeholders;
• improved relations with the local community;
• improved quality of workplaces, employee morale and incentive to team building;
• marketplace advantage and improved company image by improving relations;
• compliance check with environmental legislation in case of EMAS.
However we have to stress that these systems not necessarily mean a high environmental performance just by implementing an EMS, but should make the management able to benefit of the continuous improvement of the environmental performance. However, in case of EMAS full legal compliance with environmental legislation is a permanent requirement.
To put it in a nutshell, ISO 14001 specifies requirements for an environmental management system that applies to the environmental aspects an organization can control. First, current environmental conditions must be assessed and documented, then the management system is to be implemented to set up and document your targeted annual environmental improvements. The way to reach these goals is found by well-designed environmental programs. It requires continuous checking and correction of environmental aspects, targets and programs in order to achieve continuous improvement on the environmental performance.
Since the publication of the standard in 1997, the international environmental management system standard ISO 14001 has run a very successful way in Hungary. There are approximately 783 certified companies in Hungary up to date that voluntarily implemented an environmental management standard complying with the ISO 14001 standard. There are several consulting companies offering services for implementation of environmental management systems and several accredited EMS certifiers. They are mainly a subsidiary company of companies accredited abroad, mostly in Western Europe. The standard was reviewed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and minor changes were applied in December 2004.
There are about 74.000 organizations world-wide certified under EMS ISO 14001. certifications. Hungary is the 21st in the overall ranking, but compared to per capita or considering certifications/GDP is among the top 5 performers in the World. The result relating to the Hungarian economy and the industrial sectors mean a very good performance of the country.
The EU Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) has been available for participation by industrial companies since 1995. Since 2001 EMAS has been open to all economic sectors including public and private services. In addition, EMAS was strengthened by the integration of ISO 14001 as the environmental management system required by EMAS.
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Source: ISO World, 2004
Figure 13.4. The number of ISO14001 certification of the world
Participation is voluntary and extends to public or private organizations operating in the European Union and the European Economic Area (EEA) – Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. To receive EMAS registration an organization must comply with the following steps:
• conduct an environmental review considering all environmental aspects of the organization’s activities, products and services, methods to assess these, its legal and regulatory framework and existing environmental management practices and procedures,
• in the light of the results of the review, establish an effective environmental management system (complying with the ISO 14001) aimed at achieving the organization’s environmental policy defined by the top management. The management system needs to set responsibilities, objectives, means, operational procedures, training needs, monitoring and communication systems,
• carry out an (internal) environmental audit assessing in particular the management system in place and conformity with the organization’s policy and program as well as compliance with relevant environmental regulatory requirements,
• provide a statement of its environmental performance which lays down the results achieved against the environmental objectives and the future steps to be undertaken in order to continuously improve the organization’s environmental performance,
• The environmental review, EMS, audit procedure and the environmental statement must be approved by an accredited EMAS verifier and the validated statement needs to be sent to the EMAS Competent Body for registration and made publicly available before an organization can use the EMAS logo.
Basically, EMAS is an extension of EMS ISO 14001 with some very important elements:
• conducting an initial environmental review;
• ensure full legal compliance to environmental legislation;
• and prove a verified environmental statement.
This approach should encourage organizations in the EU upgrade their existing ISO 14001 system to the EU level EMAS. Though, it is not compulsory to have the ISO 14001 registration before stepping towards the EMAS. As of January 2005, there are 3091 registrations verified to EMAS operating on 4095 sites altogether. Main industrial and service sectors participating in the scheme (EMAS, 2005):
• Chemicals 267
• Food and beverages 261
• Fabricated metal products (steel excl.) 220
• Hotel and restaurants 195
• Sewage and refuse disposal 192
• Automotive 141
• Public authorities 140
• Transport 99
• Health and social works 88
• Education 78
Up to date there is only one official EMAS registration in Hungary. Audi Hungaria in the automotive industries (the largest exporter in Hungary) was the first early in 2005. EMAS is the most popular in Germany, Spain, Italy and Austria.
The influence of various stakeholders on EM related measures, the driving forces and the application of EM tools at Hungarian companies were comprehensively studied (Kerekes et. al., 2000) already in year 2000, though recent studies show similar trends.
1. The influence of various stakeholders on Hungarian organizations proved to be the following by the research:
• Week influence: banks and insurance companies; general public; industrial associations; academia; civil groups; competitors; employees, consumers; media
• Moderate influence: local municipalities, environmental organisations (NGOs)
• Strong influence: environmental codifiers and authorities; top managers; owners
2. Driving forces for implementing EMS were identified as follows:
• No influence at most of the companies: proximity of sensitive area; reduction of fines; improvement of image.
• Weak or moderate influence: proximity of school, hospital; risks of technology; environmental accidents; sale of environmentally friendly products.
• Large deviation in terms of the influence: gaining new/retaining existing markets, proximity of inhabitant areas; savings from material- energy use; savings from waste handling; social-, ecological responsibility.
• Strong and very strong influence: Hungarian environmental legislation; environmental legislation of the target countries; EU environmental legislation.
3. Application of different environmental management tools were measured by the survey to be very various.
• Exists or being implemented at most of the companies (in general, approx. in ratio 50-50%): measurable environmental objectives; environmental program for achieving the goals; environmental organisation (assigned environmental responsible).
• Exists at most of the companies, but occasionally: communication with the general public.
• Non existent at more than the half (50-63%) of companies: written environmental policy; environmental training of top-management; environmental training of employees; environmental marketing; environmental risk management; internal EM related communication.
• Non existent at most of the companies (over 70%): EMS (ISO 14001, EMAS); qualification of suppliers from environmental aspects.
Target setting is often used but usually in the practice it means only measuring the impact of the environmental actions. In the background of it is a material or energy flow monitoring at near 75 percent of the companies. The Environmental Program exists very frequently only non-formally. Usually the environmental corrective actions give the basis for the Programs. The environmental organisation means applying an environmental expert at the company in the most cases. Environmental Department as an organisational structure is very unique.
In general the communication with the public and the social institutions is not a continuous but an occasional activity. More than half of the companies have no written Environmental Policy. The training of people is also a weak point and the environmental marketing, environmental risk assessment and the internal communication should be improved, too.
13.7. Conclusions
It is understood that the major underlying issue of eco-, resource-, in fact, of business-efficiency is the application of high technologies and advanced methods and procedures (know-how) in the economic activities. Business efficiency also requires high quality human resources, an educated workforce, but that is, and always has been, available in most Central and Eastern European countries. The local development and/or transfer and adaptation (from the most developed economies) of the advanced technologies are currently inhibited by the lack of sound financial and economic instruments and tools.
Foreign direct investors, multinationals and large enterprises have already integrated advanced environmental management systems (EMS), including ISO 14001 and EMAS, into their overall management processes. However the bulk of the economy, the small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are still lagging in practicing sound environmental measures in their activities.
It is a naive expectation that multinational companies and other investors enterprises will truly support all the transfer of practical eco-efficiency measures and technologies. This transfer would have been against their basic business interest: enterprises of CEE and NIS open to the eco-efficiency are becoming their competitors in present or the very near future.
13.8. Impacts on the environment
These economic and social changes were accompanied by an increasing awareness of the significance of environmental quality. The legal, institutional, and financial conditions needed for environmental protection and nature conservation have improved. In spite of these developments, however, there are still huge problems in the areas of air quality, waste water, and communal waste management throughout the country, with enormous financial resources needed in order to make the necessary investments in infrastructure and physical change. Altogether, from the point of view of eco-efficiency the political and economical changes had a very positive influence (REC, 2004).
Bibliography
The Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC, 2004): Environmental Policies and Legislation and Their Impact on Eco-efficient Innovations in Hungary
CIA World Factbook:
European Commission, Directorate General Transport and Energy (EC DG TREN, 2001): Annual Energy Review 2000
EMAS Website:
Kerekes, S., Baranyi Á., Csutora, M., Kovács E., Nemcsicsné Zs. Á., Zilahy, Gy. (2000): Environmental performance evaluation of Hungarian enterprises
Charles BOSTATER: Sustained Safe Environment: Remote Sensing and Remote Sensing Platforms
Abstract
Remote sensing systems and associated platforms offer modern and relatively unexplored methods for monitoring and surveillance to insure environments are safe for life. Sustaining safe environments for human health and healthy populations of key indicator species needs to be considered as a major goal of environmental sustainability, particularly with respect to freshwater and marine aquatic environments. Examples of two sensing systems and remote sensing platforms are provided in this paper. In the future, remote monitoring and surveillance will offer a key strategic methodology for sustaining safe environments for human life. An example of a limiting factor to such forward strategic thinking is the continued training of today’s workforce using older “bucket dipping” approaches to monitoring and analysis the world’s water quality. New instrumentation platforms and developments using non-contact remote sensing systems need to be implemented to provide a missing gap in applications and training related to environmental monitoring and surveillance. These new monitoring and surveillance systems, including autonomous or semiautonomous robotic and mechatronic systems have a great potential to be used to monitor aquatic environmental and ecological resources as well for applications in target detection and related issues essential to secure safe environments as well as for domestic preparedness.
Keywords: environmental sustainability, remote sensing, shallow water detection, sensors, image processing, hydrological optics, remote sensing platforms, surveillance, monitoring, human health, imaging spectroscopy, wavelets, safety
14.1. Introduction & Basic Considerations
Sustaining safe environments is coupled to protecting the life and health of organisms living within and/or using an environment to sustain their population. Such an environment could be a water, air or land environment, habitat, watershed or river basin. The legal basis for sustaining and maintaining water quality (as an example) is the water quality criteria and standards setting process. This process is supported by scientifically based monitoring and surveillance, of not only the water itself, but also the organism requirements living within the water or utilizing the water (i.e. water uses). One may define a safe environment as a semi enclosed region about which important or key indicator organism and species can reproduce, grow and sustain their population. Economically important aquatic species as well as those organisms that are most sensitive during their early life stages are typically considered the important or key species. These are the populations that one needs to monitor in order to insure safe sustainable environments. Obviously, the human species is the most important population one can consider within this context. However the concept of an indicator species for determining a safe environment is still a key concept in assessing conditions safe for human health and welfare.
With the above background in mind, one may ask the question – How can remote sensing systems and platforms help to monitoring an environment (air, land and water) in order to provide data to assess the “safety” of an environment for sustaining life? The answer to this question is – by conducting non-contact monitoring and surveillance. To explore this question and the answer, this paper will provide two examples of non-contact sensing and platforms used to monitor the “water environment”. Key to answering this question is understanding that the non-contact sensing approach can, in general, replace laboratory based analyses (e.g. chemical analyses) by utilizing field based or “in-situ” instruments analyses in a manner that negates the need, as much as possible, for sample preparation and sample cleanup which forms an important component of approaches taught and implemented in the world today.
The remainder of this paper will provide two examples of applications involving remote sensing systems and remote sensing platforms utilizing the author’s research and applications which have involved the conduct of “ambient environmental sensing” of environmental media using different non-contact sensors and associated platforms to observe environmental media and/or targets within the media. In concept, the sensing systems measure some part of the electromagnetic spectrum or extended spectrum (e.g. acoustical, magnetic) in order to detect a “radiative transfer process” such as absorption, scattering, emission, reflectance, fluorescence or backscattering process. The signal of interest in assessing whether an environment is safe utilizes, the measurement and analysis of at least one of above environmental radiative processes with, “instrument payloads” on a fixed or moving remote sensing platform.
14.2. Examples of Remote Sensing Systems & Platforms
The purpose of this section is to provide the reader with two examples of remote sensing systems and platforms that hold a great potential for future monitoring and surveillance for safe environment assessments. Both examples are based upon the use of hyperspectral sensing and techniques derived from what one may term “imaging spectroscopy”. The two platforms to be discussed are (1) buoys and (2) low altitude aircraft (helicopter or fixed wing). In both examples, the non-contact sensing will be applied to the problem of detecting “indicators of water quality”. In the first case (buoy), water quality constituents are assessed via a non-contact scalable backscatter sensing probe or system, and in the airborne example, habitat suitability is assessed via the presence of submerged aquatic vegetation through analysis of the reflectance or upwelled light reflected from submerged vegetative canopies. Both of these examples are applicable to remote sensing of “shallow water” (Bostater et al., [2004]).
14.2.1. Non-Contact Sensing – Shallow Water Buoy
In the follow discussion is presented a remote sensing design concept for shallow water remote sensing applications. The design has incorporated three important concepts believed to be useful. These are (1) utilization of the “sensor payload concept”, (2) the design of the sensor and platform using the concept of “size scalability” and (3) the use of components using “modularity” or modular components. All three of these design elements have been used by the author as a guidepost in the systems constructed to date, and those currently being built.
Figure 14.1. shows a moored or tethered shallow water remote sensing system, which was built by the author. This system as shown is designed as a tethered shallow water system and was designed with the concept of a “sensor payload”. This particular example contains an internationally patented non-contact scalable backscatter probe (Bostater [2000]) within the payload sensor well, which is essentially a hyperspectral remote sensing system. This particular system was designed to measure identify and quantify chemicals and targets in a shallow water environment and the payload and probe hold an active electromagnetic energy source and a passive multi-wavelength sensor. Next to the photograph is shown the side and top perspective of the moored or fixed remote sensing platform which is scalable in size with respect to the flotation collar as well as with respect to a sensor payload holding area and as well as the probe.
The design and fabrication of this system accommodates either several payload sensor wells within the payload or several payloads on a single platform for measuring multiple radiative transfer process properties as mentioned above. In a non-tethered mode of operation, the system sensors can provide images of the submerged water properties or features, for example active-passive (LIDAR) imaging, hyperspectral imaging, Raman imaging, acoustic (SONAR) and magnetic imaging systems.
Figure 14.1. Example of a shallow water observation and surveillance system which utilizes a scalable in size payload, scalable chemical probe for multi-wavelength EM source and detector system(s) designed and developed by Bostater (2000)
This system was designed for mapping and surveys of shallow water areas around bridges, waterways, canals, channels and ports in order to provide real time monitoring and surveillance of chemical constituents, mapping submerged land or bottom feature types or to identify and localize natural and manmade objects and debris, as well as unidentified objects such as UXO and/or mine like objects. As indicated, this system is “scalable” in size, accommodates payload areas or “sensor wells”, and is made from off-the-shelf components that are modular for construction purposes. Figure 14.2. shows a typical relation between the suspended sediment (seston) concentrations based upon the optical non-contact backscatter signal obtained from a high sensitivity solid state spectrograph in the buoy payload active probe assembly. The relationship shown below is developed by implementing a derivative spectroscopy based wavlet analysis using a translating and dilating derivative filter to the non-contact sensor spectra or signals, which are collected in real time from the platform. The remote sensing algorithm is trained in order to optimize the best available spectral data from the optical spectrograph mounted aboard the buoy. Similar relations can be obtained for other water quality variables such as chlorophyll pigments and dissolved organic substances and carbon based molecules such as humic, fulvic acids found in watershed based land runoff. For example, theoretical calculations based upon radiative transfer based spectra can be used to assess the remote sensing non-contact response as a function of wavelength as shown in Figure 14.3. given below.
Figure 14.2. Example of non-contact sensor derived suspended sediment water concentrations a shallow water observation and surveillance system, which utilizes a scalable in size payload, scalable chemical probe for multi-wavelength EM source and detector system(s) for a turbid water body.
Figure 14.3. Theoretical model based prediction of a non-contact buoy sensor derived from radiative transfer modeling. The dissolved organic matter is predicted to be readily monitored in real time using the probe and system payload on the buoy platform. The above relation is based upon using imaging spectroscopy based analysis procedures of water spectra in conjunction with higher order derivative spectroscopy techniques developed by Bostater (2004).
14.2.2. Non-Contact Sensing – Airborne Hyperspectral Sensing
The second example of utilizing non-contact remote sensing is based upon hyperspectral data collected from a low flying helicopter. Figure 14.4. shows a hyperspectral based image flown at approximately 1,000 m during the May 5th, 2003 SAV (submerged aquatic vegetation) growing season. The pixel size of the image is approximately 1 m resolution. The image shown below is the Sebastian Inlet coastal lagoon area along the Space Coast Florida, Atlantic Ocean region. The average water depth is 0.5 to 3 meters and varies from turbid water type with approximately a 0.5 m to 2 m secchi depth (visual light penetration depth measurement) depending on the tide and wind conditions in this shallow lagoon system. The non-contact hyperspectral imager used to collect this image has approximately 88 channels in the visible and near infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, the optimal channels can be selected for detecting bottom types, bottom targets and submerged land features as shown in Figure 14.4, where the submerged grass beds (indicating a high habitat quality area – see middle inset below) and better water quality conditions with respect to water clarity, is clearly detected from the airborne data. The left inset shows the 3 m by 30 m ground truth transect where SAV density data was obtained along the line.
Figure 14.4. Airborne hyperspectral image of the Sebastian Inlet in Florida showing the high quality habitat with respect to submerged aquatic vegetation. The middle zoomed inset shows the high red color with higher SAV density. The left zoomed inset shows the location of ground based SAV data for remote sensing algorithm development for SAV safe environment mapping.
14.3. Summary & Conclusions
Remote sensing systems and platforms present unique and modern capabilities for monitoring land, air and water environments. The two examples of water remote sensing reported above document the capability of modern strategically designed systems and platforms to determine safe environments as suggested by water quality indicators. Applications of such systems and platforms require a change in technology as well as a change in the way we will train our next generation engineers, scientists and managers. Most importantly, the application of these modern systems and techniques will require letting go of past “bucket dipping” and lab based techniques to design of modern instruments and platforms that can estimate the parameters of indicative of high quality or safe environments directly from the real time or near real time non-contact remote sensing system data.
In this paper, demonstration of hyperspectral based sensors that are just becoming available to the marketplace have been shown to be of value to estimate high quality safe environments for living marine aquatic life and their populations which need “safe” sustainable environments”. These systems also have a dual use utility in environmental monitoring as well as in surveillance applications related to target detection in ports, harbors and waterways.
Figure 14. 5. Sebastian Inlet AISA+ PM Flight, May 5, 2003. Transect number 2, % SAV (grass) coverage ground truth (in-situ) data. Results from 30 one meter reflectance spectra based pixel data nearest the averaged plot frame (1 meter) sea grass in-situ observations. The six channel inflection ratio (wavelet based optimal derivative imaging spectroscopy - TDIS) non-contact remote sensing algorithm (based upon selected channels on the x-axis) could be used to estimate sea grass density from hyperspectral imagery for safe environment remote sensing assessments.
Acknowledgements
The research and applications described in this paper have been supported in part by the following organizations: KB Science; NASA Stennis; S&C Services; US Department of State and the US Department of Education, FIPSE program and the St. Johns River Water Management District. Graduate students James Jones, Teddy Ghir and Luce Bassetti are kindly acknowledged for their field and computer processing related to the remote sensing discussed above.
Bibliography
Charles Bostater (2000): Buoy Instrumented for Spectral Measurement of Water Quality, NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 24, No. 11, p. 69.
Charles Bostater, et al. (2004): Synthetic Image Generation Using an Iterative Layered Radiative Transfer Model With Realistic Water Waves, SPIE, Vol. 5233, pp. 253-268.
Charles Bostater, et al. (2004): Remote Sensing Systems for Robotics and Aquatic Related Humanitarian Demining and UXO Detection, Robotics & Mechanical Assistance in Humanitarian Demining and Similar Risky Interventions, Yvon Bauodin, (ed.), Proceedings of an International Workshop, HUDEM04, Belgium Military Institute, Brussels, Belgium
Alan B. BROWN: Sustained Safe Environment: (Photochemistry As) Green Chemistry
Abstract
A promising basis for green chemistry is photochemistry, because it uses no reagent but light. In the future, one hopes to use the sun as light source. Photochemistry of organophosphorus heterocycles may prove important, due to the commercial utility of organophosphorus compounds in general.
Keywords: “green” chemistry, organophosphorus heterocycles, photochemistry
15.1. Introduction
Dr. Carroll showed us last night why technological innovation must continue, and in particular why chemical innovation must continue: in a nutshell, world population pressure leaves us no choice. To maintain the economic benefits of chemical manufacture while minimizing its environmental hazards, it behooves us to develop “green”, or environmentally benign, chemical processes (Poliakoff et al. [2002]). Photochemistry is chemical reactivity induced by light (Turro [1978a]). Photochemistry is inherently green in a sense, because it uses no reagent but light; the currently-available energy source which will last longest is of course the Sun (Albini and Fagnoni [2004]). Long ago, the great Italian photochemist Giacomo Ciamician offered the following vision (Ciamician [1912]): “On arid lands there will spring up industrial colonies without smoke and without smokestacks, forests of glass tubes will extend over the plains, and glass buildings will rise everywhere; inside of these will take place the photochemical processes that hitherto have been the guarded secret of the plants, but that will have been mastered by human industry which will know how to make them bear even more abundant fruit than nature, for nature is not in a hurry and mankind is.” Ciamician’s vision is expansive and somewhat fanciful, but also instructive; in the next few minutes, let us consider progress towards it, obstacles to realizing it, and the extent to which it is attainable.
15.2. Photochemistry as Green Chemistry
Several speakers in this forum have listed the “Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry” (Anastas and Warner [1998], Lancaster [2002a]). Photochemical processes fit well under several of these rubrics (Lancaster [2002b]). Since photochemistry takes place only if photons are absorbed, and since different compounds absorb different wavelengths of light, it follows that energy can be directly targeted at specific molecules; this feature decreases consumption of energy (principle 6), and cuts the need for protecting groups (principle 8). Reaction temperatures are generally low, obviating the need for external heating and again decreasing energy consumption. Photons are clean reagents, generally leaving no residues (principles 1 and 5). Some reaction pathways are more readily available photochemically than otherwise (Horspool and Song [1994]); in particular, there are many isomerizations and cycloadditions, which offer high atom economy (principle 2).
However, photochemistry is no panacea. Most common organic chemicals do not absorb visible light; this problem can sometimes be obviated by photosensitization (Turro [1978b]), but many processes cannot be photosensitized, and even if effective the sensitizer must later be removed. Thus, artificial light sources must usually be used. These are often expensive and delicate; further, most are polychromatic (Hutchison [1986]). Since most photoreactions require a particular wavelength of light, light energy of non-absorbed wavelengths goes to waste. The power of transmitted light drops off as the square of the distance from the lamp, and the rates of many photochemical reactions are limited by passage of light through the medium (Turro [1978c]); large-scale reactions thus require unusually shaped reactors, which minimize the distance between reactants and the lamp. Immersion wells are often used, as are flow reactors of various types. Finally, reactor fouling, a problem common in large-scale chemistry, is particularly damaging to photoreactions, since the reactor surface can be rendered opaque, thus causing reaction to stop.
15.3. Industrial Photochemical Syntheses
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Scheme 15.1. The Toray caprolactam synthesis
A few photochemical processes are in use industrially. The Toray synthesis of ε-caprolactam, used on large scales to make nylon-6, begins with free-radical nitrosation of cyclohexane (Fisher and Crescentini [1991]; Scheme 1). The excitation wavelength is 535 nm, in the visible region; the actual photochemical event is scission of NOCl to nitrosyl and chloro radicals, the initiation step of a free-radical chain process (Carey and Sundberg [2000]). The product is nitrosocyclohexane, which is converted to ε-caprolactam in two more steps. Since the photochemical reaction is a substitution, however, it is not atom economic: it produces HCl along with nitrosocyclohexane. It also requires use of the corrosive NOCl and HCl in large quantities.
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Scheme 15.2. Photochemical step in commercial synthesis of vitamin D3
Vitamin D3 is produced in two steps from 7-dehydrocholesterol (Hirsch [1991]). Electrocyclic ring opening is induced by irradiation at 300 nm, to furnish pre-vitamin D3 (Scheme 2); thermal 1,7-hydrogen shift then gives vitamin D3 itself. The photochemical reaction is fully atom economic, since it is an isomerization; the irradiation wavelength needed is in the ultraviolet region.
15.4. Dimerization of Enones and Vinylphosphine Oxides
Our own work seeks to explore the formal analogy between carbon-oxygen and phosphorus-oxygen double bonds. It has long been known that irradiation of cyclopentenone at 300-350 nm, in the presence of a sensitizer, gives as major product a cis-anti-cis head-to-tail dimer (Eaton and Hurt [1966]; Scheme 15.3).
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Scheme15. 3. Photodimerization of cyclopentenone
In collaboration with György Keglevich and his co-workers, of BME, we are studying the potential dimerization of 3-methyl-1-phenyl-2-phospholene 1-oxide (Keglevich et al. [2005]; Scheme 15.4.). The three question marks under the reaction arrow mean that we think a dimer forms. Our reason for believing this is that the GC/MS of the reaction mixture shows fragment peaks whose mass-to-charge ratios exceed the molecular weight of monomer, but which are derivable by coherent fragmentations of the expected dimer.
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Scheme 15.4. Possible photodimerization of 3-methyl-1-phenyl-2-phospholene 1-oxide
15.5. Potential Importance of Organophosphorus Photochemistry
The potential importance of organophosphorus photochemistry stems from the commercial importance of organophosphorus compounds in general (Quin [2000]). Common phosphorus-containing biomolecules include nucleotides, nucleic acids, phospholipids, and sugar phosphates. Natural products containing direct carbon-phosphorus bonds were once rare, but currently known examples (most of fairly recent discovery) display a diversity of structures. These include the antibacterial antibiotic phosphonomycin, or Fosfomycin (Hendlin et al. [1969]; Scheme 5).
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Scheme 15.5. Phosphonomycin (Fosfomycin)
Many phosphoryl and thiophosphoryl compounds act as cholinesterase inhibitors, giving rise to varying levels of toxicity. Several of these are useful as herbicides or insecticides, such as the common garden insecticide Malathion (Scheme 15.6.).
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Scheme 15.6. Malathion
Due to the broad importance of organophosphorus compounds, photochemical routes to or from them may have wide implications.
Bibliography:
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Szabolcs CZIFRUS, Gyula CSOM and Attila VÉRTES: Sustainability of nuclear power generation
Abstract
One of the greatest dreams of the human society is to supply the energy need of the world by the renewing sources of energy: sun, rivers, sea, wind, biomass, geothermical energy. The windmills of the world have 32 GW capacity at present time. (E.g.: Germany 12 GW, the whole Europe: 24 GW and USA: 4.7 GW.) The total capacity of the water power stations is 700 GW. (E.g.: Europe: 173 GW, Asia: 225 GW and USA: ~140 GW.) According to the estimations and calculations, the potential capacity of the regenerating sources of energy could supply about 80% of the present energy need (Vajda, 2004). Nevertheless, the world will need and use several times more energy at the end of the 21st century than it needs nowadays. We can conclude that the world cannot exist without the nuclear energy in the coming decades of the 21st century.
Keywords: sustainability, nuclear energy, nuclear fuel cycle, hydrogen fuel cell
16.1. Introduction
There are well-supported opinions that nuclear fission and fusion will be among the important sources of energy in the 21st century. We cite George A. Olah who was awarded the Nobel Prize for his contributions to carbocation chemistry in 1994. He wrote (Olah, 2000):
‘Generating energy by burning non-renewable fossil fuels including oil, gas and coal is feasible only for the relatively short future and even so, faces serious environmental problems. The advent of the atomic age opened up a wonderful new possibility, but also created dangers and concerns of safety. I feel that it is tragic that the latter considerations practically brought further development of atomic energy to a stand still at least in most of the Western world. Whether we like it or not we have in the long run no alternative but to rely increasingly on clean atomic energy, but we must solve safety problems including those of disposal and storage of radioactive waste-products. Pointing out difficulties and hazards as well as regulating them (within reason) is necessary. Finding solutions to overcome them, however, is essential.’
This paper attempts to give a survey on the potential development of the energy production based on nuclear fission.
16.2. The past, present and future of nuclear energy industry
The nuclear energy industry was developing very rapidly from its birth until the mid eighties. The percentage of electricity generated in nuclear power plants grew to about 17% (WNA, September 2004). Although twenty years ago many people thought that this share would continue to rise, it has been approximately the same since then and even a slight decrease can be observed in the last few years. The reasons for this stalling are complex, but most analysts believe that the nuclear power plant accidents, among which Chernobyl was the worst, played the most important role in this process.
In 2003, 441 nuclear power plant units were operating in 30 countries. The total capacity was almost 360 GWe, providing 16% of the total electricity generated. In the European Union, the average for the 25 countries is 32 %. However, in a few countries such as France, the share is as high as 77%. Today somewhat less than 30 GWe capacity is under construction (TECDOC, 2003; IAEA, 2003), the majority being in the Asian continent (see Table 16.1.). According to forecasts made by the International Atomic Energy Agency, today’s 16% worldwide share may drop to as low as 13% by 2015 (WNA, 2004Mar).
There are strong signs that political decision makers in certain countries would like to decrease the role of nuclear power even further. In some cases, the shutdown of all nuclear power plant units has been agreed upon by the parliaments of a few countries. Two fundamental features should be looked at regarding these issues. Firstly for the developed countries, the reliability of the electricity supply is decreasing. This is contributed to the fact that due to the uneven distribution of the fossil resources and the energy demand, the import dependence is growing. The other factor is the global climate change. As most analysts state, the emission of the greenhouse gases, which are produced when burning fossil fuels, bears the largest share in the responsibility.
The renewable energy resources are candidates for conquering the above mentioned problems. Unfortunately, today the share they have in the electricity industry is rather low. It is very likely that nuclear power, in parallel with the growing percentage of renewable sources, will provide long-term solutions to these issues.
According to the above, some researchers forecast a renaissance of nuclear power, while others are more conservative to say that the share of nuclear power will increase in the next ten to fifteen years. Nevertheless, such an upward trend would require that certain fundamental question be solved, and the public and politicians opinions could be convinced.
Table 16.1. The operating and under construction nuclear power plants in the world (December 2002)
|Country |Units in operation |Units under |Generated power and its|Total operational |
| | |construction |share |experience |
| |Number |MWe |Number |MWe |TWhe |% |Reactor year |
|USA |104 | 98230 |- | - | 768.83 |20.35 |2767.67 |
|France |59 |63073 |- |- |401.30 |77.07 |1287.17 |
|Japan |54 |44287 |3 |3696 |321.94 |34.26 |1070.33 |
|Germany |19 |21283 |- |- |162.30 |30.52 |629.08 |
|Russia |30 |20793 |3 |2825 |125.36 |15.40 |731.33 |
|South Korea |18 |14890 |2 |1920 |112.13 |39.32 |202.58 |
|UK |31 |12252 |- |- |83.34 |22.44 |1301.67 |
|Ukraine |13 |11207 |4 |3800 |71.67 |46.36 |266.83 |
|Canada |14 |10018 |- |- |72.35 |12.85 |461.17 |
|Sweden |11 |9432 |- |- |69.20 |43.85 |300.08 |
|Spain |9 |7574 |- |- |61.07 |26.88 |210.17 |
|Belgium |7 |5760 |- |- |44.1 |58.03 |184.58 |
|China |7 |5318 |4 |3275 |16.68 |1.14 |31.50 |
|Czeh Republic |6 |3468 |- |- |14.75 |19.76 |68.83 |
|Switzerland |5 |3200 |- |- |25.29 |35.96 |138.83 |
|Bulgaria |4 |2722 |- |- |18.24 |41.55 |125.17 |
|Finland |4 |2656 |- |- |21.88 |30.54 |95.33 |
|India |14 |2503 |8 |3610 |17.32 |3.72 |209.42 |
|Slovakia |6 |2408 |2 |776 |17.10 |53.44 |97.00 |
|Lituania |2 |2370 |- |- |11.36 |77.58 |34.50 |
|Brazil |2 |1901 |- |- |14.35 |4.34 |23.25 |
|South Africa |2 |1800 |- |- |13.34 |6.65 |36.25 |
|Hungary |4 |1755 |- |- |14.13 |39.09 |70.17 |
|Mexico |2 |1360 |- |- |8.11 |3.66 |21.92 |
|Argentina |2 |935 |1 |692 |6.54 |8.19 |48.58 |
|Slovenia |1 |676 |- |- |5.03 |38.98 |21.25 |
|Rumania |1 |655 |1 |655 |5.05 |10.46 |6.50 |
|Holland |1 |450 |- |- |3.75 |4.16 |59.00 |
|Pakistan |2 |425 |- |- |1.98 |2.86 |33.83 |
|Armenia |1 |376 |- |- |1.99 |34.82 |35.25 |
|Iran |- |- |2 |2111 |- |- |- |
|Nort Korea |- |- |1 |1040 |- |- |- |
|Total |441 |358661 |33 |27100 |2543.57 | |10696.33 |
16.3. The advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power generation
Concerning the advantages of nuclear power, the most important factor to be looked at is the “cleanness” of this type of power generation. When fossil fuel types are burnt, huge amounts of CO2 are emitted to the atmosphere. Considering an average nuclear power generating unit, the yearly coal consumption of a coal fired plant of the same power is in the order of several hundred thousand tons. This corresponds to the emission of million tons of CO2 to the atmosphere. It is not difficult to calculate how much fossil fuel is spared and how much CO2 is not emitted to the atmosphere due to the operation of nuclear power plants. In view of the Kyoto Agreement, one should not overlook this point.
On the negative side, the most often disagreement on nuclear power is the handling and disposal of the radioactive waste produced. It is in fact true that in today’s nuclear power systems, quite a large volume of high level (i.e. highly radioactive) waste is produced. According to the plans elaborated until now, this waste would be placed into final repositories. The waste contains radioisotopes with half-lives as long as a million years, therefore the activity (and thus the so called radiotoxicity) of the waste only decreases at a relatively slow pace. This issue has a fairly straight influence on the public opinion regarding nuclear energy. However, as we shall show later, with the introduction of new nuclear energy systems a significant portion of the problem related to radioactive waste could be eliminated.
16.4. Nuclear fuel cycles and sustainability
The nuclear fuel cycle consists of a number of elements. One of these, possibly the most important one, is the nuclear power plant. In order that nuclear energy generation could play an increasingly important role in the future, all the components of the fuel cycle should be developed in harmony.
Concerning our present analysis, we have to look at the following constituents of the fuel cycle:
• Fuel fabrication
• Power generation
• Interim storage of spent fuel
• Handling and management of radioactive waste
• Reprocessing, as an option
• Partitioning and transmutation, as an option
16.5. Once-through fuel cycle
In the case of the once through fuel cycle, the spent fuel from the power plants is considered as waste and is not reprocessed. In lack of reprocessing, of course, the components of the spent fuel which would be reusable are not recycled to the system. In this case, the spent fuel is disposed of by locating it into so called final geological repositories. Depending on the reactor type, the spent fuel contains approximately 96 to 98 percent of the uranium content of the fresh fuel. Furthermore, it also contains plutonium and other transuranic elements. All these constituents could be reused and more energy could be extracted from them. Taking into account the fact that during the enrichment phase of fuel fabrication, a huge amount of depleted uranium is created, only 0.6 to 1% of the natural uranium is actually used for energy production.
Most countries which operate nuclear power plants use the once through fuel cycle today. If only such fuel cycles continue to operate in the world, it is expected that the human kind will be depleted of the known uranium resources within about fifty years. Therefore, one of the disadvantages of this fuel cycle type is that in 50 years a limitation on the nuclear industry may be the decreased or more difficult availability of uranium resources (DOE, 2002; Csom, 2000). The other major problem is related to the storage of spent fuel as waste. Due to the large amount produced, the final repositories will have a large capacity, which is naturally a negative factor regarding costs. According to relevant research, another limiting factor on the growth of the nuclear power generation may be the unavailability of sufficient storage capacities.
In spite of the factors mentioned above, the cheapest way of nuclear power generation is by use of the once-through fuel cycle, the main reason of which is the vast expenses involved in reprocessing and in the fabrication of fuel containing reprocessed constituents. Another advantage of the once through fuel cycle, as believed by many, is the easiest to prevent fissile material from getting into the hands of terrorists. Nevertheless, if one considers the spent fuel storage facilities as plutonium stores, this feature becomes a disadvantage.
16.6. Closed fuel cycle
In the case of the closed fuel cycle, the energetically reusable components of the spent fuel are separated in reprocessing plants. These are then used to manufacture a special fuel type called MOX (Mixed Oxide Fuel). In this manner, the utilization of natural uranium can be increased. With the currently operating thermal reactors the increase is 30 to 60 percent. This is in fact significant, however, not a real breakthrough since the utilization is still not more than 0.8 to 1.5%. As a result of this improvement, there is a decrease in the amount of uranium to be mined, in the requirement for enrichment and in the volume of high level waste to be placed in final repositories. Nevertheless, reprocessing and MOX fuel fabrication are very expensive processes and therefore the application of the closed fuel cycle increases the cost of electricity.
This situation might change if the price of natural uranium increases significantly. At present, there are a few countries (France, Russia, Japan) in which reprocessing and MOX fuel fabrication are done on an industrial scale and thus the closed fuel cycle is implemented. If the closing of the fuel cycle is done with the aid of fast reactors only, the utilization of fissile materials may increase as much as one or two orders of magnitude. However, the application of expensive fast reactors rises the cost of electric energy.
16.7. Waste recirculation closed fuel cycle
The spent fuel, or in the case of reprocessing the produced high level waste contains a huge amount of radioisotopes of extremely long half-lives. This is valid even if in the latter case plutonium is recirculated. The half-live of certain isotopes is as long as a million years and thus the radioactive waste containing such isotopes require safe storage for durations of several hundred thousand years. Therefore, the management and final disposal of this waste is one of the key issues of the nuclear energy industry. The solution to these problems have a definite impact on the future of nuclear power generation, as well as on the public acceptance of nuclear energy.
A new approach may be the P&T (partitioning and transmutation). In this process, the long-lived radioisotopes are transmuted into short-lived or stable ones in dedicated devices. These can be either reactors themselves optimized for the purpose or so called accelerator driven subcritical devices. The P&T technology and the necessary devices are under investigation today.
16.8. Symbiotic fuel cycle
This closed fuel cycle system consists of fast and thermal reactors. In an optimal case, in such symbiotic nuclear power plant systems, the fissile material need of the thermal reactors is covered by the extra plutonium production of the fast reactors. In such systems, there is no need at all for fuel enrichment. Furthermore, the earlier accumulated depleted uranium and spent fuel (considered earlier as waste) become usable materials as fuel. This system is capable of utilizing the nuclear material resources at the highest efficiency.
16.9. Waste recirculation symbiotic fuel cycle
This system solves practically all the problems we have dealt with above. With the proper combination of thermal and fast reactors and trasmutational devices, this system has a very high degree of fissile material utilization as well as it takes care of its own waste by reducing the necessary storage time and capacity of the waste repositories. Such systems may be built in the future after sufficient investigation effort is made in order to develop the adequate technologies.
16.10. Hydrogen fuel cells and nuclear power
According to many different research results concerning the fight against global warming, one of the best solutions may be the use of hydrogen in the motorcar engines instead of mineral oil based fuels. Nevertheless, practically all of the hydrogen generated today (which is about 50 million tons per year) is generated from natural gas. The growth rate of hydrogen production is 10% per year. The problem with this method of hydrogen production is that the side-product of the technique is CO2, which is the most important greenhouse gas. It is very likely therefore that in the future hydrogen should not be produced from natural gas, but rather from water. In this case the side-product is oxygen. There are two different methods to convert water to hydrogen: electrolysis and thermochemical reactions. Electrolysis requires electrical energy, which may be produced in any type of power plant. However, if electricity is generated in fossil fuelled power plants, there is not much net advantage. The application of hydrogen cells can only be a real breakthrough if the electricity needed for hydrogen production is generated in either nuclear power plants or using renewable resources (Foratom, 2004). Hopefully, in the future nuclear energy may be used directly to produce hydrogen in dedicated very high temperature reactors by the thermochemical reaction (Forsberg, 2003).
16.11. Conclusions
The primary condition of sustainable growth is that the interests of future generations should be accounted for with the same importance as today’s mankind. Therefore, we have a great responsibility when making decisions, which may influence the future of the Earth. In the case of nuclear power, on the positive side of the balance is that this type of energy generation does not contribute to global climate changes. This fact is crucial, even on the short run. However, it should also be observed that the presently operating nuclear systems can not manage the waste they produce in an optimal manner. The best way to solve this problem would be the application of closed nuclear fuel cycles in which the waste problem is eliminated or at least greatly reduced by use of transmutational devices. On the other hand, the new generation nuclear power plants would also vastly increase the utilization of the fissile material resources, thus making this energy type more available for future generations. We hope that the great efforts in research will result in the development of nuclear systems which meet almost all the requirements of sustainable growth.
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György POKOL and Virender K. SHARMA: Chemistry and Environmental Sustainability
Abstract
The terms “sustainability” and “sustainable development” are related to the function of ecosystems and consumption of natural resources. Four levels of Sustainability Hierarchy based on their direct and indirect potential have been recently given. These are (i) endanger the survival of humans; (ii) impair human health, (iii) cause species extinction and (iv) reduce quality of life. The effects of ecosystem function include human life, human health, and species viability. Chemists and social scientists therefore need to work together in order to understand better human and environment interaction to sustain the environment. The green chemistry can address global issue such as climate change, energy production, and the availability of a safe and adequate water quality. An example of green chemistry with hydrogen peroxide demonstrates the concept of sustainable chemistry.
Keywords: sustainability, ecosystem, environment, chemistry, sustainability hierarchy, hydrogen peroxide
17.1. Introduction
There is widespread use of “sustainability”, which has many definitions (Marshall and Toffel, 2005). The report prepared by the World Commission on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as the “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising future generations’ needs (World Commission, 1987). In literature, this definition has been criticized as being difficult to implement. However, there is critical need for scientists and engineers to account sustainability concerns in their work through exploring the full social and environmental issues of technology. Although pollution prevention and industrial ecology can address concerns, these scientific solutions may not be acceptable socially (Homer-Dixon, 1991).
Marshall and Toffel (2005) have given four levels in Sustainability Hierarchy: Level 1 (Actions that if continued at the current or forecasted rate, endanger the survival of humans); Level 2 (Actions that significantly reduce life expectancy or other basic health indicators; Level 3 (Actions that may cause species extinction or that violate human rights); and Level 4 (Actions that reduce quality of life or are inconsistent with other values, beliefs, or aesthetic preferences). The survival and health of people are covered in Levels 1 and 2. The species extinction and human rights are covered in Level 3. Level 4 covers values that do not address the hierarchy such as social justice and equity, the preservation of open space for aesthetic reasons, and desires for ecological environment for recreation use. The necessity of sustaining ecosystem function is addressed in the first and third levels of Sustainability Hierarchy. Overall, Hierarchy Level 1 represents the important foundation and starting points for sustainability while issues in Level 4 are the most controversial. There is also interrelation between levels of hierarchy. For example, widespread use of agricultural marginal land because of increasing poverty levels (a level 3 issue) results in environmental decay, which ultimately cause widespread famine due to the reduction of agricultural yield (a level 1 issue) (Petschel-Held et al., 1999). Scientists have therefore a challenge to quantify whether ecosystems can meet demand of human needs, which is changing over time.
17.2. Chemistry in Environmental Issues
Chemistry plays an important role in sustaining a civilization on Earth. Our economy largely depends on the use of vast amounts of natural resources including nonrenewables (Collins, 2001). An economically spent matter is then put back to the ecosphere. These phenomena can be largely expressed by Figure 17.1. Figure 17.1. demonstrates that the ecosphere is greatly influenced by the development in technology.
Figure 17.1. Ecospherical responsibility of chemists. Diagram based on ideas of
Herman E. Daly (taken from Collins, 2001).
Chemical industries have made major contributions to worldwide economic progress over the past century. However, productions of pharmaceuticals, synthetic fibers, plastics, and fine chemicals to sustain our health and daily life have resulted in many environmental problems. For example, sustainable use of materials and energy as well as production of sustainable product become cause of environmental threats such as global warming, ozone depletion in the stratosphere, and world-wide dispersion of toxic substances.
Thus, development of environmentally benign and clean synthetic technology is critically needed to prevent pollution of the environment. Sustainable development is therefore a major challenge to the chemist in this century. This leads to the development of the sustainable chemistry (SC), which is in early stage (Boschen et al., 2003). One of the important points of SC is usually defined as the research in chemistry aiming at the optimization of chemical synthesis processes with respect to energy and material consumption, inherent safety, environmental degradability, and toxicity. It should be pointed out that scientific research should satisfy social aspect, which has two requirements: (1) the processes in chemical research should be transparent to various societal actors; (2) uncertainty and ignorance in conducting research should be treated more explicitly. The “Green Chemistry” approach can satisfy the requirements of sustaining the environment.
17.3. Green Chemistry using Hydrogen Peroxide
Green chemistry can be applied to anywhere in the life cycle that addresses global issue such as climate change, energy production, and the availability of a safe and adequate water quality (Hjeresen, 2001). The guided principles of green chemistry will give benign products and processes, which would be economical in the long term.
Oxidation is the main processes in the development of green chemistry. Oxidation processes convert petroleum-based materials to useful products. Reactions of oxidation must be highly efficient with a low E-factor to be cost-effective (Noyori 2003). There are numerous problems in oxidation processes and many improvements are needed to achieve environmentally benign and clean synthetic technology of the green chemistry.
Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, is an adduct of either H2 and O2 or O atom and water and is considered green oxidant for liquid-phase reaction. It can oxidize a number of organic compounds at relatively high efficiency and has made significant contribution to cleaner chemical industry. The oxidation by H2O2 is particularly relevant to manufacture fine chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or agrochemicals, and electronic materials, which need high chemical purity. An oxidative removal of toxic compounds can also be accomplished by H2O2. Examples of oxidation by H2O2 in synthetic organic chemistry include oxidation of alcohols to carbonyl compounds, olefins, and sulfides under organic solvent and halide-free conditions (Noyori et al. 2003). When H2O2 is coupled with sodium tungstate (Na2WO4) and methyltrioctylammonium hydrogen sulfate [CH3(n-C8H17)3N+HSO4-(Q+HSO4-)] as an acidic phase-transfer catalyst, the dehydrogenation of alcohols takes place with 30% H2O2 to give the corresponding carbonyl compounds in high yields (Noyori et al. 2003). Importantly, this reaction occurs at such temperature (at or below 90 oC) without the use of hazardous organic solvents.
The inorganic system having H2O2-titanium silicate has been found to catalyze many oxidation reactions (Sanderson 2000). Many studies have been carried out using a titanium-substituted aluminum-free silicate with 5.5 Ao channels (TS-1). Oxidations of phenol to catechol/quinol and in-situ oxidation of ammonia to hydroxylamine in production of capnolactem from cyclohexane have been commercialized. The TS-1 used in the oxidation processes was regenerated effectively in the liquid phase (Sanderson 2000). TS-1 catalyst has thus better scope of commercialization than those containing organic ligands or supports.
A combination of iron catalysts, TetraAmidoMacrocyclicLignad (TAML) and H2O2 gives green oxidation chemistry (Ghosh et al. 2001). TAML catalysts activate H2O2 to give selective chemistry for commercial purposes such as pulp bleaching. TAML catalysts are water-soluble and oxidations can be carried out over a wide pH range. Moreover, TAML activation of H2O2 can be effective well below commercially used temperature in chlorine based oxidation processes. Thus, TAML-H2O2 may be alternative to polluting chlorine-based technologies. Examples are the rapid bleaching of water-soluble dyes, the decolorization of pulp mill effluents, the complete remediation of chlorophenolpersistent pollutants, and delignification of wood pulp (Ghosh et al. 2005).
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ROLE OF IRON IN THE ENVIRONMENT: INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION
Virender K. SHARMA: Iron(VI)[Ferrate(VI)]- Green Chemistry
Abstract
Iron is commonly exists in the +2 and +3 oxidation states; however, in a strong oxidizing environment, higher oxidation states of iron such as +6 can also be obtained. In recent years, +6 oxidation state of iron, commonly called ferrate(VI) (FeVIO42-), has received the much attention because ferrate(VI) fulfills the critical need of green chemical that can be applied to anywhere in the life cycle that addresses global issue such as climate change, energy production, and the availability of a safe and adequate water quality. The purpose of this chapter is to give examples demonstrating usefulness of Ferrate(VI) in green organic synthesis, “super iron batteries, and advanced oxidant and disinfectant in treatment to meet demand of water supply of this century.
Keywords: Iron(VI), ferrate(VI), green chemistry, oxidation, organic synthesis, super-iron battery, disinfection, coagulation, pollution, remediation
18.1. Introduction
Iron in its familiar form exists in the +2 and +3 oxidation states. However, higher oxidation states of iron +4, +5, and +6 can be obtained (Jeannot et al., 2002; Rush and Bielski, 1986). Theoretically, oxidation states, +7 and +8 can also be generated (Atanasov, 1999). The high valence states of iron are usually produced as oxyanion e.g. FeVIO42-. The most stable high valence of iron is +6, which is known for more than a century. Over the past decade, there has been an increasing interest in FeVIO42- because of its potential in high energy density rechargeable batteries and in environmentally friendly water and wastewater treatment processes (Sharma, 2002; Licht et al. 2002, Sharma, 2004). FeVIO42- can also play a role in cleaner (“greener”) technology for organic synthesis (Delaude and Laszlo, 1996).
Three synthetic techniques have been used to prepare ferrate(VI) in the laboratory: a wet method, a thermal method, and an electrochemical method (Bouzek et al., 2000; Perfiliev and Sharma, 2004). In a wet method, sodium ferrate(VI) (Na2FeO4) is produced from the reaction of ferric chloride with sodium hypochlorite in the presence of sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide is then added to sodium ferrate(VI) to precipitate potassium ferrate(VI) (K2FeO4). The basic reactions are as follows:
2 FeCl3 + 3 NaOCl + 10 NaOH ( 2 Na2FeO4 + 9 NaCl + 5 H2O (1)
Na2FeO4 + 2 KOH ( K2FeO4 (2)
The precipitate of K2FeO4 is washed with 95% ethanol and the precipitate is transferred to a beaker containing 1000 ml of 95% ethanol and stirred for 20 minutes. This washing is repeated 3 times. The precipitate is then removed by filtration and dried in a vacuum dessicator. Dry potassium ferrate is stable and should be kept in a dessicator.
Dry and wet synthesis methods of alkali and alkaline earth metal ferrate(VI) have given six ferrates(VI) of the M2FeO4 composition (where M = Na, K, Rb, Cs), two alkali earth metal ferrates(VI) (SrFeO4 and BaFeO4), and two mixed cation ferrates(VI) (K3Na(FeO4)2 and K2Sr(FeO4)2), which have been characterized successfully using Mossbauer spectroscopic technique (Perfiliev and Sharma, 2004). In the dry thermal method, the reaction between Fe2O3 and MOx (M= Na, K, Cs; X=1-2) under a stream of dried oxygen gave the maximum yield of iron in +6 oxidation state with the lowest impurity content. In the laboratory, oxoferrates(VI) M2FeO4 (M=Li, Na, N(CH3)4, N(CH3)3BzI, and N(CH3)3Ph) have been prepared by cation exchange reactions on K2FeO4, synthesized using chemical oxidation of FeIII salts (Malchus et al., 1998). The solubility (S) of ferrate salts is in millimolar low in 13.5 M KOH and decreases in the order as S (Na1.1K0.9FeO4)>S(K2FeO4)>S(Rb1.7K0.3FeO4)>S(Cs2FeO4) (Licht et al., 2004).
In an electrochemical method, an anodic iron is oxidized to ferrate(VI) in concentrated alkaline solution by setting an appropriate anode potential (Bouzek et al., 2000). Recently, a role of cation of alkali has been studied in detail. The efficiency of synthesis process is higher in NaOH solution than in KOH solution (Macova and Bouzek, 2004). The efficiency of ferrate(VI) production increases from LiOH to KOH. A mixed solution of KOH and NaOH also improves the current efficiency to produce ferrate(VI) (Lapicque and Valentine, 2002).
18.2. Green Synthesis
Oxoanions of chromium and manganese (e.g. K2CrO4 and KMnO4) are often used to synthesize organic compounds. The reduction potentials for Cr(VI)/Cr(III) and Mn(VII)/Mn(IV) are significantly lower than that of Ferrate(VI)/Fe(III). The salts of FeVIO42- are therefore much more powerful oxidants to synthesize organic compounds (Audette et al., 1971; Bartzatt et al., 1985). FeVIO42- ion is also selective in reacting with substrates. For example, the synthesis of benzaldhehyde at 100% yield was possible without overoxidation to benzoic acid when benzyl alcohol was oxidized by K2FeO4-K10 clay in cyclohexane (eq 3) (Delaude and Laszlo 1996). Reaction 3 was complete within 2 hours whereas it took approximately 4 hours with potassium permanganate as an oxidant. Comparatively, similar oxidation reaction with potassium chromate did not produce significant yield even after 6 hours.
3 C6H5CH2OH + 2 K2FeO4 ( 3 C6H5CHO + Fe2O3 + 4 KOH + H2O (3)
Besides alcohols and amines, other functional groups, such as sulfur derivatives, have been oxidized by potassium ferrate(VI) in aqueous solution (Johnson and Read, 1996; Read et al., 1998ab). The by-product of FeVIO42- is iron(III), which unlike chromium and manganese, is considered non-toxic; therefore, FeVIO42- can make industrial processes more environmentally benign. This example clearly demonstrates the role of FeVIO42- in cleaner (“greener”) technology for organic synthesis.
18.3. Super Iron Battery
In recent years, a series of alkaline cathode batteries, based on FeVIO42- ion have been introduced (Licht et al., 1999). These batteries are commonly called as “super iron” batteries, which refer to cells containing more than three valence state iron compounds. The commonly used alkaline battery contains a zinc anode, a manganese dioxide (MnO2) cathode, and a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. In the discharge process, the zinc anode absorbs two electrons from the electrolyte and passes through the electric circuit. The MnO2 cathode takes these electrons to form manganese sesquioxide (Mn2O3). The storage capacities of such batteries are mainly limited by the cathodic discharge potential. The “super iron” battery replaces the manganese dioxide with FeVIO42- ion, which exhibit three-electron reduction (eq 4).
2 FeVIO42- + 3 Zn ( Fe2O3 + ZnO + 2 ZnO22- (4)
The FeVIO42- ion can therefore absorb more electrons than the MnO2 cathode. FeVIO42- ion has also 0.25 V favourable reduction potential than that of MnO2. K2FeO4 made cathode battery gave a high intrinsic capacity of 406 mA g-1. Comparatively, the BaFeO4 cathode alkaline battery provided a two times more storage capacity than the conventional alkaline MnO2 cathode. Recent work showed that MnO4- and Ag2+ ions enhanced the cathodic charge transfer (Licht et al., 2002). For example, a Zn anode alkaline cell containing AgO/K2FeO4 composite cathode gave a high discharge rate with 3 – to 5- fold higher high power energy capacity than the Zn/MnO2 alkaline battery. Other advantages of “super-iron” batteries are that they are environmentally friendly because the rust generated from the discharge of the battery is more preferable than somewhat toxic manganese compounds.
18.4. Environmentally-Friendly Removal of Pollutants
Ferrate(VI) is a powerful oxidizing agent in aqueous media that can be seen from the reduction potentials of equations 5 and 6 in acidic and alkaline solutions, respectively (Wood, 1958).
FeO42- + 8H+ + 3e- ( Fe3+ + 4H2O E0 = +2.20 V (5)
FeO42- + 4H2O + e- ( Fe(OH)3 + 5OH- E0 = +0.72 V (6)
Under acidic conditions, the redox potential of ferrate(VI) ion is the highest of any other oxidant used in water and wastewater treatment processes. The spontaneous oxidation of ferrate(VI) in water forms molecular oxygen (Goff and Murmann, 1971).
FeO42- + 5H2O ( Fe3+ + 3/2O2 + 10OH- (7)
A by-product of Ferrate(VI) is non-toxic, Fe(III), making ferrate(VI) an environmentally friendly oxidant (Waite 1978, Wait and Fagan, 1980; Waite and Gray 1984; Carr et al., 1985; Jiang and Lloyd, 2002; Sharma, 2002). Moreover, the ferric oxide produced from Ferrate(VI), acts as a powerful coagulant that is suitable for the removal of metals, non-metals, radionuclides, and humic acids (Potts and Churchwill 1994; Jiang and Wang 2003). Ferrate(VI) is therefore an efficient chemical for recycling and reuse of water and wastewater.
18.4.1 Cyanide Removal
Gold mining is one of the largest industries for cyanide consumption due to high affinity of gold with cyanide. After the extraction of gold from ores, cyanides are leached into the environment as effluents and as solid mine tailing. Each year, more than one billion tons of gold ore are leached with cyanide. There is an increasing risk to the environment from spills such as those at Baia Mare (Romania), Kumtor (Kyrgyzstan), Omai (Guyana), and Summitville (Colorado) (Macklin et al., 20003; Beebe et al., 2001; Boening and Chew, 1999). Effective treatment of effluent must take place in order to prevent water contamination.
Iron(VI) is a superior oxidant (Jiang and Lloyd, 2002; Sharma, 2002, 2004; Sharma et al., 2005a) and destruction of cyanides can be accomplished. If the concentration of Fe(VI) is five-fold higher than the three cyanide substrate concentrations (100 (M), the half-lives for oxidation by Fe(VI) are 1.8 ms, 9.3 s, and 46.3 s, respectively, at pH 9.0 and 15 oC (Sharma, 2003; Sharma et al., 1998, 2002, 2005a).
2 HFeO4- + 3 HCN + OH- ( 2 Fe(OH)3 + 3 CNO- (8)
4 HFeO4- + SCN- + 5 H2O ( 4 Fe(OH)3 + SO42- + CNO- + O2 + 2 OH- (9)
5HFeO4- + Cu(CN)43- + 8H2O ( 5Fe(OH)3 + Cu2+ + 4CNO- + 3/2O2 + 6OH- (10)
Product studies of Fe(VI) reactions show the formation of less harmful products such as cyanate, sulfate, Fe(III), and molecular oxygen, without harmful residuals or by-products (Eqs 8-10) that are associated with other treatment technologies. Therefore, Fe(VI) is a suitable candidate as a new chemical oxidant for the gold mining industry.
18.4.2. Arsenic Removal
Arsenic (As) contamination of groundwaters used for water resources is a global problem. Recent studies reported serious health risks due to As in drinking water. Arsenic exists in two forms, As(III) and As(V) in water. As(III) is more toxic and mobile than the As(V) species. Additionally, As(III) exists in nonionic H3AsO3 at pH 8, which does not adsorb efficiently to mineral surfaces. In comparison, As(V) is present as anions, H2AsO4- and HAsO42- and easily adsorbs to solid surfaces. Therefore, preoxidation of As(III) to As(V) is necessary for removal of arsenic. Because Ferrate(VI) acts as an oxidant and coagulant, it can be effective for remediation of arsenic from source water.
Reports have demonstrated the ability of ferrate(VI) to treat water by reducing arsenic levels (Vogels and Johnson 1998; Fan et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2003). The rate constant of the reaction of As(III) with ferrate(VI) is determined as a function of pH (Vogel and Johnson 1998; Lee at al., 2003). Rate constants suggest that As(III) is instantaneously oxidized to As(V) by Ferrate(VI) (reaction 8).
2 FeO42- + 3 AsO43- ( 2 Fe3+ + 3 AsO43- (8)
In the Vogel and Johnson (1998) approach, ion pairs between ferrous and As(III) were first produced before reacting with ferrate(VI). A ferrate(VI) reaction with this ion pair produces highly insoluble ferric arsenate, which immediately settles from solution (reactions 9,10).
Fe2+ + AsO43- ( FeAsO4- (9)
FeAsO4- + FeO42- ( FeAsO4 (s) + Fe(OH)3 (10)
The optimum removal of arsenic (approximately 2 ppb) was obtained with total iron/arsenate ratio ( 8:1 at pH 5.0 in 50 ppb initial arsenic concentration in deionized water. The total iron is the amount of Fe(II) and ferrate(VI) in solution.
Lee et al. (2003, 2004) performed tests on river water using Ferrate(VI). The concentration of arsenic was lowered from 517 to below 50 ppb with addition of 2 ppm ferrate(VI). Also, in this study, smaller doses of ferrate(VI) (0.5 ppm) in combination with a major coagulant Fe(III) at doses 2.0 and 4.0 ppm gave similar results of arsenic removal in the river water. Results further demonstrate the effectiveness of ferrate(VI) to remove arsenic in water.
18.4.3. Disinfection
FeVIO42- ion as a disinfectant, replacing chlorine has been investigated for the last three decades (Gilber et al., 1976; Waite and Fagan, 1980; Kazama, 1994,1995; Jiang and Lloyd, 2002, Sharma et al., 2005b). Many workers have tested removal of total and fecal coliform by Ferrate(VI) (Sharma et al. 2004). Ferrate(VI) treatment of water sources collected worldwide can achieve more than 99.9% kill rate of total coliforms. Ferrate(VI) disinfection was also examined for Eschericha coli (E. coli), an indicator organism of fecal contamination (Waite and Fagan, 1980; Jiang and Wang, 2004). Ferrate(VI) is effective in killing E. coli, however, contact time of effectiveness depends on dose rate. Ferrate(VI) also inhibits the respiration of the bacterium Sphaerotilus . Recently, study of disinfection studies with both ferrate(VI) and hypochlorite for E. coli in water has been performed. Comparatively, the disinfection by ferrate(VI) was less affected by the solution pH than hypochlorite disinfection. Relatively higher doses and contact times were required for hypochlorite disinfection than that of ferrate(VI). Performance of ferrate(VI) was also superior to hypochlorite in killing E. coli (Jiang and Wang, 2004). The experimental studies on FeVIO42- oxidation of DNA further strengthen the role of ferrate(VI) as an alternate disinfectant for water treatment.
Cyanobacteria produces toxin, microcystins, which are a group of monocyclic heptapeptide hepatoxins that consist of two variable L-amino acids, three D-amino acids, and two unusual amino acids. Microcystins differ mainly in the two L-amino acids, which give the molecule its name. In addition to amino acids, microcystins have Adda (3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoic acid) group in the molecule. The most common and highly toxic microcystin-LR contains leucine and arginine as variable amino acids. Since the FeVIO42- ion has the ability oxidize amino and carboxylic acids, it can easily detoxify microcystins by oxidation processes. The application of K2FeO4 resulted in structural destruction of a heptapeptide ring and a modification of the toxic Adda group of the microcystin-LR (Xing et al. 2002).
18.5. Conclusions
Ferrate(VI) has high oxidizing power, selectivity, and upon decomposition produce a non-toxic by-product, Fe(III). Ferrate(VI) is easily be prepared by oxidizing Fe(III) using dry and wet processes. Ferrate(VI) exhibits a multitude of advantageous properties; these include higher reactivity and selectivity as an oxidant, disinfectant, antifoulant, and coagulant. Ferrate(VI) can easily oxidize the amino acid components of microcystins and is a suitable disinfectant for detoxifying toxins in water. A technology involving environmentally friendly oxidant, ferrate(VI) can meet criteria of water treatment.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the NATO through the EST.CLG project No. 979931.
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Virender K. SHARMA and Jenő FEKETE: Inorganic and Organic Pollutants in the Hungarian Environment
Abstract
The atmospheric deposition of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was investigated in Hungary by analyzing a moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) species as a bioindicators. In the autumn of 1997, samples were collected at 29 sites distributed over across Hungary. The possible sources of metals include the chemical industry, the use of coal as an energy source, the coal mining, the oil refinery, the heating power plants, and the ferrous- and non-ferrous metal working, which produces considerable emissions of particulate and fly ash. The total PAH values showed no correlation with metal concentrations. However, most of the sites in this region showed a positive linear relationship between PAHs levels and traffic volume (r2 = 0.83; p < 0.001) while no relationship existed between PAH levels and population (r2 = 0.01; p > 0.1). Atmospheric deposition of PAHs at different regions in Hungary may be due to incomplete combustion of fuel. Concentrations of 4-octylphenol (OP) and 4-nonylphenol (NP) in surface water samples were also determined at ten sites during eight samplings (October 2002- April 2004) at Ráckevei-Soroksári Danube (RSD) branch, Hungary. The highest concentrations were found at a specific site, which receives input from an industry.
Keywords: Air, Heavy Metals, Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Pollution, Moss Species
19.1. Introduction
During the last century, technology progress has enhanced the quality of life, but also raised societal concerns. The increase use of industrial products during the development of technology put pollutants in the form of chemical substances into the natural ecosystem. Both inorganic and organic pollutants enter into the environment. Studying the effect of pollutants is necessary to determine the pollution impact on the ecology of the environment. In addition, the information on the spatial spreading of pollutants is important in order to develop an action plan to reduce air pollution. Other example is finding of unacceptable high heavy metal levels in fish (Zechmeister et al. 2003). Air pollution can be assessed using vegetation sampling for pollution. For the last three years, we have been determining heavy metals and organics in the Hungarian environment to establish a baseline of pollutants in air and water. Below is the summary on the progress that has been achieved to assess the environment in Hungary.
19.2. Heavy Metals
Figure 19.1. summarizes mean and median concentrations of metals in moss species in Hungary. Sources of metals in this region are the chemical industry, the use of coal as an energy source, the coal mining, the oil refinery, the heating of power plants, and the ferrous- and non-ferrous metal working, which produces considerable emissions of particulate and fly ash (Markert et al., 1996; Holoubek et al., 2000; Migaszewski et al., 2002; Gerdol et al., 2002; Ötvös et al., 2003; Ötvös et al., 2004). The distributions of heavy metals vary with their source of emission. Abiotic and biotic factors such as climate and temperature may also affect heavy metal concentrations in mosses. The seasonal changes in biomass growth may also change the heavy-metal concentrations in mosses by dilution. Different surface-to-volume in leaves of different moss species may also affect the uptake of heavy metals.
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Figure 19.1. Median and Mean Heavy Metals concentration ((g/g of dry solids) in moss samples collected in Hungary
Fe and Ni showed highest concentrations in Hungary than in moss species in Poland, Czech Republic, and Slovakia Republic (Sharma et al., 2004). The main emission sources of iron in Hungary are the steel industry, the intensive traffic, and the burning of coal. The influence of soil dust, particularly in agricultural regions may also contribute to iron pattern in moss samples of Hungary. Origins of nickel are due to the steel industry, the oil and coal burning, and the smelters. The Százhalombatta region of Hungary has elevated concentrations of Ni, 46.7 (g g-1, due to an oil-fuelled power plant and oil-refinery. Also, Tiszaújváros region has a high level of Ni, 30.4 (g g-1 due to a chemical industry. These sources resulted in a high mean concentration of Ni in Hungary (Ötvös et al., 2003).
19.3. Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Moss Samples
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) comprise many individual pollutants that affect the air quality of the cities around the world (Fertmann et al., 2002). PAHs are emitted into the atmosphere from both anthropogenic and natural sources (Simonich and Hites, 1995). Vegetation samples are used to identify sources of pollutants in order to determine the regional and global pollution trends (Simonich and Hites, 1995). Vegetation samples are easier to collect than air samples, which also make them economical to monitor the quality of air. Over the last two decades, there have been many studies assessing atmospheric fallout by analyzing moss samples (Oehme et al., 1985; Ruhling, 1987: Markert et al., 1996; Milukaite, 1998; Sucharova and Suchara, 1998; Faus-Kessler et al., 1999; Gerdol et al., 2002). Mosses do not have a root system, therefore, the uptake of pollutants occurs only from the atmosphere (Wegener et al., 1992; Knulst et al., 1995). We have determined for the first time atmospheric PAHs deposition by analyzing moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) samples collected at different regions in Hungary (Ötvös et al., 2004). The objectives of this study were to understand sources of PAHs in moss samples in Hungary and to understand whether the variation in PAHs relate to metal concentrations in Hypnum cupressiforme.
Moss samples were collected from 29 different locations in Hungary (Figure 19.2.). The species collected were Hypnum cupressiforme and the sampling period was during a relatively dry period from September to November 1997. Samples were collected at clean sites located at about 300 m from main roads, villages, and 100 m from minor roads and buildings. These sites were located in shaded areas in deciduous forests, where the rain had minimum effects on the sites. The samples were stored in freezer, air-tight bags until the analysis. At each site, a total sample consisting of 5-10 subsamples was collected within an area of 50 x 50 m2. The green or greenish-brown parts of the plant were used for analysis.
The total PAHs concentrations in Hypnum cupressiforme samples of the studied area are given in Figure 19.3. The concentrations of total PAH ranged from 0.1567 to 10.45 x 104 (g.kg-1 with a mean value of 1.87 x 104 (g.kg-1 dry weight. PAH compounds are usually released into the atmosphere due to incomplete combustion where mobile sources are one of the major contributors of PAHs in the urban atmosphere (Baek et al., 1991). Distribution of PAHs in atmospheric aerosol particles in different regions of Hungary also suggests the influence of local industry and road traffic (Kiss et al., 2001). Local sources rather than long-range transport may thus be mostly responsible for spatial distribution of PAHs in our study.
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Figure 19.2. Map of Hungary showing sampling sites
[pic]
Figure 19.3. Concentrations of total PAHs (bar, mean ( standard error) and lead (() at different sampling stations. The values of lead were taken from Ötvös et al. (2003).
The local emitting sources such as steel, metal and chemical industries, coal and oil burning, and coal mining were mainly found responsible for metal pollution in mosses of Hungary (Ötvös et al., 2003). Other possible pollution sources were the waste incineration and the use of pesticides in agriculture. We performed correlations of total PAHs values to metal levels in Hypnum cupressiforme in order to see if similar sources may also be causing the PAH levels. The values of metal contents in Hypnum cupressiforme were used from our earlier study (Ötvös et al., 2003).
Correlation analysis showed that the variation in metal contents of Hypnum cupressiforme was different from the pattern of PAH in the study region; for example lead levels in samples from the same stations (Figure 19.3). Lead levels particularly showed no relationship with PAH concentrations in the region (r2 = 0.04; p > 0.1) although there existed vehicle engines using leaded gasoline. However, lead usually deposits near to its source and probably not traveling to the sampling sites in order to cause elevated levels in Hypnum cupressiforme. This was the case in a study in southern Sweden where the lead concentrations in mosses were found to decrease nine-fold over a distance of 150 m from the highways (Zechmeister et al., 2003). Correlation analysis of other metal data gave no relationship between PAH values and metal concentrations in Hypnum cupressiforme (r2 ( 0.1; p > 0.1). This indicates sources of PAH pollution are different from the metal inputs in this region. Other studies in regions of Europe also observed different patterns of deposition of metals and PAH in moss samples (Owczarek et al., 2001).
[pic]
Figure 19.4. Correlations of total PAH concentrations with population (() and traffic volume (() of the region. (Regression of all data points and dashed lines represent 95% confidence intervals of regression)
The correlation analysis of the data with population and traffic was performed to distinguish different sources contributing to the observed atmospheric deposition of PAH in Hypnum cupressiforme. The data showed no correlation with population of this region (r2 = 0.01; p > 0.1) (Figure 19.4.). This suggests that sources related to population such as burning of wood, and domestic heating of coal and oil might not be significant sources for PAH levels in moss samples. However, data showed reasonably good correlation with traffic vehicles per day of the studied region (r2 = 0.83; p < 0.001) (Fig. 3). This clearly demonstrates the dominance of polyaromatic hydrocarbons from traffic sources. Stations 2, 10, 16, 21, 25, and 26 deviate from the 95% confidence intervals lines. Stations 2 and 26 showed positive deviations while stations 10, 16, 21 and 25 had negative deviations. This suggests additional sources besides traffic are contributing to PAH at stations 10, 16, 21 and 25. On the contrary, sources other than traffic may also be contributing to PAHs at stations 2 and 26.
19.4. Octylphenol and Nonylphenol in Water
Alkylphenol polyethoxylates (APnEO) are an important group of non-ionic surfactants, which are commonly used as household and industrial detergents. In 1995, about 500,000 tons of APEs were produced worldwide (Renner, 1997). Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPnEO) and octylphenol ethoxylates (OPnEO) are the most important APnEO. The microbial breakdown of NPnEO and OPnEO gives 4-Nonylphenol (NP) and 4-Octylphenol (OP), respectively (Giger et al., 1984) 4-NP is also used as an adjuvant in pesticides (McLeese et al., 1981). There are great concerns that NP and OP can mimic natural hormones and their presence in the environment may disrupt endocrine function in wildlife and humans. Reports state that 4-NP has three times higher estrogenic activity than that of DDT and causes deformities and reproductive problems in wildlife (Soto et al., 1991; Jobling et al., 1993; Oehlmann et al., 2000). This compound may also be involved in breast cancer increases and sperm count declines in humans (Sonnenschein and Soto, 1998). The 96-h LC50 of NP is 0.3 mgL-1 for shrimp and 0.16 mgL-1 for salmon. The determination of concentrations of OP and NP is thus important for the regulation of endocrine disruptors in the environment (McLeese et al., 1981).
Recently, we have determined the concentrations of OP and NP in the surface waters of the Ráckevei-Soroksári Danube branch (RSD) in Hungary at ten sites during eight samplings (October 2002- April 2004) at Ráckevei-Soroksári Danube (RSD) branch, Hungary (Sharma, 2003, Nagy et al., 2005). The RSD is the second longest branch of the Danube River in Hungary and surface waters of the Danube is used as a source of drinking water. It was therefore important to assess the levels of pollution from OP and NP in waters of RSD. Moreover, the Danube is the second longest river in Europe with a length of about 2.857 km. It flows through nine countries (Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, and Romania). Assessing the water quality of the Danube and its branches in Hungary is therefore, ecologically important.
Seasonal trends of OP and NP concentrations in water samples of RSD are shown in Figure 19.5. OP levels in water ranged from 4 |>4 |
|Faecal Coliform |0.96-1 |1-1.05 |>4 |>4 |
1 AS and FS dose required was >0.50 mmol L-1 as either Al or Fe(III).
2 FR achieved > 4 Log10 bacteria inactivation at doses 6 Log inactivation of E. coli.) at a very low dose (6 mg l-1 as Fe) and over wide working pH in comparison with chlorination (10 mg l-1 as Cl2) plus coagulation (FS dose = mg l-1 as Fe). For sewage treatment, ferrate(VI) can reduce 30% more COD and kill 3 Log more bacteria compared to AS and FS at a similar or even smaller dose. The observed ferrate(VI) unique performance might offer significant advantages in practice, since only a single dosing and mixing unit is needed, the capital and running costs are expected to be cheaper, and less management is required, comparing with the conventional two-unit system using disinfectant and coagulant separately.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the NATO through the EST.CLG project No. 979931.
Bibliography
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Jiang, J. Q., Lloyd, B. (2002): Progress in the development and use of ferrate (vi) salt as an oxidant and coagulant for water and wastewater treatment, Water Res. 36, 1397-1408.
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Sharma, V.K. (2002): Potassium ferrate(VI): an environmentally friendly oxidant, Adv. Environ. Res. 6, 143-156.
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Karel BOUZEK and Zuzana MACOVA: Green chemical Ferrate(VI) – An Electrochemical Approach
Abstract
This chapter summarizes electrochemical point of view on the synthesis and application of Ferrate(VI). In the first part, role of anode material in the electrochemical synthesis of Ferrate(VI) using a batch electrolysis is briefly discussed. The approaches to the stabilization of the Ferrate(VI) prepared by its solidification are given in the second part. Ferrate(VI) application in battery industry is also given.
Keywords: Ferrate(VI), electrochemical synthesis, anode material, electrolyte, power sources
24.1. Introduction
Ferrate(VI) was studied intensively at the beginning of fifties and sixties. In this period, a series of studies has been published focusing on both chemical and electrochemical method of synthesis, e.g. by Thompson et al 1951, Helferich and Lang 1950, Tousek 1962. This is mainly due to its attractive applications in various fields, e.g. organic synthesis (Kim et al 1986) or corrosion protection (Bonnici and Denault 1983, Spekkens 1987). The most useful application is in the environmental protection (Sharma 2002, Jiang and Lloyd 2002). Ferrate(VI) has high oxidation power and can easily decompose highly resistible pollutants. The potential of the redox couple Fe(VI)/Fe(III) exceeds a value of 1.9 V in solutions of neutral or acidic pH (Latimer 1953). The product of Ferrate(VI) reduction in water is typically Fe(OH)3, which is a nontoxic compound. Moreover, it has been identified as a very efficient coagulant and sorbent (Jiang and Lloyd 2002, Jiang and Wanhg 2003, Lee et al 2003). High selectivity of the oxidation reaction represents another important property of Ferrate(VI) (Sharma 2004).
In the sixties, the attention of the electrochemists focused mainly on the identification of conditions providing the highest current efficiency (Tousek 1962). Several papers have also been published in the seventies and eighties (Venkatadri et al 1971, Deininger and Dotson 1983, 1984a,b). However, intensive research of the electrochemical Ferrate(VI) production was started at the beginning of the nineties. Several groups have profiled their interest in this promising field. The most important studies were published by the group of Pletcher (Denvir and Pletcher 1996), Lapicque (Lescuras-Darou et al 2002, Lapicque and Valentin 2002), Licht (Licht et al 2004) and Bouzek (Bouzek and Rousar 1997, Bouzek et al 1999a).
24.2. Super-Iron Battery
Lately, a novel application of Ferrate(VI) was proposed by Licht (Licht et al 1999a). Ferrate(VI) can be used as the cathode redox couple Fe(VI)/Fe(III) in an alkaline battery. Due to its high redox potential as well as its electric charge density, it is called super-iron battery in the literature. Energy capacity of this battery is about 50 % higher when compared to the conventional alkaline batteries. In these batteries, the cathode consists of manganese dioxide and the cathode reaction can be written as follows:
[pic] E = 0.30 to 0.40 V vs. SHE
The cathode reaction in the use of Ferrate(VI) can be written as:
[pic] E = 0.50 to 0.65 V vs. SHE
The complete reaction taking place in the super-iron battery is then as follows:
[pic]
Beside higher charge density attainable using Ferrate(VI) cathode, the final product of the battery discharge is environmentally safe iron oxide. The amount of batteries produced per year represents an important reduction of the heavy metals emissions to the environment.
Several aspects of the Ferrate(VI) application in the supper-iron battery have been studied by Licht, including optimization of the Ferrate(VI) synthesis (Licht et al 2001, 2002, 2004a) and solubility of various Ferrate(VI) salts in the aqueous and nonaqueous electrolytes (Licht et al 1999b). This information is a prerequisite for successful battery configuration. In parallel to this study, the attention was also paid to the optimization of the cathode mass composition (Licht et al 2000, Tel - Vered et al 2003). The possibility to recharge the battery effectively has been postulated quite recently (Licht and Tel-Vered 2004b). Much progress has been attained by this group during the last five years, which suggests a good promise for successful use of Ferrate(VI) in a super-iron battery.
24.3. Fundamental studies in the electrochemical Ferrate(VI) synthesis
In themed-nineties, majority of researchers focused their attention on the optimization of conditions for electrochemical production of Ferrate(VI). Deeper interest in the understanding of the complex process involved in the Ferrate(VI) formation mechanism has become apparent. In the initial period, the voltammetric experiments were performed to identify steps in the mechanism (Beck et al 1985, Bouzek et al 1997). The later study using rotating ring-disk electrode provided some more information on the kinetics of the overall reaction steps and on the identification of electroactive intermediates being transported from the electrode surface to the bulk of electrolyte. However, information obtained was rather qualitative. Complementary techniques are necessary to provide deeper understanding of this complex problem. It is necessary, however, to keep in mind a fact that the process takes place typically in the concentrated NaOH solution (40 wt.%). The majority of spectroscopic techniques are not able to provide enough accurate in-situ information on the processes taking place on the phase interface between the iron electrode and electrolyte solution. Mössbauer spectroscopy has proven to be capable to provide relevant information in this environment, while it uses high-energy ( rays. It has been found that the surface of the iron anode is covered by the double oxidic layer. Iron surface is covered by very thin primary layer of goethite {(-FeOOH) or magnetite (Fe3O4). The second layer on the interface of the primary layer and electrolyte corresponds to (-Fe2O3. Parameters of the primary layer indicate a compact structure having good protecting properties in the NaOH solution (≤ 7 mol L-1). A secondary layer is porous and highly disordered. If the concentration of NaOH in the anolyte exceeds 10 mol L-1, parameters of internal protective oxidic layer change dramatically. Decrease in the absorption lines intensity and broadening of their distribution indicate its disintegration. It can be attributed to a chemical attack by the hydroxide ions. This supports an explanation of origin of the enhanced anodic current density in the passive and transpassive potential region of voltammetric curve of iron in NaOH (Bouzek et al 1997). As Ferrate(VI) is stable only in highly alkaline environment, disintegration of the protective layer is an additional factor restricting Ferrate(VI) synthesis exclusively to the strongly alkaline solutions.
Clearly, in-situ composition of the surface oxidic or oxo-hydroxidic layer covering the iron anode can only hardly be considered as stoichiometric. This is especially true for the primary layer. This layer having protective properties is highly hydrated according to the corrosion science theory. It is possible to compare its properties to an ion selective membrane. Also the theory of its protective function is often explained on the basis of charge transfer mechanism through the ion selective membrane. It is obvious that highly hydrated material of ion selective membrane structure cannot be considered to have well defined stoichiometric composition. The chemical individuals given above just correspond very closely to the structural properties of the layer and have to be considered as a model approach.
Mössbauer spectroscopy has provided an insight into the structure of the oxidic layer covering the iron anode surface. On the basis of absorption lines distribution, it was concluded that a thin primary oxidic layer posses the protective properties. However, this technique is not able to provide direct evidence of these properties. The electrochemical method, Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) represents a highly sensitive technique allowing to determine resistivity of the individual oxidic layers on the electrode surface and thus to identify the layer having most protective properties.
24.4. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) study of dissolution of the iron anode in concentrated alkali metal hydroxide solution
EIS uses sinusoidal perturbation signal of small amplitude (typically 5-10 mV) at various frequencies. The response of the system to the perturbating signal frequency is recorded. Its amplitude and phase shift are evaluated. These parameters allow evaluation of the system impedance (i.e. generalized resistivity) to determine the kinetic parameters of the system. In this particular case, the resistivity of the surface oxo-hydroxidic layer is of interest. As it has been shown in the previous study (Bouzek and Bergmann 1999), the potential region of the iron passivity the surface layer is clearly formed by two layers of different properties. One of them possessing high resistance and the other having approximately 3 orders of magnitude lower resistivity. These results were obtained for pure iron in 14 mol L-1 NaOH solution. It confirms the results of Mössbauer spectroscopy; indicating the presence of two independent oxidic phases as well.
When white cast iron (material with high content of iron carbide) was used, the resistivity of protective layer decreased and experimental error of its determination increased. This is in agreement with the theory about heterogeneity of the white cast iron structure and influence of the iron carbide on the dissolution stability of the iron anode (Bouzek and Rousar, 1997). Importance of another one aspect of electrochemical Ferrate(VI) synthesis has arisen during the last two years. It is necessary to prepare Ferrate(VI) as a solid product in order to avoid problems related to its instability in water. A suitable method was proposed by Lapicque (Lapicque and Valentin, 2002) and Licht (Licht et al 2002). It consists in usage of anolyte solution consisting of a mixture of KOH or Ba(OH)2 with NaOH respectively. In our study, we have focused on the comparison of influence of the alkali metal ion used on the iron anode dissolution kinetics. LiOH, NaOH, and KOH were selected for this study. Due to the limited solubility of LiOH in water at the room temperature, all the respective electrolyte solutions had a concentration of 5 mol L-1 in order to allow comparison of the individual electrolyte solutions. Resulting impedance spectra for the anode potential of 200 mV vs. HgO/Hg electrode at 20 ºC are shown in Figure 24.1.
The electrode potential was selected in the middle of the passivity potential region in order to compare properties of the compact passive layer. As it can be seen in Figure 24.1., the anode is covered in all three electrolytes by a compact layer well protecting the bulk electrode material against dissolution. No active iron dissolution was observed for any of the electrolytes. Surprisingly, lowest charge transfer resitivity was observed for the KOH solution. This is in disagreement with our previous study (Bouzek et al, 1999b), where current efficiency of Ferrate(VI) production was clearly highest using NaOH when compared to other electrolytes. This discrepancy is most probably due to the difference in ionic strength of electrolytes used in two studies. In the previous study, the electrolyte concentration was 14 mol L-1.
[pic]
Figure 24.1. Electrochemical impedance spectra of pure iron anode in 5 mol L-1 alkali metal hydroxide solution. Electrolyte temperature 20 ºC, electrode area 0.28 cm2, perturbation signal amplitude 5 mV s-1, electrode potential 200 mV vs. HgO/Hg in 14 M NaOH. Upper graph – Nyquist plot, electrolyte: ○ - LiOH, ● - NaOH, ⊕ - KOH. Lower graph - Bode plot, modulus of impedance for electrolyte: ○ - LiOH, ● - NaOH, ⊕ - KOH; phase shift for electrolyte: □ - LiOH, ■ - NaOH, ⊞ - KOH.
[pic]
Figure 24.2. Electrochemical impedance spectra of pure iron anode in 5 mol L-1 NaOH solution. Electrode area 0.28 cm2, perturbation signal amplitude 5 mV s-1, electrode potential 200 mV vs. HgO/Hg in 14 M NaOH. Upper graph – Nyquist plot, electrolyte temperature: ○ - 20 ºC, ● - 40 ºC, ⊕ - 60 ºC. Lower graph - Bode plot, modulus of impedance for electrolyte temperature: ○ - 20 ºC, ● - 40 ºC, ⊕ - 60 ºC; phase shift for electrolyte temperature: □ - 20 ºC, ■ - 40 ºC, ⊞ - 60 ºC.
The determined phase shift also indicates important changes in comparison with the highly concentrated NaOH solution (Bouzek and Bergmann, 1999). In the present study, only the high frequency low resistance loop is quite well developed instead of two well-defined waves corresponding to the double surface oxidic layer. Low frequency loop corresponding to the internal protective layer is practically missing in these spectra. The reason consists probably in its extremely low thickness and high resitivity. Protective properties of both layers seem to be quite similar in the current study.
The influence of electrolyte temperature was also studied. Electrochemical impedance spectra for the temperature range of 20 to 60 ºC for 5 mol L-1 NaOH electrolyte are shown in Figure 24.2. The increase of temperature from 20 to 40 ºC causes substantial changes in the impedance spectra and further increase to 60 ºC results in only moderate reduction of modulus of impedance. Interesting to note that there are changes in the phase shift spectra. At 60 ºC, the separation of two oxo-hydroxide surface layers becomes more apparent. This is probably due to increasing attack by the hydroxide electrolyte at high temperature. Nevertheless, even at this relatively high temperature, the separation of both layers is not as pronounced as in the case of concentrated NaOH solution. Moreover, low frequency loop is even less important as it is at lower temperatures. This confirms also that at enhanced temperature, the protective surface layer is still enough to prevent sufficiently intensive Ferrate(VI) production. This is in agreement with the results of Mössbauer spectroscopy (Bouzek and Nejezchleba, 1999).
24.5. Conclusions
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used in order to compare protective properties of the oxo-hydroxide layer covering the pure iron anode surface in selected alklali metal hydroxide solutions. Electrolyte concentration of 5 mol L-1 was used to allow comparison of selected electrolytes. The solubility of LiOH in water at room temperature is also close to this value. The results were in agreement with results of Mössbauer spectroscopy. The oxo-hydroxide surface layer shows in all electrolytes good protective properties and the double layer structure where the internal layer has better protective properties. The lowest resistivity to the charge transfer was observed for the KOH electrolyte. As expected, enhanced temperature supports anode depassivation to a certain extent. Further study is needed to clarify the role of electrolyte concentration and content of individual ions in the mixed electrolytes. This study is currently under progress.
Acknowledgements
The financial support of this study by NATO through the EST.CLG project No. 979931 and by Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport through the project No. 1P05ME779 is gratefully acknowledged.
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Bouzek, K., Rousar, I., Bergmann, H., Hertwig, K. (1997): The cyclic voltammetric study of ferrate(VI) production, J. Electroanal. Chem. 425, 125-137.
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Bouzek, K., Schmidt, M.J., Wragg, A.A. (1999b): Influence of electrolyte composition on current yield during ferrate(VI) production by anodic iron dissolution, Electrochem. Commun. 1, 370-374.
Bouzek, K., Nejezchleba, M. (1999): In-situ Mössbauer study of the passive layer formed on the iron anode in alkaline electrolyte, Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun. 64, 2044-2060.
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Deininger, J.P., Dotson, R.L. (1984b): Process for making a calcium/sodium ferrate adduct by the electrochemical formation of sodium ferrate, U.S. 4451338.
Denvir, A., Pletcher, D. (1996): Electrochemical generation of ferrate. Part I: Dissolution of an iron wool bed anode, J. Appl. Electrochem. 26, 815-822.
Denvir, A., Pletcher, D. (1996): Electrochemical generation of ferrate. Part II: Influence of anode composition, J. Appl. Electrochem. 26, 823-827.
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Jiang, J.-Q., Lloyd, B. (2002): Process in the development and use of ferrate(VI) salt as an oxidant and coagulant for water and wastewater treatment, Water Res. 36, 1397-1408.
Jiang, J.-Q., Wanhg, S. (2003): Enhanced coagulation with potassium ferrate(VI) for removing humic substances, Environ. Eng. Sci. 20, 627-633.
Latimer, W.M. (1953): The oxidation states of the elements and theirs potentials in aqueous solutions, Prentice-Hall, New York, 2nd edition.
Lapicque, F., Valentin, G. (2002): Direct electrochemical preparation of solid potassium ferrate, Electrochem. Commun. 4, 764-766.
Lescuras-Darrou, V., Lapicque, F., Valentin, G. (2002): Electrochemical generation for waste water treatment using cast irons with high silicon contents, J. Appl. Electrochem. 32, 57-63.
Licht, S., Wang, B., Ghosh, S. (1999a): Energetic iron(VI) chemistry: The super-iron battery, Science 285, 1039-1042.
Licht, S., Wang, B., Gosh, S., Li, J., Naschitz, V. (1999b): Insoluble Fe(VI) compounds: effects on the super-iron battery, Electrochem. Commun. 1, 522-526.
Licht, S., Wang, B. (2000): Nonaqueous phase Fe(VI) electrochemical storage and discharge of super-iron/lithium primary batteries, Electrochem. Solid State Lett. 3, 2009-212.
Licht, S., Naschitz, V., Ghosh, S., Lin, L. (2001): SrFeO4: Synthesis, Fe(VI) characterization and the super-iron battery, Electrochem. Commun. 3, 340-345.
Licht, S., Tel-Vered, R., Halperin, L. (2002): Direct electrochemical preparation of solid Fe(VI) ferrate, and super-iron battery compounds, Electrochem. Commun. 4, 933-937.
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Ján HÍVEŠ and Michaela BENOVÁ: Electrochemical Study of Iron in a Molten Eutectic NaOH-KOH System
Abstract
Cyclic voltammetric curves and chronopotentiograms were measured using stationary platinum/iron electrodes. Eutectic NaOH-KOH melt was used as working electrolytes at the temperature of 200 (C. The anodic current peak corresponding to the ferrate(VI) production on the measured voltammograms were recorded close to the potential region denoting the start of oxygen evolution. The cathodic current peak or current plato corresponding to the ferrate(VI) reduction is easily visible. Chronopotentiograms measured in the molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system confirm ferrate(VI) production.
Keywords: Cyclic voltammetry, Ferrates, Molten hydroxide, Iron electrode, Phase diagram
25.1. Introduction
During the past few years, potassium ferrate(VI) has been given much attention among the other inorganic compounds due to the relatively high oxidation state of iron. The high oxidation strength makes its attractive for many purposes. At the same time, it makes its production and stabilisation difficult. In 1715, Stahl (Gmelins Handbuch, 1932) first prepared ferrate(VI) by oxidation of iron in molten nitrate salt. Poggendorf (Poggendorf, 1841) prepared ferrate electrochemically in 1841 by anodic oxidation of iron electrode in strongly alkaline solution. The production of ferrate(VI) was in the past studied intensively in two periods. At the beginning of the 20th century, Haber (Haber, 1900) and Pick (Pick, 1900) focused on anodic behaviour of iron in alkaline electrolyte. This study was motivated by the development of alkaline accumulators. These chemists derived their first conclusions regarding the influence of the anode material composition and process parameters on the efficiency of the electrochemical ferrate(VI) production. In the 1950-60’s, the attention of several laboratories looked towards the production of ferrate(VI). Wet chemical synthesis of ferrate(VI) was studied by several authors (Thompson et al., 1951; Kaczur and Coleman, 1985; Helferich and Lang, 1950). Electrochemical ferrate(VI) synthesis was studied by Toušek during his PhD thesis (Toušek, 1959; Toušek, 1962).
The interest in ferrate(VI) has increased substantially again during the last decade (Bouzek and Roušar, 1993; Denvir and Pletcher, 1996; Bouzek and Roušar, 1997; Bouzek et al., 2000; Lescuras-Darrou et al., 2002; Lapicque et al., 2002; Licht et al., 2002). There are two main reasons for this: (i) development of a high capacity battery (so called super iron battery) and (ii) production of a strong oxidant and efficient coagulant in one. The second point has received increased attention especially within the last few years. This is due to the fact that ferrate is able to decompose rapidly many toxic pollutants, including chemical weapons. Ferrate(VI) is also known to be an efficient disinfecting agent (Jiang and Lloyd, 2002; Sharma, 2002). The importance of this question has increased enormously especially during the last two years. As it follows from the literature research, interest in the ferrate(VI) synthesis has recently rapidly increased. This is due to its extraordinary properties. Chemical synthesis has already reached sophisticated level. It suffers, however, from many technological steps necessary to prepare a product of sufficient purity. This results in a large consumption of solvents and a large amount of wastes.
The electrochemical way of ferrate(VI) production provides a product of high purity. Preparation of ferrate by anodic polarisation of iron electrode in the molten hydroxide possesses important advantages when compared to the classical electrolysis in a water solution environment. First, there is an absence of water in the system, which is an advantage since water decomposes ferrate(VI). Further on, passivation properties of the iron anode are strongly reduced in this environment. Unknown remains so far the stability of the product at high temperature and its concentration in the melt, which can be reached. This approach is not known from the literature and represents an interesting challenge, which may open a new way of ferrate(VI) production. Table 25.1. presents a summary of key features of various molten salt systems. The main attractive features of the NaOH-KOH system are the relatively low eutectic melting point (170 (C) and the high electrical conductivity ((227 (C = 1.40 (-1 cm-1) (Plambeck and Bard, 1976), that was the reason for choosing eutectic NaOH-KOH system for further electrochemical investigation.
Table 25.1. Properties of molten hydroxide systems (Levin et al., 2002).
| | | | | | | |
|System A - B |Tf(A) |Tf(B) |Eutectic comp. |Temp. |Peritectic |Temp. |
| |/ (C |/ (C |xA / mol % |/ (C |comp. |/ (C |
| | | | | |xA / mol % | |
| | | | | | | |
|KOH-LiOH |360 |450 |68.7 |226 |73.6 |249 |
| | | | | |35.3 |315 |
| | | | | | | |
|KOH-NaOH |360 |318 |48.5 |170 |63.0 |219 |
| | | | | |5.0 |297 |
| | | | | | | |
|KOH-RbOH |360 |301 |49.7 |305 | | |
| | | | | | | |
|LiOH-Ba(OH)2 |450 |408 |52.3 |317 | | |
| | | |26.1 |333 | | |
| | | | | | | |
|LiOH-CsOH |450 |272 |25.5 |240 |70.0 |363 |
| | | | | | | |
|NaOH-Ba(OH)2 |318 |408 |7.0 |278 |3.0 |316 |
| | | | | | | |
|RbOH-NaOH |301 |318 |82.8 |240 | | |
| | | |48.0 |237 | | |
25.2. Experimental
The major problem in the preparation of fused hydroxide melt is the removal, or perhaps more accurately, the analysis and control of water. Water is the only significant impurity in reagent grade hydroxides other than carbonate, which is apparently removed as CO2 by the purification process or is electrochemically inactive. Water cannot be quantitatively removed by simple heating the fused hydroxides at 500 (C for a long time (Miles, 2003). Chemicals NaOH (p.a., Merck) and KOH (p.a., Merck) were dried in a vacuum drying oven in the presence of P2O5 for several days at gradually increasing temperature up to 200 (C. Despite this special drying procedure, chemicals contained ca 2.5 mol % water content according to DTA and TG measurements of the tested samples.
Cyclic voltammetry and other electrochemical studies were conducted with the use of an AUTOLAB electrochemistry system (ECO Chemie). The cell consists of a platinum (iron, graphite) crucible, which is used as counter electrode (CE). A platinum (iron) rod is used as the working electrode (WE). No suitable reference electrode has been established for molten hydroxide system (Plambeck and Bard, 1976). However, Ag+/Ag reference electrode has been used in most of the molten salt systems, hence, an Ag-wire reference electrode was selected for investigation in molten hydroxides. The exact nature of the Ag-wire reference electrode reaction in molten hydroxide is unknown (Miles, 2003). In addition, Pt (Fe) quasi-reference electrode is used in this work (RE). The crucible, containing 60-150 g sample of the eutectic hydroxide mixture, is placed in a vertical laboratory furnace. The temperature is measured with a Pt-Pt10Rh thermocouple.
25.3. Results and discussion
Figure 25.1. shows the cyclic voltammogram for platinum electrodes in eutectic NaOH-KOH melt at 200 (C. The electrostability window for this system is about 1.5 V. The anodic limit is due to major oxidation in this melt and is likely the reaction
2 OH - = 1/2 O2(g) + H2O + 2 e- (1)
or possibly
4 OH - = O2 - + 2H2O + 3 e- (2)
The cathodic limit is due to the reduction of H2O according to the reaction
H2O + e- = 1/2 H2(g) + OH - (3)
[pic]
The small cathodic peak in Fig. 25.1 can be seen at – 0.034 V. This can be attributed to the reduction of superoxide ions O2- according to the reaction
O2- + 2 H2O + 3 e- = 4 OH- (4)
The reported standard potential of this reaction is – 0.03 V vs. Ag+/Ag reference electrode (Plambeck and Bard, 1976). This value corresponds very well with the one obtained from the cyclic voltammogram. This ion is formed by the reaction of atmospheric oxygen with OH- ions from the melt according to the reaction
3 O2 + 4 OH- = 2 H2O + 4 O2- (5)
The linear relationship between the peak current and the square root of potential scan rate can be seen from Fig.25.2 at higher scan rates. The change of the slope at lower scan rates (Ip is practically independent on the square root of potential scan rate) can be associated with the change of the rate determination step in reduction of superoxide ions described by summary reaction (4).
Figure 25.3. shows the cyclic voltammogram at several scan rates for the iron electrodes in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. The voltammogram is characterised by a sharp oxidation peak at 0.13 V that suggests formation of FeO22- ions according to the reaction
Fe + 4 OH- = FeO22- + 2 H2O + 2 e- (6)
The similar behaviour of the cyclic voltammogram is observed for the iron electrode (WE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C if graphite crucible (CE) and Ag+/Ag reference electrode (RE) were used. The obtained number of exchanged electrons n = 1.993 from the current peak analysis of several voltammograms recorded at different scan rate proposes the mentioned mechanism of anodic iron oxidation. The dependence of the anodic current peaks on the square-root of the potential scan rate is given in Fig. 25.4. This linear relationship demonstrates that mass transport for electrode reaction (6) occurs under semi-infinitive linear diffusion conditions.
[pic]
Two anodic and two cathodic peaks are clearly seen on the voltammogram shown in Fig. 25.5. The anodic current peak A1 corresponds to the oxidation of metallic Fe as was mentioned above (eqn. 6). The anodic current peak A2 corresponds to the oxidation of FeO22- ions to FeO2- according to reaction (7).
FeO22- = FeO2- + e- (7)
The cathodic current peak C3 corresponds to the reduction of the ferrate(VI) ion to the lower oxidation state probably according to reaction (8).
FeO42- + 2 H2O + 3 e- = FeO2- + 4 OH- (8)
On the voltammogram shown in Fig. 5 it is not possible to recognise the anodic current peak corresponding to the ferrate(VI) production, while the cathodic current peak C3 corresponding to the ferrate(VI) reduction is easily visible. The anodic current peak of ferrate(VI) production (marked right part of the voltammogram) is usually located in the potential region of simultaneous oxygen evolution (Bouzek et al., 1997). The anodic chronopotentiograms measured in this system allowed us to identify transient time of the ferrate(VI) production.
[pic]
Two transient times are clearly seen on the anodic chronopotentiogram shown in Fig. 25.6. The first one (at low potential) corresponds to the anodic oxidation of metallic Fe and the second one (at the potential close to the potential of oxygen evolution) corresponds to the ferrate(VI) production.
[pic]
On the voltammogram shown in Fig. 25.7 it is possible to recognise the anodic current peak corresponding to the ferrate(VI) production, and the cathodic current peak corresponding to the ferrate(VI) reduction is also easily visible. Before the beginning of each experiment the measured electrode was cathodically polarised for 10 minutes. Stationary platinum electrode was covered by cathodically deposited iron. This ensured a reproducible state at the electrode surface at the start of each experiment.
Figure 25.8. shows the cyclic voltammograms at several scan rates for the Pt electrode in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. The height of current peak is proportionally related to the scan rate. Slight shift in the peak potential is also shown.
Figure 25.9. shows the cyclic voltammogram for the Fe electrodes system (CE, RE, WE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. On the measured voltammogram, it is possible to recognise the sharp anodic current peak corresponding to the ferrate(VI) production close to the potential region denoting the start of oxygen evolution. The current plato corresponding to the ferrate(VI) reduction is also visible.
[pic]
Figure 25.10. shows the cyclic voltammograms at several scan rates for the Fe electrode in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. The height of current peak is proportionally related to the scan rate. Slight shift in the peak potential is also shown.
[pic]
Figure 25.11. The dependence of the anodic current peaks on the square-root of the potential scan rate for the iron electrode (WE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. Iron crucible (CE) and iron reference electrode (RE) were used.
The dependence of the anodic current peaks on the square-root of the potential scan rate is given in Fig. 25.11. This linear relationship demonstrates that mass transport for ferrate(VI) reduction process occurs under semi-infinitive linear diffusion conditions.
25.4. Conclusions
Preliminary electrochemical investigation of the molten hydroxide system based on eutectic mixture of KOH and NaOH were carried out. This system was chosen because of the high electrical conductivity and relatively low temperature of primary crystallisation of eutectic melts (170 (C). It is crucial to keep the temperature as low as possible for successful ferrates production. Data about thermal stability of ferrates(VI) are rather controversial. Thermal decomposition of K2FeO4 in temperature range 200 - 350 (C is reported by Scholder (Scholder et al., 1955) while Ichida (Ichida, 1973) fixed the start temperature of decomposition at 170 ºC. Tsapin (Tsapin et al., 2000) recorded TGA and DSC curves of K2FeO4 where thermal decomposition of K2FeO4 started at temperatures slightly above 200 ºC, but observed mass losses are higher than the theoretical mass loss. Precise TG and DTA measurements by Madarász (Madarász et al., 2004) showed that potassium ferrate(VI) is stable up to 230 ºC.
Cyclic voltammetric experiments were carried out with several types of electrode material (Pt, Fe, graphite). On the measured voltammograms, it is possible to recognise the anodic current peak corresponding to the ferrate(VI) production close to the potential region denoting the start of oxygen evolution. The cathodic current peak or current plato corresponding to the ferrate(VI) reduction is also easily visible. Chronopotentiograms measured in the molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system confirm ferrate(VI) production close to the potential region denoting the start of oxygen evolution.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the NATO through the EST.CLG project No. 979931 and by the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic.
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EAST-EUROPEAN CONTRIBUTION
Galyna CHYBISKOVA: Environmental Deterioration through Technologies in Ukraine
Abstract
The following article shows the condition of main natural resources of Ukraine, and their degradation due to irrational way of housing. Since the adoption of basic international laws concerning Sustainable Development, wide law base has emerged in Ukraine. It evoked the activity of numerous NGO’s, which seem to be the most efficient force in promotion of SD principles on the local level. The article cites the main areas, where new technologies were adopted for improving water quality, waste processing, alternative sources of energy etc, i.e. examples of improvements, which were worked out in frame of strategy of cleaner Ukraine. It is proposed actions on both state and local levels for avoiding heavy technogenous problems and for being more competitive on the international markets.
26.1. Introduction
Economic and social strategies of sustainable development of Ukraine are defined in official papers, such as Address of the President to the Supreme Council, Strategy for Economic and Social Policy for 2000-2004, the Decrees of the President “On the Main Areas of Social Policy for the Period up to 2004”, “On Strategy for Poverty Alleviation”, “On Concept of Healthcare Development for the Population of Ukraine”, “On the Main Areas of Land Reform”, and others. Besides that, several environmental laws and regulations have been adopted in Ukraine since the Rio Summit in 1992. Among them there are the laws on Wild Life (March 1993), Forest Code of Ukraine (January 1994), Mineral Wealth Code of Ukraine (July 1994), Water Code of Ukraine (June 1995), “Ukraine-2010” etc.
The environmental strategy is laid down by official documents, among which there are “Main Areas of the State Policy of Ukraine in the Area of Environment Protection, Utilization of Natural Resources and Provision of Environmental Safety” (1998), “The National project of Dnipro environmental rehabilitation and improvement of Potable water quality” (1997), “National Action Plan on Environmental Hygiene” (1998), “Principle Directions of Ukraine’s State Policy on Environmental Protection, Use of Natural Resources, and Ensuring Environmental Safety” (1998), ”On Actions to Improve Condition of Environment Hygiene for 2000-2005” (2000) and the other national and state environmental projects. For example, the Law on Wild Life is not based on the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity; Forest Code of Ukraine etc.
These are often general statements of policy, many of which refer to "command-and-control" approach rather than economic incentive programmes. National Agenda 21 or other equivalent environment and development plan does not exist in Ukraine. The Ministry for Environment Protection and Nuclear Safety (MEP&NS) has prepared a document "The Main Concepts of the Ukraine's Transition to Sustainable Development" (1996). The Concept has nothing common neither with the activities of real enterprises and Government nor with "Agenda-21". The Concept does not display the Ukrainian peculiarities, so it can be applicable for any other country. It does not say anything about specifics of Ukrainian energy production, consumption, education, changing way of thinking, spending money on environmental safe, or tendencies in world economics. Preparing the project of Concept it was not analyzed the experience of developed countries and their strategies, and it was not taken into consideration their environmental laws, besides the public was not involved in discussion and decision-making. Some principles are missing, such as principle of common responsibility, polluting party pays, compensations to victims of technogenous and natural disasters, renewal of damaged ecosystems, development of national ecologic standards, ways of cooperation between agents involved, time frame etc. Attention is paid solely to the restructuring of the national economic system and technological development, and bureaucratic control over the economy and society, not ecology and social sphere. The indicators analyzed do not include such important ones as human development index, index of ecologic literacy etc.
Today in the country there is no separate agency which is in charge of Agenda 21 or other Rio Agreements monitoring. MEP&NS is responsible for cooperation with the UNEP and UNCSD. Thus, within the Ministry for Environment Protection and Nuclear Safety there are subdivisions responsible for the formation of the national environmental policy.
Although there has been progress on several fronts, particularly in compliance promotion (e.g., educational programs, technical assistance, subsidies, etc.) much more remains to be done to set up the Rio principles both in regional and country-wide scale.
Simultaneously about 250 national, international, branch-related and regional projects have been developed and taking place in Ukraine. 137 of them are directly concerned with sustainable development, including some areas from “Agenda for the XXI Century”:
Social and economic aspects-55;
Preservation and rational utilization of resources -47;
Increased role of major population groups-4;
Means and ways of implementation-31.
87 projects on the list of those promoting sustainable development have been completed. In other words, 60% of the projects have already worked out more or less well for the benefit of “the Agenda for the 21 Century”.
Regional policy of sustainable development aims balanced development of certain regions, saving their peculiarities and natural resources. "Concept of Sustainable development of cities" (1999) became a base for local programs of certain cities and regions. Regional and local initiatives are "concentrated" around organisation Sustainable Cities Network of Ukraine, which cooperates with such organizations as DEFRA, British Council, Local Government International Bureau etc. Regional initiatives seem to be insensitive to state’s general programmes; nevertheless they are flexible, dynamic and prolific in their activities. The main regional NGOs are EcoPravo, Green World and National Environmental Centre.
In 1992 Ukraine was proclaimed by Parliament the area of technogenous disaster. Till this moment a lot of people are living in certain regions, where water and soil are unsafe for life.
Ukraine is used to have irrational structure of using environmental resources, which partially is the legacy of soviet way of housing and partially is defined by lack of material recourses and proper experience. The resources available in the country for environmental rehabilitation will be severely constrained in the nearest time, and the costs of solving all environmental complex problems will be very high.
Currently we can distinguish the following most dangerous areas:
• Donetsko-Prydniprovsky Region (Donetsk Basin and the middle flow of the Dnipro River);
• Azov and the Black See Region;
• Carpathian and Polissia Region;
• Dnipro River Basin;
• Contaminated sites outside the 30 km zone of Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant. These areas strongly require changes because of their pollution effects.
26.2. Description of land resources, air and wastes
The overall area of Ukraine’s lands is 60354.9 hectares, with 71.4% is used for agriculture. 17.2% are covered with forests and other forest-related areas, with 1.6% being wetlands. 1.7% of open grounds are without vegetation, and 4.0% of the territory is covered with water. The biggest share in this structure belongs to agricultural lands, which is determined by agriculturally-oriented economy of Ukraine. This has resulted in a high level of tillage of agricultural grounds, which amount to 78%. Total area of land with damaged soil strata is about 170 000 ha. Almost 78% of them were arable lands. Due to the lack of relevant funding of agricultural producers over 1992-2000, the volume of the utilization of fertilizers fell by almost 8.4 times and in 2000 it amounted to 13kg/hectare of the sown areas. This had a negative impact on crops yield, which dropped almost by 1.5.
The soils and land are exhausted because of spent large areas for building and construction, polygons, pits. Because of abundant use of mineral fertilizers the soil (especially in rainless southern regions) became unable to soak any water.
We have a specific problem with solid and liquid radioactive wastes. In future there is a need to open the sepulchres which were built in the first years after Chernobyl Power Plant catastrophe. Nuclear power plants which are working now annually produce insufficient in weight, but complicated for neutralization wastes like used nuclear fuel etc. Now they are preserved in reservoirs of power plants.
There was an increase in the volumes of secondary raw materials and industrial waste from 169.5 million tons in 1997 up to 184.1 million tons in 2000 with the level of utilization of secondary raw materials and production waste being almost the same, i.e., close to 41%. Reduced volumes of social production have had a negative impact on the level of funding of science and social sphere. In particular from 1992 to 2001 there was a decline in the share of expenses versus GDP on education from 4.8% to 4.2%, on healthcare from 3.7% to 2.8%, social security from 7.1% to 3.7%, on science from 0.8% to 0.3%.
In recent years Ukraine has seen a reduction in the overall volume of emissions and discharges of waste from permanent establishments. From 1995 to 1999, the emissions of pollutants from permanent establishments into the atmosphere declined by 1,571 tons or by 28% and over against 1990 by 2-3 times. Almost 83% of pollutants reached the atmosphere from the permanent establishments of Donetsk-Pridneprovsk region (it occupies 19% of overall country’s area with 6000 industrial enterprises; within last 20 years region has the shortest life expectancy and the lowest female fertility).
Emissions of hazardous substances from vehicles prevailed over the emissions from permanent establishments in many regions and cities of Ukraine. In the first place it is the case in the autonomous republic of the Crimea and in Eastern Ukraine.
The most valuable soils are about 12 mln hectares, or nearly 20% of the overall area. The biggest share of lands is owned by the state, i.e., about 30 million hectares or 48%, with nearly 28 million hectares or 46% belonging to the private owners. In 1961-1981 the average content of humus in soil decreased from 3.5% to 3.2%.
As a result of the Chernobyl disaster, 4.4 million hectares of forests have been polluted with products of radioactive decay, including 110 thousand hectares in the alienation zone.
Over 1992-1999 there was registered a positive trend of reducing emissions of industrial waste products into the air. Overall discharges of pollutants into the atmosphere have declined by nearly 52%. This has happened mainly due to a reduced demand for energy, including engine fuels, and also structural changes in economy.
The Ukrainian power sector today is characterized by:
• Outdated equipment of the power plants,
• High energy intensity for electricity and heat production (up to 374.7 grams of the per kWh),
• Lack of flue gas purification systems in power plants.
According to Methodology of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Ukraine has the following categories of GHG sources: energy systems (including transportation), industrial processes, agriculture, forestry and land-use change, and wastes.
Greenhouse gases Inventory in Ukraine include total suspended particles, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur dioxides, methane directly contributing to the greenhouse effect, indirect greenhouse gases, such as carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and nonmethane volatile organic compounds.
For the 1990 base year, total GHG emissions in Ukraine were 232 882 Gg of carbon equivalent. CO2 emissions were partly smoothed by an uptake of carbon in forests of 14 175 Gg of carbon equivalent in 1990. In 1993 CO2 emissions reduced to 505 Mt in comparison with 711 Mt CO2 in 1990 (carbon dioxide emissions FCCC base year).
26.3. The water recourses
Ukraine is one of least well provided with own water resources country in Europe. Per 1 person we have 950 cub meters of local recourses, whereas in Sweden it is 21600, Switzerland – 5800, France – 2900, Germany – 1300. Rivers are located unevenly, ans seasonal changes in quality of water occur. Dnipro river is the third big river in Europe (after Volga and Danube), basin of which is 509 000 square km. In Ukrainian part of Dnipro basin 22 mln people live.
The Dnipro region has a combination of energy-intensive industries, thermal power generation, and intensive agriculture, further aggravated by Chernobyl. River suffers from sufficient sewage (only 45% of sewage are partially cleaned). Numerous researches showed that nitrites, ammonium nitrogen, biogenic and organic matters, heavy metals, oil related products and phenols are the common toxic materials of the Dnipro river basin. Their concentration is an evidence of the violation of water quality standards approved for the water reservoirs for different purposes. The volumes of waste products annually produced by chemical metallurgical, machine building, agroindustrial enterprises reach nearly 600-700 million tons. Great concern is caused by toxic waste products, whose volumes of production amount to almost 100 million tons. Nearly 35 million cubic meters of domestic waste products are annually accumulated in Ukraine, which are disposed in 770 dumps and 3 garbage incinerating plants.
There are 748 small reservoirs with total volume of water 48,9 bln cub meters. They are expensive, labour-intensive, and dangerous for environment. Current condition of water resources can not meet the decreasing needs in ready for immediate use water. The need in water is 16,6-17,2 km cub, which is 40% more than in 2000, and the need of 2010 is 17,6-19,1 km cub, which is 45-57% more than now.
Irrational way of housing resulted the problem of floods. There are 540 towns, which were flooded during last 15 years. The most dangerous ones were in 1992, 93, 98. The most affected from these natural disasters are Transcarpathia and neighbouring European countries. There are other reasons of floods, such as liquidation of the existed formerly dams, unsystematic disposing of gravel and stones, cluttering up of the mountain streams by the remains of timber fellings, absence of the proper riverside fortification etc.
The anthropogenic changes of cover resulted the increase of the surface flow in four times, and decrease of the total evaporation of water. In accordance with some calculations, the rivers of Transcarpathia annually carry out nearly 1.8 million tons of the solid sediments. In the period of heavy rains this amount of sediments increases in several times, falls on the bottom of rivers and change the river beds.
The biggest branches of the economy regarding the use of water resources are industry (49%) and agriculture (35%).
The year average concentration of toxic matters in the Dnipro river is: easy-oxidizing organic compounds - 2 AC (acceptable concentration), ammonium nitrogen 2,6 AC, nitrite nitrogen - 2,4 AC.
The common toxic matters of the Dnipro reservoir were compounds of copper (up to 11 AC), zinc (up to 32 AC), manganese (up to 10 AC), phenols (up to 8 AC). The pollution by zinc compounds sometimes reached 96 AC.
Water flow from agricultural fields to the water objects of the Dnipro river basin, with respect to the entering balance, in particular as for nitrogen and phosphorus, contain respectfully 28% and 7,4%. In total 19,1 thousand tons of nitrogen, 0,63 thousand tons of phosphorus and 0,118 tons of pesticides are taken out from the territory of the Dnipro river basin. Therefore the agriculture is one of the main sources of disposing of biogenic elements. Extensive melioration of lands, soil erosion and other factors results in the increase of amount of the water flow from agricultural fields to water objects.
The waterflow from the territories with high concentration of municipal structures and buildings, which occupy 5% of the basin area, constitute the significant part in the pollution of water objects of the Dnipro river basin. In general 725 mln m3 of sewage waters are disposed of from the above said structures into the water objects of the basin. They contain 1.13 mln of suspended matters, 45 thousand tons of organic elements, 11 thousand tons of oil products, 5 thousand of nitrogen, 1 thousand of phosphorus and other substances.
A cascade including 6 water reservoirs with total area of 6,950 km2 and full water capacity of 43.8 km3 was built on the Dnipro river. The construction of water reservoirs violated the ecological balance and fully changed conditions of water exchange process. In comparison with natural conditions it became slower for 14-30 times.
Almost all the problems are caused by the following reasons:
• high rates of urban populations and industrial production,
• intensive agriculture with eroded soil and lowing crop capacity,
• extensive use of water in agriculture and industry, especially in metallurgy,
• low level of waste processing,
• no other sources of water supply.
It was adopted "The Program of ecological renovation of Dnipro basin and improving the quality and potable water". This project provided development of ecological firm and eco-audit. The project was supported by supported by Government of Canada, which resulted the Program of technical help "Development of environmental management of Dnipro river basin". In frame of this program in 1994-2000 it was made eco-audit and "green technologies", city audit of water pollution, ecological investment activities.
In 2001 it was adopted the Program of development of Black Sea and Sea of Azov, which has to be over in 2010.
The process was promoted by international cooperation in the context of "Agenda for the 21st century". Cooperation involved the Governments of Canada and ukraine as well as scientific, civil society and business segments for the purpose of refining new comprehensive approaches in implementing the National Program for Ecological rehabilitation of the Dnipro River Basin.
Black Sea pollution is also a serious problem: its marine ecosystem is on of the most polluted in the world. It is an enclosed marine system, thus all discharged pollutants are accumulating in the Sea.
Ukraine had no expertise in implementing such large scale ecological basin programs; neither had it had expertise in systemic environment management. Financial and methodological support of the Government of Canada initiated the first experience as follows:
• Methodology was developed for comprehensive ecosystemic resolution of the Dnipro basin problems in restructuring the social and economic state system;
• Methodology was designed for incorporating modern instruments of ecological audit and ecological leasing into environment management followed by low capital investment in ecological renovation of the Dnipro basin polluting enterprises in various industries (food processing, light industry, metallurgy);
• New technologies were introduced to rehabilitate coast zones that suffered anthropogenic activities impact.
Reduced volumes of industrial output have had a positive impact on the utilization of water resources. During 1992-2000 the volumes of annual utilization of underground waters fell by 1.5 with the utilization of surface waters falling by 1.9 times. However, due to the deteriorated maintenance and poor condition of sewage disposal system, a share of polluted sewage in the general waste water pumping increased from 22.2% in 1992 to 30% in 2000.
There are several examples of regional/local improvements, which were worked out in frame of SD strategy.
26.4. Improving of municipal water supply in city of Lviv
Very often the quality of potable water doesn't correspond the national standard of quality because of unsatisfactory condition of water and sewerage system. In Lviv this problem was solved due to financial aid of Agency of International Development (AID), USA. Work started in 1997, when it was changed the old pumps, which decreased energy consumption by 1,4 MkWt/year.
The next stage was activation of equipment complex for cementation the inner surface of pipelines. It helps to rehabilitate 10-12km of pipe a year and prolongs the term of their work for 50 years; inner cementation prevents corrosion, which increases the quality of potable water.
26.5. Waste products processing
The volume of waste in Ukraine is 700-1700 mln tons per year. Main sources of their formation is coal-mining, chemical industry, metallurgy, fuel and energy complex. The reason for such a big amount of waste is obsolete structure of production and insufficient volume of waste products processing.
In general, only 10-12% of wastes in Ukraine are used as secondary material resources. The rest is stored in surface depositories, polygons, pit refuse heaps, and their general area is about 160000ha. The places of store don't correspond/response the requirements of ecological safety. Polygons were started about 30 years ago, now most of them are overloaded, and about 300 of them violate the environmental requirements.
Annually Ukraine has 12 mln tones of solid living wastes, which are stored on 1000 legally permitted dumps of garbage. Kiev region has 30 dumps, which take 148 ha of land. These places are the source of underground water and air contamination, while it forms gas (methane 50-70%), carbonic gas 30-50%, some nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. 1 ton of decomposition of solid living wastes gives 400 cubic meters of this gas. Problem of gas utilization can be solved by means of collecting it and for producing steam and electric power. The most useful it is for enterprises located nearby. There are 2 projects exist (in Kiev and Lugansk polygons). Price of electric power received due to this technology is 0,007 USD/kWthour, while average price in Ukraine of regular energy is 0,021 USD/kWthour. This technology is spreading countrywide.
Concern "Stirol" (Donetsk region) is the main producer of ammonium hydrate, mineral fertilizers, and medicines; 80% of goods are exported. In 2001 this enterprise was the first in Ukraine which received ISO 14001 Certificate. It was stopped to sewage in rivers of Donetsk basin. This is a unique practice among chemical-pharmaceutics plants in Ukraine. Air wastes were reduced by 4 times.
Currently in Ukraine we try to use more and more the waste of mining of previous years. For instance, Kryvorizkyj coal-mining basin has wastes with about 17% (1,670 mln cubic meters), Nikopol mining basin has 20% margan. Implementing of contemporary technologies helps to use these resources with economic benefits. Use of living and industrial wastes reduces the use of natural resources by 20-30%.
26.6. Processing of used technical oils (UTO)
In the majority of countries 50% of UTO are reused as the raw materials for oil goods such as diesel fuel, petrol etc. annually Ukraine has 500 000 tons of UTO; the way of their processing leads to sufficient environmental contamination. Several countries used to include the cost of utilization of UTO in price of oil and provide the privilege taxation. In Ukraine we have security-deposit system: price for consumer consists of two parts – actual price and security, which is sent to deposit account of enterprise. When the enterprise gives back the UTO, the security is given back.
26.7. Coal-mine methane and other sources of alternative energy
Concerning presence of this resource Ukraine takes the 4th place in the world (after China, Russia and Canada). It is 12 bln cubic meters of methane, which is 3 times more than the volumes of natural gas can satisfy only 25% of its needs in gas. Till recent time mined methane was perceived not as a fuel, but as a concomitant of mining process, which causes explosions and significant peoples victims and deaths. Donetsk coalmine basin is the most prospectful region for receiving and processing methane, which is concentrated in underground and water and coal layers. Main method of utilization is usage as fuel in steam boilers and processing of gas plants. With the help of BCCR Engineering, inc. (TX, USA) and program Ecolinks we use this method.
Depending on gas quality, methane recovered from underground mines may be sold to natural gas companies, used to generate electricity, used on-site as fuel for drying coal, or sold to nearby industrial or commercial facilities.
The oxidization of coal mine ventilation air produces heat that can be used to produce electricity. The recovered coal mine methane is used in Ukraine by 8 mines of the Donbass region for supporting their operating activities, and as a motor fuel.
Currently, the recovered methane in Donbass is mainly used in mine boilers to produce heat, which is not the most efficient method of methane utilization. The most efficient application of the recovered coal mine methane is thought to be in the form of motor fuel for gas-turbine or gas-diesel motors. Mine boilers today consume about 200 million cubic meters of gas for heating per year, which is about one-third of the total methane that is being burnt in torches. At the current rate of methane recovery, the daily volume equals 1600-1700 thousand cubic meters, which could all together replace up to 260 MWt of energy or 240 Gkal/h of heat generation.
For the period of 2005-2008 coal methane recovery is expected to increase up to 3-4 billion cubic meters a year and further double within each 5 years, reaching 12-16 billion cubic meters per year after 2010-2015. The rate of return of investment into the methane recovery and utilization projects is 1.3 and 1.1 years, respectively.
26.8. Energy
Ukraine is one of the least energy efficient countries in the world. Ukraine's use of energy relative to GDP is much higher than that of Western Europe or the USA. The worst is that the trend toward growing energy consumption per unit of GDP has also increased.
Ukraine's energy intensity is at least several times bigger the OECD average mainly due to the large share of heavy industry and all-round poor energy efficiency.
We use the following nontraditional sources of energy: energy of wind, of sun, of short rivers, of biomass and geothermal energy.
National Strategic program for energy sector presumes supplying 15.8% of all energy needs in Ukraine till 2010, where the need of electric power is 5%.
Energy of wind is effective in those regions where average wind force is more than 5m/sec, like Azov and Black Seas coasts, Carpathian Mountains, Republic of Crimea.
Till 2010 Ukraine has to produce annually 5,71 mln MWth of wind energy, which is approximately 2.5% of total annual energy consumption. It is planned to build new wind energy plants for meeting 20-30% of total energy needs. Today Ukraine takes 13 place in Europe upon total capacity of wind energy plants, which is about 40 mln MWth. The biggest plants are Novoazovsk plant (capacity 14,5 MWt) and Donuzlav plant (16MWT) in Crimea.
Development of sources of alternative energy provides new working places. Changes in military priorities and policies of the country, and conversion let out significant military labour forces. There is a program all over the country, which provides working, places for unemployed militaries at alternative-energy plants, especially for specialist in optics, aerospace industry etc. Working in area of non-traditional energy is much more useful for employee than working in coal-mining or nuclear field, because it excludes contact with radioactive and toxic substances.
More working places are required for non-traditional energy industry than for traditional. More over, non-traditional energy production provides working places evenly all over the country, while traditional energy plants are concentrated in big industrial areas. It is another good reason to build non-traditional energy plants, because unemployment rate in Ukraine is the highest in small non-industrial areas. Negative impact of wind-energy production is the following - soil erosion, noise from old turbines etc. positive impact – it reduces the amount of wastes in air and water.
Example: Donuzlav wind energy plant (DWEP), Republic of Crimea, receives 80% of electrical energy from the other regions of Ukraine. DWEP is located in the place where the military complex was located earlier. Local administration gave the land for it. We started to use Ukrainian wind electrical plants equipment, which gives good experience in their projecting, construction and maintenance.
26.9. Conclusion
Ukraine has to do a lot both for its welfare and for being “cleaner”. As many other countries, we face the dilemma between traditional material production and natural resources preserving. The dilemma is reinforced by traditionally-irrational way of housing and understanding that it is impossible to avoid technogenous affect of environment. Further economic development brings further and harder adverse impact on quality of environment. Priorities for braking this "vicious circle" might be the following:
• ecologically-oriented business and markets of ecological technologies and services;
• energy- and resource-saving technologies for saving environment and increasing the competitiveness of final products;
• neutralizing wastes at the origin, not at the exit;
• waste products processing, which is necessary and economically profitable;
• law base, which would incentive clean production, ensure benefits to companies upgrading their production facilities to make them more environment-friendly, and stimulate development of an environmental market focused on high technologies, equipment, labour and services;
• developing ecologic evaluation of all economic projects and measures;
• changing the structure of export (decreasing the amount of exported raw-materials and semi-ready goods);
• reforming education with stress on environmental specializations.
The means and ways mentioned above show general recommendations, nevertheless it is important to consider that numerous regional initiatives are much more powerful than ones carried out from state policy. In the middle run, the solution lies in frame of implementation of innovative processes and techniques on regional level. The state-presumed mechanisms of innovative activity have low efficiency and do not give any possibility for forming outer market sources. The regional industrial centres already have good developed infrastructure and relative compactness, which allows to use the local available resources rationally.
Bibliography
Ministry for environmental Protection of Ukraine:
National progress report of Ukraine on Implementing Provisions of “Agenda for the ХХІ-st century” over the Decade (1992-2001) – Kyiv, 2002.
Country Report to the RIO+5 "From Agenda to Action", Jan 1997
Agenda 21 and other Rio documents
CSD Update. Secretariat of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development.
Indicators of Sustainable Development: Framework and Methodologies, CSD
Red Past. Green Future? Sustainable Development for Ukraine and the Post-Communist Nations Worldwatch Institute, World Watch, Vol. 16, No. 4,
Sustainable Cities Network in Ukraine, sustainable-.ua
The Concept of Sustainable Development and a Cleaner Ukraine, Center for Economic Initiatives,
Biosphere preserved: achievements and failures. Bagnyuk V., Sytnyk K., ukr,
Ukrainian Society for Sustainable Development:
Public Environmental Awareness Raising Project Rosa Vetrov – Wind Rose:
Energy Information Administration; Country Analysis Briefs – Ukraine:
Policy studies #10: Ukraine's environmental policy, 2000
State Statistic’s Committee of Ukraine:
Svitlana V. DEM’YANOVA: Sustainable Development Strategy and Foresight Programme as Mechanisms of National and Regional Development of Ukraine
Abstract
Current social and economic situation in Ukraine testifies that the national economy has failed to change significantly the extensive type of development and to ensure successful transition to Sustainable Development of the country. This is aggravated by the fact that the Concept of Sustainable Development in Ukraine developed by the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine in collaboration with the other bodies of executive power in accordance with the Activity Programme of the Cabinet of Ministers in Ukraine for the period of 2000-2004, is still in progress. Although there is a Sustainable Development Strategy developed by Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine, but it is imperfect and not well spread. The other formal documents devoted to Sustainable Development in Ukraine still remain declarative and don’t take into consideration regional peculiarities and way of housing. This situation made local and regional institutions, as well as industrial enterprises, take an initiative in their hands and kick-start regional projects such as Network of Cities of Sustainable Development (Wind Rose in the Donetsk region), investment project on the manufacture of high-tensile materials with use of repeated teflon raw materials on molecular level and reuse of pit refuse heaps (Dnepropetrovsk and Pavlograd region), environmentally friendly projects in Carpathians and Crimea. Another national strategy – Foresight Programme – that has been tackled in Ukraine since 1997 by support of British Council in Ukraine and UNIDO, is still unknown and ‘underpromoted’ for Ukrainian society. Local Foresight efforts currently undertaken by Kiev, Donetsk and Kharkov are insufficient, since Foresight is proved to be successful solely it terms of public awareness and involvement of numbers of stakeholders of science, education, industry, businesses and governments. To overcome the trend of Ukraine’s lagging behind the active world practice of Foresight implementation and striving for sustainable development, there is a necessity to develop a system of adjusting exercises, which is to be a base of the regional and local policy of the government. Despite of rising interest of domestic scientists and practitioners in sustainable development problems, in use of Foresight methods and approaches and scientific developments of V.Y.Shchevchuk, G.O.Belyavskiy, Y.M.Satalkyn, V.M.Navrotzkiy, R.M.Marutovskiy, R.V.Kyshkan, M.Z.Zgurovskiy, there is a number of problems that require further research: (1) realization of ‘economic’, ‘social’ or ‘ecological’ national strategy in terms of sustainable development, while sustainable development assumes solely the comprehensive approach (triune one); (2) legislative base improvement in establishment of sustainable development institutions and Foresight Programme embedment at regional level; (3) lack of legislative regulation and identification at national level of Foresight Programme as a mechanism of Sustainable Development Strategy realization in Ukraine; (4) lack of the regions’ role identification of Foresight in governmental scientific programmes within this process. The main tasks of the article are the research of social and economic aspect of sustainable development problems in Ukraine; the analysis of standard acts and laws on securing sustainable development and Foresight programme realization at national and regional level; the research of regional practices of sustainable development ideas implementation; the analysis of perspectives of the Foresight realization at the level of regions; the development of regional Foresight conception in the context of securing sustainable development of regions. The objective of the article presented is the development of key directions of national, regional and local governmental policy on efficient realization of regional sustainable development and Foresight Programme.
27.1. Ukrainian legislation on securing the realization of sustainable development principles: problem of public awareness
It should be noticed that today in the world there are over 250 scientific centers investigating sustainable development problems. Among them are Harvard, Yale, Stanford, Manchester, International Institute of Sustainable Development in Canada, however only 7% of people understand real meaning of the term “sustainable development” [1]. In Ukraine, presumably, this percentage is composed only by scientists.
In the Project of Sustainable Development Conception of Ukraine (19.08.2000) sustainable development of the country is defined as “process of the development of the country on basis of concordance and harmonisation of social, economic and ecological constituents for the purpose of meeting needs of today’s and future generations. Sustainable Development is examined as such that not only generates and fosters the economic growth of the state but fairly distributes its results, renovates its environment and favors poverty alleviation” [2].
At first sight, in Ukraine was conducted quite serious work on the fulfillment of commitments undertaken by Ukraine at Rio de Janeiro conference (1992), Summit in Johannesburg (2002) and successful promotion heading toward sustainable development: the project of Sustainable Development Concept was discussing at public hearings in Kyiv and Lviv (2000); the development of Sustainable Development Strategy of Ukraine on basis of Concept of Sustainable Development; conferences, round tables; visits of Ukrainian governmental delegation to London (April 2004); courses for youth on “Making Sustainability Tangible” (2004), Ukrainian Youth Summit U.N.O.-2004 (“Millennium Development Goals: development of coherent partnership relations); Committee on Science and Education Affairs of Supreme Council of Ukraine for youth awareness issued “Interpreter on Sustainable Development”; with support of the USA and the UK there were conducted programmes of “Assistance for Sustainable Development in Ukraine”. Today information on sustainable development affairs in Ukraine is available from the following sources:
• U.N.O. Representatives in Ukraine (un.kiev.ua/);
• Public organization “Institute of Sustainable Development”;
• Center of Sustainable Development and Ecological Research;
• Ukrainian public organization “Agenda for XXI century”;
• Public organization “Association of Sustainable Development”;
• Programme of local ecological issues of the US International Development Agency.
Nevertheless, Conception and National Sustainable Development Strategy of Ukraine still haven’t been confirmed by Supreme Council of Ukraine. Sustainable Development Strategy presented by Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine misses evidently fundamental items for the Conception: concordance of national, regional and local approaches in the realization of Sustainable Development; conception of natural rent (shifting from the tax on labor results to the tax on use of resources); an increase of resource productivity; shifting from economics of goods to economics of service and flow). Main arrangements on public awareness have started to be conducted only after 12 years since the day when Rio Declaration was signed, and the actions towards the fulfillment of Millennium Development Goals [3] are at the initial stage.
Consequently, “ideology of sustainable development hasn’t got sufficient dissemination throughout Ukraine and hasn’t properly reflected either in joint conception nor in national policy, nor in household practice, …hasn’t become a world outlook base of power structures activities”[5] (V.Vovk). This fact is also confirmed by the appraisals of international experts: by Ecological Sustainability Index (ESI) developed by World Economic Forum, Ukraine ranked 110th position amongst 122 countries; Living Planet Report 2002 (issued by World Fund of Wild Nature) refers Ukraine to 111th position out of 146 countries observed; according to the Robert Prescott-Allen’s system (in ‘The Well-being of Nations’) Ukraine also rates the lowest positions – 128th place amongst 180 countries over the world[6] [4]. Besides, Presidential elections in Ukraine in 2004 and followed food and petrol crises cast Ukraine aside again from footstep of ‘sustainable development ladder”.
In Ukraine in 2003 were registered 137 national, international, sectoral and regional programmes financed by national budget, which are connected with sustainable development. Among them on the directions of Agenda 21: social and economic aspects – 55; preservation and rational use of resources with the purpose of development – 47; strengthening of the role of main sections of population – 4; actions for realisation – 31 [5]. Apparently, over 60% of them are formally “working” for the realisation of Agenda 21 in Ukraine. However it should be noted that up to now it hasn’t been developed efficient mechanisms of these programmes’ realization. Incidentally this direction was imputed to tasks of activity of the body specially established – National Commission of Sustainable Development under the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. This Commission was officially formed 30.12.1997 (accordingly to international commitments – 3 years later the deadline), and only 3rd May 2003 President of Ukraine ratified by his Decree “Regulations about National Commission on Sustainable Development of Ukraine and its personal staff”. However its initial big shortage was that the Commission involved mainly representatives of government while world practice (above all ‘U.N.O’s spirit’) witnesses about the necessity of the participation of representatives of business, NGOs, science and education spheres. Evidently, this fact appeared as prepotent when National Commission hasn’t become the strategic center of the introduction of sustainable developments principles [6].
Real steps towards the introduction of sustainable developments principles in Ukraine, as well as official documents that contain words “sustainable development”, became “Conception of Sustainable Developments of Settlements” (24.12.1999) and Law of Ukraine “About Bases of Town-planning” (08.02.2001).
27.2. Regional practices of the implementation of sustainable development ideas in Ukraine
World practice and way of housing in Ukraine indicated that the best understanding of local problems and ways of their solution exists exactly at regional and municipal levels. Such a trend was proved to be true in legal solution of problems tailored to sustainable development in Ukraine. However in Ukraine the majority of cities and regions refer exactly to “unstable territories” since “territory is unstable when its dwellers use resources faster than they could be renewed, if on the territory it is generated more wastes than a number that could be reuse naturally or used for other purposes” [7]. Thus, for instance, the Donetsk region occupying 4.4% of territory of Ukraine with 10 % of population of the country generates over 40% emissions into air and 30% emissions into water, its industry destroys the nature 6 times faster than it happens elsewhere in Ukraine [8], and the agricultural available land of the region is erosive by 68%.
Perhaps, because of the fact that in the Donetsk region 4,2 million persons (84% of population) live in the zone of heighten risk for their living with the level of air pollution classified as “hazardous” and “extremely hazardous”, Donetsk possesses the initiative of the establishment of Sustainable Cities Network (1999). Donetsk first united cities signed Aalborg Charter (since 2000). Currently in the network there are 37 Ukrainian cities: Nikopol, Slavutich, Mirgorod, Odessa, Ivano-Frankovsk, Uzhgorod, etc. Being the participants of European Campaign of Sustainable Development Cities, these cities served as basis for the formation of atmosphere of collaboration and mutual aid towards local sustainability. Thus, as a result of three-year project (2000-2003) “Wind Rose” in partnership with British organizations Groundwork UK and DEFRA, in Donetsk was established NGO “Sustainable Development Center “Wind Rose”, which keeps on conducting programmes oriented to awareness and public involvement in the process of ecologically important decision-making; conducting actions and campaigns aimed at the change of public consciousness, environment improvement, the development of dialogues “community – local authority”, “community – business”; ecological education. In Donetsk in 2001 was developed the Conception of City Development Strategy in the format of Local Agenda 21, as well as developed indicators of city sustainable development. Conceptions of sustainable development at regional levels were confirmed in Vinnitsa region (for 2001-2010), Zakarpatye, Crimea; at municipal level – in city of Priluki (for 2002-2006), in city of Nikopol and Kyiv (for 2002-2005), in city of Berdyansk (for 2010) (strongly perspective document). In Ivano-Frankivsk first in Ukraine the Strategical Plan of City Economic Development was prepared with participation local authorities, public organizations, scientists, businessmen with support of the city community. Besides, some regions and cities of Ukraine that don’t have regional sustainable development conceptions, undertake actions towards its realization. Thus, in the Dnepropetrovsk region the application of efficient technology of magnetic separating for manganese sludges let release about 500 hectares of a territory from dumps and considerably decrease man-caused load of the environment; in Cherkassy the embedment of new refinement technology let the city pretend to the city with the best quality of drinking water; in Pavlograd was conducted an investment project on the establishment of industrial production of ultramicrodispersion powders and emulsions from industrial wastes in the current of rare gas (these developments are perspective for the improvement of economical and techno-ecological indices of activity of industrial manufacturing, as well as for the development of high chemical technologies of teflon’s introduction to the compound materials at molecular level; the process is carried out practically without a contact with the environment that makes the technology very much attractive in respect to ecology). Decisions in regions mentioned above are important not only in the view of instilling innovative consciousness and fostering people’s activeness in product diversification, but first of all, in respect to ecological expediency and acceptability. Exactly the environment is that basis where mankind can do its activity and develop its social culture.
However, in accordance with ranking carried out by the Commission of Sustainable Development in the survey on Local Agendas [9], Ukraine takes 9th place amongst 18 countries observed in the category “share of GNP directed to Local Agendas 21 campaigns” ( US $756-9,265 (the same position is taken by Malaysia). By ‘national sustainable development campaigns in the country’ in Ukraine in 2002 the Commission registered 9 accepted local agendas (on a level with Hungary), while in Greece – 39, Yugoslavia – 18, Spain – 359, Peru – 17, Germany – 2,042, Turkey – 50, USA ( 87[7].
27.3. Ukraine is heading toward the fulfillment of “Millennium Goals”: economic and social aspect
Being guided by the principles of sustainable development, in Ukraine were developed “Millennium Development Goals” [3], which should be attained by 2015 (like other 189 countries). Among them are: poverty alleviation, qualitative life long learning, sustainable environment development, mothers’ health improvement and infant mortality diminution, limitation of HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis expansion and the establishment of the trend of their cut-back, gender equality securing.
Initially reducing interpreting of sustainable development as “ecological sustainable”, “economic sustainable” or “social sustainable development”, since only including all these three constituents a development can be “sustainable” (basing on socio-natural co-evolution), let examine some of its social and economic components in Ukraine.
Poverty problem is the socio-economic problem. Up to 1999 the level of poverty in Ukraine was not defined legislatively. Only 15 August 2001 there was issued the Decree of President “About Strategy of Poverty Alleviation”, which was designed for 2010. In “Millennium Goals” Goal 1 (Task 2) for Ukraine was determined a decrease of one third of the main part of poor population (that is beyond national poverty scope having the income under US $4.82 a day) within 2001-2015 (Figure 27.1.).
[pic]
Figure 27.1. Forecasting dynamics of the reduction of a population
part in Ukraine living under national poverty scope8[8]
Initially in “Strategy of Poverty Alleviation” the problem of poverty alleviation was solved merely through increasing the income level of population, particularly by rising in salaries (Figure 27.2.).
Within the period investigated for the assessment of changes and the fulfillment of “Millennium Goals for Ukraine” (since 2001) in Ukraine is observed gradual rising in salaries and the sustained reduction of national arrears of wages right up to 2004.
[pic]
Source: .ua
Figure 27.2. Dynamics of monthly average of salaries, arrears of wages and numbers
of unemployed in Ukraine in 2001-2005
In consequence of unstable political situation in the country caused by the Presidential elections at the end of 2004, at the beginning of 2005 it was outlined the trend of the internal debts increase again (by UAH 477,8 million), which is connected with petrol, food and metallurgical crises in the country. Similar tendency is traced relating to the numbers of unemployed in Ukraine: comparing to 2001 at the beginning of 2005 the number of unoccupied fell by 21,4 ths pers, however it has gone up by 4,9 ths pers. since 2004.
Nevertheless, by experts’ appraisals [10], such a government approach discloses just one of the poverty causes – the employment level decrease, low level of remuneration of labor and provision of pensions, considerable debts. It doesn’t refer poverty to the family problems, education, health, medical care, human capital, demographic indices. Thereby if in 2001 there were 27.2% of poor population, then at the beginning of 2005 this figure rose to 30% that officially accounts for 13 million pers. [ibid]. Moreover, Ukrainian poverty is characterized by phenomenon of “poverty of working” when poverty becomes a satellite of not only educated enough and qualified people, but also those who are in the full employment regime.
Another evidence of poverty is an utterly low baby birth and high maternity mortality that is correlating with the Goal 4 (Task 2 – “From 2001 till 2015 to reduce infant mortality aged under 5 by 17 %”) and appears as a social problem (Figure 27.3.).
[pic]
Figure 27.3. Forecasting dynamics of the reduction of mortality of
children aged under 1 per 1000 born alive in Ukraine
It should be noticed that the level of mortality of children aged under 1 is in fact going down till the target level (Figure 27.4.).
[pic]
Source:
Figure 27.4. Dynamics of mortality level of children aged under 1 in Ukraine
Thus, since 2001 it has been a trend of gradual reduction of infant mortality, and in 2004 its level approached to 9.4 (per 1000 infants born alive), whereas planned index in “Millennium Goals” equals 10.4. In the course of the realization of the programme “Reproductive Health” during 5 last years it was succeeded to attain a significant cutback of infant and maternity mortality. The factor negatively influencing the situation of baby mortality was, among others, very low sum of monthly government aid to families (maternity allowance, single aid on baby birth, the aid on baby care until he’s 3 years old), amounting to UAH 228.3 in 2001 [11]. Obviously a multiple rise in maternity aid since April 2005 (UAH 8,500) will provide an invigorative effect of population increase and certain baby mortality decrease, as well as new national programme “Reproductive Health 2006-2010”, the development of which has been already started.
Social aspect in sustainable development attainment serves also securing qualitative life long learning, which was declared in the Goal 1. Task 2 of this goal consists in the increase of the comprehensive education level; in particular high education of youth (in higher educational institutions (HEIs) of I-IV levels of accreditation) (Figure 27.5.).
[pic]
Figure 27.5. Forecasting dynamics of comprehensive education of
people aged 18-22 in Ukraine
It should be indicated that within the period observed (2001 ( beginning 2005) the number of higher educational institutions in Ukraine had an increasing trend up to beginning of (Figure 27.6.), when accordingly to the Decree of President of Ukraine and appropriate instructions of Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine over 40 HEIs (public and commercial) were closed because of their discrepancy to the standards of the Ministry of Education. At the same the number of students in Ukrainian HEIs has a gradual growing tendency (Figure 27.6.), which could be explained by intensification of integration processes, partnership development and collaboration between Ukraine and EU in education, Bologna process joining, etc.
[pic]
Source: .ua
Figure 27.6. Dynamics of higher education development in Ukraine
As a whole, the increase of the education level is typical both of local and rural population that is every year goes up owing to promotion of higher education prestige and labor market requirements.
At the same time the sickness rate of HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis in Ukraine, especially of youth, increases year by year, despite of determined tasks in the Millennium Goal No 5 – to bring down tempo of HIV/AIDS expansion by 13% and tuberculosis – by 42%. This social problem is getting more and more acute for the Ministry of Health of Ukraine. However the fact causing anxiety is that on the website of National Committee of Statistics of Ukraine there is no an issue or subissue dedicated the situation of these sorts of diseases of population in Ukraine that reduces public awareness and fosters further expansion of HIV and tuberculosis epidemic in the country.
WHO pronounced Ukraine, as well as Estonia and Russia, an epicenter of HIV expansion in Europe, and its tempos of HIV epidemic development are as one of the highest over the world. In accordance with forecasts, the largest AIDS expansion Ukraine will have during 2007-2016 that patently conflicts with the plans developed in the frameworks of the Goal 5 (Figure 27.7.):
[pic]
Figure 27.7. Forecasting dynamics of slack up of HIV/AIDS expansion in Ukraine
In fact the situation of HIV/AIDS in Ukraine is being aggravated and isn’t put in the desirable outcomes of the Goal 5 (Table 27.1.).
Table 27.1. Cumulative number of HIV-infection cases, AIDS cases, fatal results (since 1987) [12]
|Year |No of HIV-infection |No of HIV-infection cases |No of AIDS-cases |No of the dead of |
| |cases |officially registered | |AIDS |
|2001 |79, 961 |43, 600 |2, 907 |1, 473 |
|2002 |92, 563 |52, 356 |4, 260 |2, 307 |
|2003 |111, 102 |62, 365 |6, 175 |3,592 |
|2004 |134, 320 |74, 856 |8, 918 |5, 367 |
|Feb 2005 |Unregistered |76, 875 |9,394 |5, 660 |
The dynamics of tuberculosis development in Ukraine also has a growing tendency: for 2004 sickness rate increased by 4.4% (80.9 per 100 ths pers.) [13]. One of the problems hampering in effective struggle against tuberculosis, by experts’ appraisals, is a lack of common calculation system and accounting complying with international standards. Perhaps the situation will be improved owing to the national programme “Reproductive Health 2006-2010” mentioned above, as well as national programme on tuberculosis control in Ukraine for 2006-2010.
Lethal mixture of HIV and tuberculosis is a serious trouble in Ukraine, where by appraisals, 10-15% of tuberculosis patients have resistibility against a few medications at once. Tuberculosis became a leading cause of mortality among people living with HIV [14]. Nevertheless, thanks to the enlargement of programmes on precautions of HIV transfer from mother to babies, the share oh HIV infected infants born by HIV infected mothers, decreased from 27% in 2001 to 12% in 2003 [15].
So it is apparent that having low quality of economy, Ukraine couldn’t attain desirable goals and proceed towards sustainable development in reality. Tangible positive shifts from the moment of the declaration of “Millennium Development Goals” (2001) have not happened, although in 2002 Ukraine by Human Development Index moved from 74th place (2001) to 70th [16][9]. Nevertheless, this 70th position Ukraine continued to keep up to the end of 2004, while Belarus for instance, moved down by 9 items and took 62nd place[10]. Social and economic aspects of sustainable development in Ukraine examined, witness about inconsequent fulfillment of planned tasks owing to financial instability, political crisis in the country, not concerted activities of ministries, uncoordinated mechanisms of strategy realisation, corruption of governmental systems. In this connection it is useful to view a role of international collaboration in sustainable development formation in Ukraine.
27.4. International collaboration in the context of national sustainable development
The progress of actions towards sustainable development in Ukraine undoubtedly would be impossible without collaboration with other countries and organizations realizing projects directed to the environment preservation, social development, closing in of authorities, business and society. Ukraine is a partner of 35 bilateral agreements on sustainable development, 14 out of them are interdepartmental.
Active assistance is provided by United Nations Development Program. The collaboration between Ukraine and U.N. Development Program is currently conducted in the framework of 3 programmes: ‘Acceptable Management’, ‘Human Development and Human Safety’, ‘Environment Preservation and Sustainable Development’, as well as the project “Program to foster sustainable development in Ukraine” (for 2006-2010). Besides, the partners of Ukraine in the attainment of sustainable development are the British Council in Ukraine, UNIDO, USAID, TACIS, Defra, and DEPA.
Collaboration with EU is conducting in the framework of TACIS programme. The introduction of projects on natural preservation in Ukraine foster a rise of efficiency of actions aimed at preservation of the environment that are realized at national, regional and local levels, as well as makes the fulfillment of commitments of Ukraine real. Since 1991 up today in the framework of the programme “Economic Reforms and Private Sector Development” the aid is provided by the following directions: privatisation and SME restructuring, financial services, agriculture and defense industry conversion.
International partners of Sustainable Cities Network in Ukraine appear GroundWork (UK), DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs), British Council (through British Council in Ukraine), PECE (UK) in Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia. Besides, since cities of the Network joined European Campaign of Sustainable Large and Small Towns, support is also rendered by the organizations such as Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR), International Council of Local Ecological Initiatives (ICLEI), United Towns Organisation (UTO), Health Towns Project of WHO.
At this very moment international collaboration is realized also in the sphere of national programmes proved to be efficient in the implementation of sustainable development strategy. One of them is Foresight.
27.5. Sustainable Development and Foresight Programme: parallel or crosscut directions?
Since 1997 in Ukraine at the level of Supreme Council of Ukraine and Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine supporting by British Council in Ukraine and UNIDO have been conducted conferences and seminars on Technology Foresight as one of the perspective tools of the strategic development of Ukraine with a participation of international experts from the UK, Hungary, Japan.
The peculiarity of this programme for Ukraine is a process of systematic evaluation of long-term perspectives of the development of science, economy and social sphere by system analysis of various scenarios of development. Foresight is important as an innovation conception and a tool of policy development. Besides, in contrast to a forecast, Foresight is important not only by its result but by the process itself – involvement of many stakeholders including scientists, managers of different levels, businessmen, public representatives, ( and formation of the “Knowledge Pool” about the future on this basis. «It [Foresight] is about creating the future we want, rather than allowing the future to simply 'happen to us'» (Graham May).
The legal basis of Ukrainian Foresight is the following documents: Decree of Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (CMU) dated 24.12.2001 “National Scientific Programme “Technology Foresight as a System Methodology of Innovative Development of Ukraine”[17], Decree of CMU dated 28.08.2004 “About the Confirmation of National Programme of Forecasting of Scientific and Technological and Innovative Development for 2004-2006” (customer and responsible body – Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine (MON)[18], Order of MON of Ukraine and Presidium of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine dated 29.10.2004 “About the organisation of the fulfilment of National Programme of Forecasting of Scientific and Technological and Innovative Development for 2004-2006”[19]. It is the author’s opinion that the term “foresight” in legal documents was incorrectly substituted for “forecasting” (similar problem with a translation of “sustainable development” into Ukrainian), whereas forecasting is one of Foresight methods and doesn’t reflect a social component of Foresight – involvement of various strata of society. Besides, the explicit weakness of the implementation of the programmes on national Foresight indicated is the fact that their current and final outcomes were not reflected neither in official documents, nor in mass media (except for scientific publications of the rector of Kyiv National University “Kyiv Polytechnic Institute” (KNU “KPI”), professor M.Z.Zgurovskiy and professor N.D.Pankratova (Institute of System Applied Analysis under KNU “KPI”). However exactly openness and awareness of the participants of Foresight process are a pledge of the efficient embedment of Foresight in society, industry, science, education, government bodies, since world Foresight purposes exactly this aim − quality of life improvement and industrial competitiveness increase in the country by the establishment of coherent ties between these realms.
Since “national Foresight” still remains in the making, in Ukraine at the moment exists quite limited circle of Ukrainian institutions independently working on Foresight Programme. Among them are KNU “Kyiv Polytechnic Institute” (scenario analysis development), Ukrainian Distance Learning Center (completion of the distance course on Technology Foresight), Kharkov Technology Transfer Center, Donetsk National University (Foresight in Education, establishment of Foresight-Laboratory). Since 2004 in Kyiv was declared a regional initiative on the Foresight Programme embedment by Science and Research Institute of Social and Economic Problems of City Kyiv (development of innovative strategy of the city future development).
Indirect support for national Foresight in Ukraine is provided by European Commission by means of encouragement of regional initiatives (Faculty of Economics of Donetsk National University). However it should be noticed a paradoxical tendency in the support of Ukrainian Foresight by international institutions: EC and UNIDO act parallel, not overlapping in the development of joint Foresight strategies toward Ukraine. Therefore it is necessary to stir up attention of people making top-level political decisions concerning the Foresight implementation in Ukraine, for the attainment of synergetic effect.
The situation with the realization of Sustainable Development Strategy and Foresight implementation in Ukraine is as ‘polyvectorial’ as the EC’s and UNIDO’s activity on Foresight as it was already mentioned. At the moment, obviously, understanding that the application of Foresight (technology one, in particular) as a tool of achievement of Millennium Development Goals and hence, sustainable development, have many representatives of high powerful levels and progressive scientists. However, regrettably, it is unformed, doesn’t prevail and isn’t reflected in the governmental documents, which might be serving as a basis for the system use of Foresight by research centers, HEIs, enterprises, public authorities. After all Foresight might be realizing starting from national to corporate (firms level) and individual levels (experience of the UK, Hungary, Sweden, and USA). Besides, Millennium Goals mentioned above might be successfully attained by means of Foresight, since it also embraces economic (business and industry development), social (quality of education improvement and life long learning), ecological spheres. For example, in North East England, in one of the most suffered regions from shutting pits under Margaret Thatcher, use of Foresight (Foresight for Industry, Foresight for Society, Foresight for Education) and the establishment of Centers of Business Excellence and Innovation Centers led the region to the positive dynamics of business, technology and innovation development, international co-operation and acknowledgement as one of leading regions in doing Foresight.
Table 27.2. illustrates problems and perspectives for Ukraine and regions by the implementation of Sustainable Development Strategy by means of Foresight Programme.
Table 27.2 . SWOT – analysis of perspectives of the Foresight Programme embedment in Ukraine
| |Ukraine |Regions of Ukraine (by the example of the Donetsk |
| | |region) |
|Stre|kick-start of Technology Foresight in Ukraine at |1) Donetsk region is an appropriate object for use of|
|ngth|national level in October 2004; |Foresight methods, especially in stagnating and |
|s |support of national Foresight Programme by UNIDO, |polluting branches of industry (coal mining, |
| |EC, British Council in Ukraine, Ukrainian |metallurgy, chemical industry, etc) by use of IT and |
| |governments, Kyiv Polytechnic Institute, MON of |environmentally-friendly technologies, energy and |
| |Ukraine; |resource-saving technologies; |
| |Ukraine and its regions have significant experience, developments and institutions in indicative |
| |planning, sensitivity analysis, economic and mathematical modeling, system dynamics, which might be used|
| |within realization of Technology Foresight Programme. |
|Weak|lack of experience in the Foresight Programme |lack of experience and analogues of Foresight |
|ness|organization and establishing Foresight Centers at|-establishments at regional level in Ukraine; |
|es |national level; |insufficient funding of projects; |
| |lack of systematic efforts on description of |rebuilding of perception and future thinking will |
| |technology development horizons, evaluations of |take entrepreneurs and elderly scientists much time |
| |consequences of their impact on society that are |and sometimes impossible at all; |
| |basing on these forecasts and assessments of |it is necessarily to get a consensus of many actors |
| |possible development scenarios; |of the region; |
| |although in Ukraine science is very developed and |negative experience of numbers of entrepreneurs in |
| |has a powerful potential, however this potential |unsupporting of applied projects on business |
| |is not commercialized, the country practically |development and manufacturing by authorities; |
| |doesn’t influence the development of global |weak development of social partnership (power |
| |economy, that’s why it’s necessary to join in |–business-community); |
| |existing technological chains; |lack of strategies for 20-25 years ahead developed at|
| |lack of cohesion of views of rectors of HEIs that |regional and local levels with an indication of |
| |is limiting their collaboration. |objectives and dates of their attainment. |
|Oppo|strengthening of partnership relations between |precision and concrete definition of priority |
|rtun|educational and scientific institutions of |directions of collaboration between scientific, |
|itie|regional and national levels; |educational and business structures in the Bologna |
|s |in long-tern perspective – embedment of Corporate |process context, development of world science and |
| |Foresight and Global Trends (political, economic |opportunities for scientific and economic potential |
| |and military-strategic analysis) that involves not|of the Donetsk region; strengthening of the role of |
| |only an analysis of possible technologies and |local authority in this process; |
| |trends in a country but also an the analysis of |building of co-operative ties with overseas and |
| |possible political decisions that might influence |national HEIs in the framework of Foresight, creation|
| |the development of our country, and hence – effect|of efficient knowledge transfer system and programmes|
| |the situation in the world; |of student and teachers exchange; |
| |development of business and ecological |completing of practical recommendations for the |
| |initiatives, establishment of ecological |regional and local authorities, individual business |
| |associations; |structures and manufacturing firms; |
| |introduction of EMAS systems (ecological |international integrations at regional level, at |
| |management), systems of strategic ecological |individual branch complexes level; |
| |assessment; |forecasting of structural shifts of regional economy,|
| | |their scientific ground and foresight of cardinal |
| | |changes in educational system and training of |
| | |specialists in terms of globalization of world |
| | |economic liaison; |
| | |introduction of innovative culture into industrial |
| | |and entrepreneurship environment of stagnating |
| | |(depressive) territories, monofunctional towns and |
| | |mining regions with the purpose for securing the |
| | |preparation of producers and customers for future |
| | |changes in the market and their competitiveness |
| | |increase in commodity exchange and labor-market. |
| |clasterising of manufacturing and determining of collaboration directions between structures of |
| |education, science and business will allow creating a scheme of exchange of ideas and developments, |
| |making new jobs, co-ordinating efforts on social and economic development of regions involving powerful |
| |bodies; |
| |development of the mechanism and the establishment of the structure on realization of efficient network |
| |of business-structures (enterprises, organizations, unions), educational (universities, schools) and |
| |scientific institutions (research centers, bureaus) in the region; |
| |perspective exchange of data bases of manufacturing enterprises and business-structures of Ukraine and |
| |overseas, particularly the Donetsk region and England (by collaboration with Regional Technology Center |
| |RTC North Ltd); |
| |improvement of educational system and creation of conditions of next generations development: formation |
| |of future thinking, generation of ideas and development of social and economic regional development |
| |strategies by students and pupils who will participate in Foresight programmes for youth; |
| |SME development in the region, enhancement of entrepreneurship activity; |
| |agribusiness development (introduction and development of IT in the country, transfer of advanced |
| |overseas and domestic technologies); |
| |development of SMEs by rendering of consulting and training services using Foresight methods |
| |(corporative Foresight): strategy development, support of advanced technology transfer (domestic and |
| |overseas); best practice transfer and resources transfer between companies and enterprises; conducting |
| |of professional marketing research, especially in new technologies tailored to the companies; fostering |
| |a creation of joint companies; technology transfer from R&D centers and Centres of Excellence); |
| |fostering in the participation in international and Framework Programmes (e.g. Framework 6 and Framework|
| |7). |
|Thre|break of collaboration with overseas partners, in |possible resistance of authority bodies in support of|
|ats |particular with UNIDO and EC in the framework of |projects and initiatives owing to the habit to fight |
| |national Technology Foresight Programme; |against effect but not against cause; |
| | |lack of efficient long-term planning, lack of |
| | |efficient criteria of progress and results achieved; |
| | |weak management in governing structures; |
| |Abeyance of national Technology Foresight Programme as a result of staff shifts and political and |
| |economic crises in the country. |
It is evident from the table that Foresight Programme realization in Ukraine in the long-term time-span will allow enhancing country competitiveness in world markets, arranging and developing of partnership relations with industry, science, education and government; defining and starting to develop and introduce perspective technologies for the next 10-20 years; concentrating of researchers’ attention on technology market opportunities, and hence enhancing of efficiency of scientific background use. Thus, Foresight, undoubtedly, might serve as one of mechanisms of harmonization of economic and social life of country in the framework of its natural and resource potential (by which Ukraine ranks 5 place in Europe and 8 place in the world), i.e. to secure the terms of transition to sustainable development.
Golden praxiological rule of T.Kotarbinskiy states that each good deed being undertaken within the bounds of vicious system, sooner or later will be neutralized by this system. Vivid example of this rule effect in Ukraine appeared the situation with attempts to attain sustainable development and Foresight embedment at national level without a creation of proper conditions and not transparent public system. In this connection it is necessarily to develop an efficient national, regional and municipal policy of Ukraine on realization of Sustainable Development strategy and Foresight Programme implementation. Some of directions of such a policy might be the following:
1. Completion of the development of Sustainable Development Conception of Ukraine and National Sustainable Development Strategy of Ukraine, its legislative basis and including into plans and programmes of activities of government of Ukraine, Ministry of Ecology and Natural resources, Ministry of Economics, Ministry of Labor and Social Policy, Ministry of Transport and others;
2. Establishment of a Center or Agency if Sustainable Development and its offices in regions that might be a public structure;
3. Establishment of national Business Council of Sustainable Development aimed at securing leading positions of Ukrainian business as a catalyst of the country transition toward sustainable development, as well as fostering eco-efficiency by introduction of high standards of use of resources and ecological management in Ukrainian industry and economy as a whole [20];
4. Intensification of regional and international collaboration in the framework of sustainable development by conducting seminars and development of the projects on experience transfer from countries-leaders in sustainable development (in particular, with Sweden – in eco-humanism, the production and use of biogas, waste management, Foresight-Laboratories establishment);
5. Establishment of Foresight – centers in regions of Ukraine basing on regional Development Agencies or universities. For example, the objectives of the Center of Perspective and Applied Research (Foresight) basing upon Donetsk National University potentially might be the following: a) conducting of trainings, seminars, round tables, Cafe Scientific aimed at Foresight dissemination; b) carrying out of scientific and applied activities with application of Foresight methodology; c) development of method maintenance and learning/training courses on Foresight technologies within courses for Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees; d) development and realization of the programme ‘Student Innovation Challenge’ for students with a perspective of involvement of other HEIs of the region to the project that will allow establishing of a strong platform of collaboration between the University and business structures; enhancing motivation of students for study and participation of pilot programmes and projects; securing a job placement for graduates; securing development of intellectual, manufacturing and strategic potential of enterprises, companies and organizations of Donetsk by involvement of qualified young specialists. Use of new ideas and creation of advanced technologies by Foresight methods and Foresight process; e) development and carrying out of training courses for the top management using Foresight methodology and methods;
6. Approval of Foresight Programme at legislative level as one of the mechanisms of Sustainable Development Strategy realization in Ukraine;
7. Legal determination of the role of regions in Foresight Programme and formation of sector panels consisting of representatives of science, education, business, industry and government at national, regional and local levels;
8. Intensification of co-operation between MON of Ukraine and Ministry of Labor and Social Policy of Ukraine in the realm of supplying and development of public topics for research and granting works on sustainable development;
9. Public fostering of HEIs and research centers to participate in international programmes and grants (e.g. Framework Programmes 6, 7 involving NGOs);
10. Provision of publications and dissemination of current and final outcomes of carrying out of government scientific programmes on sustainable development and Foresight in mass media and Internet;
11. Engagement of potential regional Foresight Centers into development of regional and local territory development programmes (e.g. “Donbass 2020”);
12. Securing of the legal field for activities and collaboration between potential Sustainable Development Centers and Foresight Centers with NGOs dealing with problems of sustainable development at regional and local levels;
13. Involvement of “interested people” into decision making process;
14. Supplying educational programmes on sustainable development and ecological education into compulsory courses of universities and schools at local level.
27.6. Conclusions
Apparently, all processes of transition of Ukraine toward sustainable development are characterized by extreme complexity and contradiction. Perhaps, similar development model doesn’t exist anywhere in the world. Hence, Ukraine should build into world technological chains and develop international collaboration towards sustainable development. However, the priority of it should be political will, logicality of actions, involvement of stakeholders from various economic realms, publicity and availability of information in steps undertaken.
As Aalborg Charter states, city level is the smallest scale where problems might find constructive integral decision. There were too many ideas of national scale, which “froze” at regional level and didn’t prescribe what to do at the city level. So the development of Sustainable Development Strategy of Ukraine should be carried out “bottom-up” and “top-down” synchronously, the processes of different levels are to stimulate each other. Besides, in the programmes for transition of cities, regions and whole country should definitely appear a constituent that is equal in rights – ecological.
Ukraine, undoubtedly, has to use existing benefits in collaboration with overseas countries: by appraisals of international experts, Ukraine can annually supply to the world market proposals of selling its 50% quotes on greenhouse gas emissions (accordingly to Kyoto protocol), since its emissions up to 2012 (and even up to 2020) won’t get the level of emissions of 1990. This might provide Ukraine with payments from US $500 ths to 1 milliard up to 2012.
Important way towards sustainable development is realization by government and society that Agenda 21 is not a newest policy of preservation of the environment, but a way to improve quality of life and to enhance well-being of nation. At the same time it should be remembered that cardinal shifts of socio-economic systems should be reinforced by concrete transformation base. Such a base might be natural and resource potential of Ukraine and Foresight programme embedment. Here is a necessity of political will that Tony Blair mentioned, as well as the development of will to learn long-term thinking.
Bibliography
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National Sustainable Development Conception (Project), 19 August 2000. /2/
Ukraine, Millennium Goals, Kyiv, 2003. /3/
Red Past. Green Future? Sustainable Development for Ukraine and the Post-Communist Nations, Worldwatch Institute, World Watch, Vol. 16, No. 4, copyright 2003, ) /4/
National Progress Report of Ukraine on Implementing Provisions of “Agenda for the ХХІst century” over the Decade (1992 – 2001), Kyiv, 2002. - 55 p. /5/
S.V. Semenetz Семенець С.В (2001): Sustainable Development Conception: main statements, problems of development and embedment in the world and Ukraine, Economic Reforms in Ukraine in the context of transition toward Sustainable Development, Kyiv: Institute of Sustainable Development: Intelsphera /6/
Sustainable Development of Society: 25 questions and answers, Explanatory Manual, /7/
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Second Local Agenda 21 Survey, Commission on Sustainable Development, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 28 January-8February 2002. /9/
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Decree of Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated 25.08.2004 No 1086 “About approval of Government Forecasting Programme of scientific and technological and innovative development for 2004-2006”, Kyiv, 2004. /18/
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V.Vovk(2001): Ukraine in the Contest of Modern Trends and Scenarios of World Development, Economic Reforms in Ukraine in the context of transition toward Sustainable Development, Institute of Sustainable Development: Intelsphera, Kyiv /20/
/21/
AFTERWORD
Imre HRONSZKY: Cognitive methodological remarks on „sustainability”
This short presentation can not have any other purpose than to indicate some problems, when it makes some cognitive methodological remarks on „sustainability”. Some questions that were formulated a decade ago or so, seem to be unsolved but still important. The presentation intends to orient first on the historical origin of sustainability ideas, i.e. on what should be sustained. Two characteristic ways of thinking will be pointed to (with a still acceptable simplification, I hope) and it will be reminded that historical concern has partly focused on the sustainability of economic growth, independently of the sustainability of the ecological system. Then it will be shortly reminded that the Brundtlandt report called for unifying economic growth and ecological sustainability, and meanwhile also called for redirecting economic growth to help to improve the state of the poor. The presentation will go then over to a basic conceptual methodological problem as it was expressed by the philosopher of technology St Carpenter about 15 years ago. The problem is about the „incommensurability” of two conceptual systems, neoclassical economy and some coherent thinking over an ecologically sustainable economic system. The presentation will extend and deepen upon the considerations of Carpenter about the problem of living in different „worlds”. These considerations will be connected to one constituent of the „definition problem” of what sustainability „is”. It will be reminded that the „definition” of ecological sustainaibility is inevitably in connection with social structural positions, relevant groups and their life practices. A further learning will be in this direction that an expectation of, and arriving at, some „closure dynamics”, if it may be needed for some reason, inevitably needs some discursive turn through which the different „definitions” and the social approaches behind them will be negotiated.[11]
X
Jon Tinko (Panos Institute) claimed 1992 that the „central paradox” of sustainable development ideas is that „we know what sustainable development is not, but we do not really know what it is”.[12] We have only negative rules, he complained 1992, and this situation reminded him of the „19th century schoolmaster model” that concentrated on forbidding behaviour. It seems Tinko touched on an important basic weakness of at least the earlier sustainability discussions. To give a sign of a positive concept he spoke about sustainability as the need for a „planetary good housekeeping”. By now we can state with pleasure that there is a robust development in enriching the sustainability approach with „positive rules”. It might be interesting when acknowledging this conceptual development to ask if some basic problems formulated in the 90s still have some validity or we have now to concentrate mostly on the problems of appropriate instrumentalisation of the reliable conceptual base and methodology only.
One of the important points to mention seems that many are ready today to forget about something. This is, that, curiously enough, the term sustainability appeared first in pure economics when it got connected, by the early 70s, to the problem of how the steady economic growth of the 60s could be preserved. With this it was in line with critical questioning in classical economic thinking to identify and look for the possibilities of overcoming the difficulties, hindrances, and recognize systemic limits, perhaps in absolute terms (think of Malthus about resource scarcity). From the early 70s the focus of interest in economic thinking turned in a forceful way to the problem of the strategic availability of natural resources for the industry in the long run. As the IIASA material, „Energy in a finite world, Paths to a sustainable future” (EIFW report) reports on this, „the oil schock” constrained us to understand a coming pervasive and cronic „energy problem” and not only a temporary „oil crisis”.[13] The very influential EIFW report was a first reaction by a very important group of scientists who were listened to by governments like that of the USA, FRG or the SU to try to formulate a factual knowledge base for strategic action to adequately meet the coming „energy problem” in the long run.
It is telling how their research problem was initiated and explained. „Until the early 1970s there was no broad awareness of an energy problem. However, by the early 1970s, a new set of political, economic and social conditions had evolved in the world. The oil-exporting countries have been willing and able to make the price of oil a political determinant”…”Also, many of the developing countries that export raw materials see the case of oil as an example to be emulated for other products”…”the increasing price of oil made it more difficult for the industrializing countries to accelerate their development and for the industrialized countries to maintain their growing economies.” „Since the late 1960s, the impacts of human activities on the environment are no longer considered small and negligible” – states the volume , written by Haefele, summarizing their research approach and the findings.[14] This actually meant the limited availability of fuel resources, and the problem for the insitute was formulated as to look for the factual knowledge base in a „dynamic world” where population, workforce, national economies were growing, to be able to strategically serve the growing energy demand. NB. the growing energy demand was concluded simply as some empirical trend, simply. The task was to find strategic possibilities to provide for a sustainable energy base, in the long run, for a dynamic economy of growth. Nuclear breeders gained first rank importance in this frame as an „in principle inexhaustible resource”. In the same vein an OECD report speaks in 1985 about the task of „sustaining the level of economic growth” in the developed world.
The term sustainability has appeared in ecocritical studies dealing with the problem of how the sustainability of the ecosystem can be realised in the face of the rapidly growing deterioration of the environment by the industry in a quite different context. This was not the question of how to preserve the growth rate of economy but of how to preserve the ecosystem. And an important book was published by L. Brown in 1980, in which he has already made it very clear that a sustainable ecology can only be developed in a sustainable society as its base.[15] From an ethical point of view one can refer to his conception as a version of moderate „humancentric biocentrism”.
It was the Brundtland Commission report (1987), of course, that very strongly connected the two references. It argued for the sustainability of economic growth with the simultaneous requirement of preserving Nature.[16] From the point of view of our interest in this article it may seem curious that the report does not entail any definition of sustainable growth. Instead, it gives hints such as follows. Sustainable development is one „that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This characterisation was sloganized, for many it became „the definition” of „sustainability”. The report did not only connect the economic sustainability with the ecological one but it is important to remember that the report had an overall message and a direct moral commitment towards the poor and the inequality in the Third World and connected ecological concern with these issues and the simultaneous requirement of economic growth. Ecological, economic and social „pillars” were simultaneously required, the lattest in relation to the poor we could formulate in a way somehow to compare the message of Our Common Future with the recent overall point of view. A turn in economy was required which would utilise economic growth to diminish inequality meanwhile turning plundering economy into one which consciously would preserve/reproduce its ecological basis. Ecological growth is absolutely essential to relieve the great and further growing poverty in the developing world but such growth must be based on policies that can sustain the environmental resource base – as the report claims simultaneously. NB! The moral base of economic growth was widened: at least a significant part of growth should be used to fight against poverty. The normative character of the report was obvious and it required searching for its realisability.
As it is well-known, the Brundtlandt report brought into the forfront four different problems of environmentalism in concreto. It criticised first that the previous efforts had dealt with the consequences of the human impacts on environment rather than dealing with the causes themselves, second, that the conservation attitude was separated from the development attitude, third, that the critical environmental issues, e.g. the problem of acid rain, were dealt with in isolation and last that politicians looked at the problem of environment as a sort of remaining problem after having solved the important ones. To bring into the fore all these points in themselves and especially together were of highest importance. With reference to its origin from practical demands the least is, asone must remark from a point of view of methodology of science, that sustainability was defined as request of a practical compromise between two issues. The one was to preserve the capacity for economic growth (even when redirecting it towards the problem of the poor) and the other, preserving Nature and the resources. Obviously, this politically motivated request asked for a systematic cognitive effort, for a scientific background to prove its possibility.[17]
The Brundtlandt report was not based on a precisely worked out conceptual framework. Some commentators were readily willing to accept and forgive the initial conceptual vagueness of the „sustainability” idea int he Report. Identifying this vagueness as natural for any initial step of research they identified only a technical problem with it. Let me refer just to one case: „As ’sustainability’ applies to development within many different systems with different environmental determinants, the concept will almost by necessity be diffuse, even elusive, like other concepts at a similar level of generalisation, with the dual objective of constituting the basis for intellectual discourse, demanding clarity, and guiding the work of a wide variety of political institutions, which presupposes ambiguity.”[18] Beside the not very clear connection among the basic concepts the problem of operationalisability was in the front of the critique and there was some consensus to find. According to this, one can be forgiving towards the first steps in some new direction but the requirement remains valid that a theoretical term must be operationalisable for adequate empirical research.
X
It is fully just to complain, in terms of operationalisability, about the inexactness of the sustainability ideas even today. It is a very basic natural requirement to make them as operationable and empirically exact as it is needed for any special purpose. It is also to acknowledge that it is very difficult to seriously operationalise sustainability ideas. One may think then that, from a methodological point of view, it is enough to concentrate only on the operationalisation problem, at present, for the conceptual problems have already been solved. But is not so. Some went really deeper from a philosophical point of view than to concentrate on operationalisation as soon as around ten, fifteen years ago. One point to recognise was then the basic conflict of thinking in ecological sustainability approaches and traditional economics. One may argue that they are not only different approaches in tension but they are also conceptually incommensurable.[19] While the first case (different approaches in tension) requires only some additional conceptual work and may orient the efforts mostly to data gathering and operationalisation, in the second case the conceptual work has absolute methodological primature. In a still rightful problem formulation a philosopher of technology, St. Carpenter formulated: neo-classical economy not only parasitically depends upon the ecosystem, but it actually reduces the capacity of the biospheric matrix to performing its life-sustaining functions. „The material technologies that are licensed by economic models, are not only incompatible with ecological concerns, they are inimical to them.”[20]Well, nearly fifteen years later one would like to wish that the recognition of this inimical relation in the very basic structure of the different approaches is already generally recognized.
Carpenter was right I think when he claimed to identify a basic conceptual incommensurability between sustainable economic growth and environmental sustainability approaches. He identified three types of it. These are as follows. „First, there is incommensurability between the root metaphors serving as basic ontologies. Second, there is another incommensurability between the conceptualisation of economy as social institution. Third, there is incommensurability of how the designation of limits is made.”[21]By this we can conclude that it is not true that different answers are given to the same sustainability question but different answers are given to different questions. There is even more at stake. These questions actually belong to different ’ways of life’ in a Wittgensteinian sense, they define two different „worlds” as I shall come back to this somewhat later. The task is then not only to look for a new conceptual base for a new theory but to conceptualise a different world of practice, governance, lifeword, economy in which the „theory” has to serve.
Let me explain the three incommensurabilities. In the growth model accepting environmental sustainability there is something that should be added to the growth model without even touching its basic ontology. This basic ontology is comprised by the basic root metaphor, which is that Nature is nothing but resource for a consuming subject, in principle consuming without any limit. The growth model, one can say, is based on an ontology, in which only the consuming relation to Nature is conceptualised, in ecclectic variations at least as predominant. In neoliberalist economic thinking economy is isolated from other spheres of social structure and is connected to them only through an external relation. More than that, there is a preconception of a hierarchic relation. (In my opinion one can not perhaps better express this ontology than by the so called ’techno-economic paradigm’ type conceptualisation of societal dynamics. According to this, technology, urged and supported by economy, makes growth possible. Economy realises itself through this growth, and all the other social spheres are required and constrained to accomodate to this regulation mechanism. Societies compete by accomodating their social spheres to the renewing challenges of economy for life or death.)[22] Concerning the third difference one can state that no designation of limits of principle is conceptualised in growth economies either.
Carpenter points out that one can ecclectically try to include a different point of view in the growth type understanding of social dynamics, the point of view of sustaining environment and develop a mixture of differently based approaches to serve for some practical-technical reason. One can look for criteria to make the limitation reasonable, either from the point of view of pure economic instrumentalism (it is reasonable that one would be stupid to kill the chicken which lays golden eggs), further one can love nature or develop an ethical point of view to derive the limitation from some moral point of view (e.g. responsibility for Nature). We are mostly facing the typical historical period of these types of syncretistic efforts at present. To extend the analysis by Carpenter, one can emphasise that the basic critical point with it is that the proportion between the instrumentalistic attitude and the limiting approaches is not theoretically but only practically defined and definable, this proportion setting work cannot be made in a different way, either. This is because there is no unifying frame to deal with both of them inside one conceptual frame. So, this type of conceptualisation preserves a pure power element (is the realisation of some „strategic negotiation” only) and it can only give ground for actions of this type. Looking back to history one can say that the environment as anything more than pure resource for consumption was eliminated from the original conceptualisation (was not included into it actually) by growth theories and any trial to bring it back into the conceptual system can only be a trial to bricolage a conceptual basis for urgent actions, actions that require to overcome the original conceptual background.
To become cognitively consequent, one has then to look, from the philosophy of science point of view, for a new basic root metaphor that allows one uniform overarching point of view to express (in principle) a new system of axioms, to be able to consequently work along the scientific approach ont he level of the theory. Obviously, as innumerable books and articles state it, this must go together with a practical approach determined to realise a whole new ’world’of new practice, new personalities, new institutions, especially different weights of importance among the subsystems of society from any growth theoretical conceptualisation.[23]
Let me turn to the problem of the one valid uniform definition of environmental sustainability from a different axis. It is already commonplace that problems are generally perceived differently by different actors. There has been a very hard educational effort in any human society to constrain its members to acquire and practice some standardised cultural perception of problems but in a pluralistic democratic society it is inevitable that there should andwill be a typical multiplicity of cultural perceptions and in societies committed to innovation one can argue that the capability of bringing the same issues in different world contexts is a most important capability (to sustain the dynamics). What may be called the „cultural construction” of facts has its importance with environmental sustainability, too. Briefly, I have to remind by this to the fact that „world views”, cultural frames of reference orient the perception of reality in relation to environmental sustainability, too. They are functions of complicated constellations of numerous factors, themselves also depending on others in the mutual determination process.
All this implies what can be called cognition politics, whether conscious or unconscious, and translated into the environmental situation it implies that environmental politics begins already with the cognitive action and is expressed in a comprising way in the framing of the cognitive work that leads, through exlusions and inclusions that are not necessary by nature, to the ’valid’ definition of an environmental problem. It will then be the environmental problem of some issue for some actors, and not the same problem for some others. On the one hand one can follow a positivistic approach. This means in our case that the definition problem will be identified as nothing but ’applying the valid techniques of science’ and then, on the base of scientific findings through this type of commitment, an appropriate politics will be provided. This cognitive method provides for a factual base for a practice of fair distribution of costs of environmental protection measures calculated by science on the ’objective factual basis’ of the deterioration state of the environment. „Facts first, not evaluation”, „these are the non-discutable base for anything else” – requires some wisdom. The problem with it is that it is based on some half-truth. What is forgotten with it is the unavoidable preceeding critical framing work of cognition. It is by right to require the possible soundest scientific basis for decision making, but, in our ’postmodern’ period of history, perhaps it is one of the most obvious learnings and requirements to apply a critical stance to the first step by realising any scientific effort. And this critical first step is not to concentrate on operationalisation first but to critically ask about (the unavoidable) cultural framing of any methodology. Mostly it leads then to the second task to ask about the ’cui prodest’ in the social-political arena, too. For it is quite natural that from different positions in societal dynamics both the cognitive and the practical approaches from different positions watch differently at such „complexities of complexities” as the natural environment in the social dynamics. What is included into the cognitive model seen as relevant for the practical problem (what is excluded from the problem and the cognitive model), which methods are accepted as valid, what is accepted as solution will inevitably lead to different conceptualisations, also to different scientific conceptualisations, even when overlappings can be numerous. So one can identify a whole series of coherent facts and still lie by them when one tries to persuade the others that it is the only valid scientific result.
This means that one has first to turn away from the classical approach in which it was canonised that politics is to be based on the one valid factual knowledge of the situations stated by the scientific experts previously who, as it was claimed, can provide first for a neutral factual knowledge base simply to use when looking for the limits and possibilities of politics. Such understanding forgets something. This is that there is an inevitable discursive preparatory work to do to find which cognitive framings are possible concerning the (environmental) issue. It is very helpful to understand an important relation of the social role of cognition and practice in this respect. To inquire into this relation of the social role of cognition and practice helps the formulation of the question one has to ask about the place of cognition in society: In which sort of society which sort of cognitive activities exist, which sorts of them are (perhaps hierarchically) accepted and which are the consequences of this acceptance and exclusion on social dynamics, especially on the life of people in this type of society? Revealing the typical cultural framing of cognition is much needed to answer this question. This means that to require ’sound science’ is valid, perhaps even more important than in any earlier time in history, but the meaning and reference of ’sound science’ is changing. A sound environmental expertise first provides for all the facts, all the „pictures of reality” that may be important for any stakeholder in the problematic environmental issue.[24] Then a consideration must be made to assess how much the choice for one or the other sort of cognitive action, including any mixture of them would lead to different practices in this society, how choosing one or the other would fit into one practice and not into another.
Let me go back from this point to the so called definition problem of ’sustainability’. A not very much reflexive but rather widespread positivistic persuasion still exists that somehow there should be just one valid definition for sustainability. I shall remark on this in two points. Utilising a classification developed by W. Achterberg first I would like to refer, simply in an ostensive way, to the (valid) multiplicity of point of views, concerning the basic relation of the human actor to Nature.[25] Then I would refer to some different ways of approaching such a basic ecological issue as the rainforest by different groups of relevant actors and the different cognitive needs they awaken. Let me first turn to the first issue. The types of practice differentiated by Achterberg are: dominion over nature, stewardship, participatory attitude, or unity with nature. According to Achterberg their basic differences can be tabulated as follows.
Dominion over Nature includes:
- Often an absolute gap or metaphysical discontinuity between human and Nature.
- It is related to dualistic and/or rationalistic philosophies, or inspired by religion.
- Nature has no intrinsic value.
- Nature is seen as resource. No moral respect exists for Nature.
Stewardship to Nature includes that:
- Human beings are connected with or even dependent on Nature, but with a specific position
- vis-á-vis nature because of their capabilities, stewardship may be inspired by religion,
- Nature has more value than use-value, and
- a respectful and responsible treatment of Nature, as obligation of human to himself or to God is accepted.
A participatory attitude toward Nature includes:
- Human beings essentially connected to other life-forms in an ecosystem, which is perceived as a community of vulnerable and autonomous partners.
- Differences between human and other life-forms are not absolute but still important. These differences constitute a continuum.
- The life-forms which are characterised by autonomy and vulnerability have intrinsic value.
- There is moral respect for the natural life-form.
Unity with Nature:
- Differences between human and non-human nature in every case are not absolute, and sometimes even perceived as minimal or not important vis-á-vis the unity of Nature.
- Nature has an intrinsic value.
- There is moral respect for Nature.
Obviously we face here different possible types of practical relation and also different types of cognitive needs.
Earlier I spoke about the interrelatedness of cognitive needs, ways of life and policies accepted as valid and the natural diversity of all of them in a pluralistic society. I have recently found their interrelatedness extraordinarily clear in a presentation devoted to a special sustainability issue. This is about the variants of the problem of „conservation of the Maya Rainforest in Mexico and Guatemala”.[26] NB! The variants of the problem extend and deepen from conceptual incommensurability to incommensurability of „worlds” of life, incommensurability of practices. Three approaches are differentiated and called by the author as a normative, a pluralistic and a collaborative one, respectively. His criteria for the classification are: a/ the scientific disciplines involved in the initiative, b/ how ecological integrity is defined and conceptualized, 3/ the roles of science and society in the production of knowledge and the implementation of conservation initiatives.
„The Normative-based systems of knowledge include ethics, laws, conservation biology, and systems thinking, ecological integrity is defined as an objective measurable concept. Science is the only legitimate knowledge production system, and management and laws enforcement are the preferred means for implementing conservation. The Pluralistic-based systems of knowledge combine social sciences, conservation ecology, and complex systems synthesis. Ecological integrity needs to be negotiated among stakeholders through a formal process of participation in which scientific narratives are the main input. These narratives may incorporate scientific knowledge produced locally or traditionally. The collaborative based systems of knowledge include natural, social sciences, and humanities, but also non-scientific systems of knowledge. Here, different cultures and individuals’ experiences have equal legitimacy in the production of knowledge. Hovewer, collaborative learning is needed to produce collective knowledge, which is useful for ecological integrity.”[27]
What are the appropriate conservation strategies?-he asks. „The creation of Natural Parks, areas of strict protection within biosphere reserves, and regional schemes for enhancing ecological connectivity belong to the normative category. The pluralistic category includes initiatives in which the participation of stakeholders in the management of the forest is emphasized.” …”Collaborative initiatives include those cases in which conservation is initiated and designed by local people according to their endogenously produced knowledge, but in collaboration with scientific knowledge.”[28] With these three complexes we find „interpretive flexibility”, not only of „the environmental problem” but also a flexibility of utilising different types of cognition, all of them belonging to different social actors with different purposes, life practices, politics and cultures.[29]
Having got a motivation to account for the „environmental sustainability problem” in a more realistic way than it is typical when positivistic persuasions are accepted I tried to follow the long way and the profound transformation work in the efforts of including ecological concern motivated knowledge into economic theory from the positivistic understanding of science and life as starting point. Incommensurability in certain conceptual approaches was identified, further different practical relations leading to the very basic question of what sort of cognition and knowledge can be accepted as valid by different social actors when they identify and solve their ecological concerns.
One of the many methodological problems that hinders the development of an appropriate methodology of a sustainability approach that acknowledges the plurality in society is the still prevailing positivistic cognitive attitude of natural scientists. It is this that thinks that there is only one valid knowledge of what a sustainable dynamics for mankind can be, the scientific community in isolation is able to find that valid knowledge base and puts the data and the operationalisation problem alone into the centre of methodology. (To repeat it: it is obvious that data gathering and operationalisation are among the most important elements of any sound scientific methodology.) But any one sided focusing on the data gathering and operationalisation task is equal to underevaluating the problem of adequate concept formation. And adequate concept formation requires adequate contextualisation in a pluralistic society. I concentrated on just nearly ostensibly dealing with the latter case and brought into connection epistemic framing, possible unconsciousness about necessary framing and the necessary but not mutually unambiguous connection of framing to worlds of practice and politics.
AUTHORS
Imre HRONSZKY
Department of Innovation Management and History of Technology
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
H-1111 Budapest, Stoczek u. 2., Hungary
Phone: (36-1) 463-2141
Fax: (36-1) 463-1412
E-mail: hronszky@eik.bme.hu
Gordon NELSON
College of Science and Liberal Arts
Florida Institute of Technology
150 West University Blvd, Melbourne, Florida, 32901-6975, USA
Phone: (321) 674 7260
Fax: (321) 674 8864
E-mail: nelson@fit.edu
William F. CARROLL JR.
Vice President, Chlorovinyl Issues, Oxychem
Adjunct Professor of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN
President, American Chemical Society
1155 16th St NW, Washington, DC 20036, USA
Phone: (972) 404-2845
Fax: (972) 404-3837
Email: bill_carroll@
William F. KOCH
Deputy Director, Chemical Science & Technology Laboratory
National Institute of Standards & Technology
100 Bureau Dr, 227/A311, Stop 8300, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8300, USA
Phone: (301) 975-8301
Fax: (301) 975-3845
Email: William.koch@
Ellyn S. BEARY
Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8300, USA
Phone: (301) 975-8307
Fax: (301) 975-3845
E-mail: ellyn.beary@
Duane E. DE FREESE
Adjunct Professor, Brevard Community College
Vice President Florida Research, Hubbs – SeaWorld Research Institute
6295 Sea Harbor Dr, Orlando, FL 32821-8043, USA
Phone: (407) 370-1650
Cell/Pager: (321) 480-2233
Fax: (407) 370-1659
Email: ddefreese@, ddefreese@cfl.
Thomas MARCINKOWSKI
Science and Mathematics Education Department
Florida Institute of Technology
150 W. University Boulevard, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA
Phone: (321) 674-8946
Fax: (321) 674-7598
E-mail: marcinko@fit.edu
Susan CARLSON
District IV Commissioner
Brevard County Commission
2725 Judge Fran Jamieson Way, Vierra, FL 329040, USA
Phone: (321) 633-2044
E-mail: sue.carlson@brevardcounty.us
Susan E. CASWELL, AICP
East Central Florida Regional Planning Council
631 North Wymore Road, Suite 100, Maitland, FL 32751, USA
Phone: (407) 623-1075
Fax: (407) 623-1084
E-mail: caswell@
Bill KERR
Governing Board, St. John’s River Water Management District
President, BKI Consulting Ecologists
325 5th Ave, Ste 204, Indialantic, FL 32903, USA
Phone: (321) 951-7964
Fax: (321) 951-8909
Email: bki@cfl.
Michael. H. SLOTKIN
College of Business
Florida Institute of Technology
150 West University Blvd, Melbourne, Florida 32901-6975, USA
Phone: (1-321) 674-7267
Fax: (1-321) 674-8896
E-mail: mslotkin@fit.edu
Karen CHAMBLISS
Associate Professor, Finance, College of Business
Florida Institute of Technology,
150 West University Blvd, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA
Phone: (321) 674-7169
Fax: (321) 674-8896
Email: kchambli@fit.edu
John G. MORRIS
Department of Biological Sciences
Florida Institute of Technology
150 West University Boulevard
Melbourne, Florida 32901-6975
United States of America
Phone: (1-321) 674-8197
Fax: (1-321) 674-7238
E-mail: jmorris@fit.edu
Gabrielle GRIFFIN
Florida Institute of Technology
Department of Biological Sciences
150 West University Boulevard
Melbourne, Florida 32901-6975
United States of America
Phone: (1-321) 674-7982
Fax: (1-321) 674-7238
E-mail: ggriffin@fit.edu
Alexander R. VAMOSI
College of Business
Florida Institute of Technology
150 West University Boulevard, Melbourne, Florida, 32901-6975
United States of America
Phone: (1-321) 674-7497
Fax: (1-321) 674-8896
E-mail: avamosi@fit.edu
Márton HERCZEG
Department of Environmental Economics
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
H-1111 Budapest, Stoczek u. 2. IV. Floor 406.
Hungary
Phone: (36-1) 463-3155
E-mail: herczegm@eik.bme.hu
Kálmán KÓSI
Department of Environmental Economics
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
H-1111 Budapest, Stoczek u. 2. IV. Floor 406.
Hungary
Phone: (36-1) 463-3155
E-mail: kosik@eik.bme.hu
Charles BOSTATER
College of Engineering
Florida Institute of Technology
150 W. University Blvd., Melbourne, Florida 32901-6975
United States of America
Phone: (1-321)258-9134
E-mail: bostater@probe.ocn.fit.edu
Alan B. BROWN
Department of Chemistry
Florida Institute of Technology
150 West University Blvd., Melbourne, FL 32901-6975
United States of America
Phone: (1-321) 674-7433
Fax: (1-321) 674-8951
E-mail: abrown@fit.edu
Szabolcs CZIFRUS
Institute of Nuclear Techniques,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rkp. 9.
Hungary
E-mail: czifrus@reak.bme.hu
Gyula CSOM
Institute of Nuclear Techniques,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rkp. 9
Hungary
Attila VÉrteS
Department of Nuclear Chemistry,
Eötvös Loránd University,
Budapest, Hungary
Email: vertesa@ludens.elte.hu
György POKOL
Institute of General and Analytical Chemistry
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
H-111 Budapest, Szt. Gellért tér 4. CH205
Hungary
Phone: (36-1) 463-1593
E-mail: pokol.aak@chem.bme.hu
Virender K. SHARMA
Chemistry Department, Florida Institute of Technology
Florida Institute of Technology
150 West University Blvd, Melbourne, Florida, 32901-6975
United States of America
Phone:(1-321)674-7310
Fax:(1-321)674-8951
E-mail:vsharma@fit.edu
Jenő FEKETE
Institute of General and Analytical Chemistry,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
H-1111 Budapest, Hungary
Phone: (36-1) 463-1596
Email: fekete@mail.bme.hu
Zoltán HOMONNAY
Department of Nuclear Chemistry,
Eötvös Loránd University,
H-1117 Budapest, Pázmány P. s. 1/A,
Budapest, Hungary
Phone: (36-1) 257-5237
Email: homonnay@para.chem.elte.hu
Ernő Kuzmann
Department of Nuclear Chemistry,
Eötvös Loránd University,
Budapest, Hungary
Petra Á. Szilágyi
Department of Nuclear Chemistry,
Eötvös Loránd University,
Budapest, Hungary
Krisztina KovÁcs
Department of Nuclear Chemistry,
Eötvös Loránd University,
Budapest, Hungary
Alexander A. Kamnev
Laboratory of Biochemistry of
Plant-Bacterial Symbioses,
Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology
of Plants and Microorganisms,
Russian Academy of Sciences,
Saratov, Russia
Libor MACHALA
Departments of Physical Chemistry
and Experimental Physics,
Palacky University, Svobody 26,
77146 Olomouc, Czech Republic
Email: machala@optnw.upol.cz
Radek ZBOŘIL
Departments of Physical Chemistry
and Experimental Physics,
Palacky University, Svobody 26,
77146 Olomouc, Czech Republic
Email: zboril@prfnw.upol.cz
Miroslav MASHLAN
Departments of Physical Chemistry
and Experimental Physics,
Palacky University, Svobody 26,
77146 Olomouc, Czech Republic
Jiří TUČEK
Departments of Physical Chemistry
and Experimental Physics,
Palacky University, Svobody 26,
77146 Olomouc, Czech Republic
János MADARÁSZ
Institute of General and Analytical Chemistry
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
H-111 Budapest, Szt. Gellért tér 4. CH205, Hungary
Email: madarasz@mail.bme.hu
Jia-Qian JIANG
School of Engineering (C5),
University of Surrey,
Guildford, Surrey,
GU2 7XH,
UK
Email: J.Jiang@surrey.ac.uk
S. WANG
School of Engineering (C5),
University of Surrey,
Guildford, Surrey,
GU2 7XH,
UK
A. PANAGOULOPOULOS
School of Engineering (C5),
University of Surrey,
Guildford, Surrey,
GU2 7XH,
UK
Karel BOUZEK
Department of Inorganic Technology
Institute of Chemical Technology Prague,
Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6
Czech Republic
Phone: 420-22044-4019;
Fax: 420-22431-1902;
E-mail: bouzekk@vscht.cz
Zuzana MACOVA
Department of Inorganic Technology
Institute of Chemical Technology Prague,
Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6
Czech Republic
Ján HÍVEŠ
Department of Inorganic Technology,
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava,
Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava,
Slovakia
Phone: 421-2- 593 25 560
Fax: 421-2-529 20 171
E-mail:jan.hives@stuba.sk
Michaela BENOVÁ
Department of Inorganic Technology,
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava,
Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava,
Slovakia
Galyna CHYBISKOVA
National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy,
40 Ordzhonikidze, apt.57, Cherkassy, Ukraine, 18016
Phone: 38047 241 80 67
E-mail: chybichybi@
Svitlana Dem'yanova
Applied Economics Department
Donetsk National University
186 Cheluskintsev Str., Donetsk 83015 Ukraine
Phone: +38 0623044058
+38 0505674004
Fax: +38 0623044058
E-mail: svetlanka_2000d@mail.ru
-----------------------
[1] Dow Jones Sustainability Index - Launched in 1999, the Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes are the first global indexes tracking the financial performance of the leading sustainability-driven companies worldwide. Based on the cooperation of Dow Jones Indexes, STOXX Limited and SAM they provide asset managers with benchmarks to manage sustainability portfolios.
[2] “Think Globally – Act Locally” refers to the argument that global environmental problems can turn into action only by considering ecological, economic, and cultural differences of our local surroundings. This phrase was originated by Rene Dubos as an advisor to the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972.
[3] The World Bank reports GNI data for 2003. Using the Atlas method of comparison, United States GNI per capita is 6 times larger than in Hungary; it is 3 times larger when the comparison is made using purchasing power parity.
[4] Source: . Statistics are for 2004.
[5] V.Vovk (2001): Ukraine in the context of modern trends and scenarios of world development, Economic Reforms in Ukraine in the context of transition to sustainable development, Institute of Sustainable Development: Intelsfera, Kyiv
[6] A top-five world leader includes Finland, Norway, Canada, Sweden and Switzerland [5].
[7] As a whole in the world were registered 6,416 Local Agendas [3].
[8] The poverty scope determined in Ukraine equals to 25% of median level of total average expenditures per capita.
[9] However it should be taken into consideration the fact that in 2001 ranking was conducted among 162 countries, while in 2002 – among 177 countries.
[10] Russia takes 57, Estonia /36/, Lithuania /41/ 8 Latvia /50/. Other former republics of USSR lined up as follows: Kazakhstan /78/, Armenia /82/, Turkmenistan /86/, Azerbaijan /91/, Georgia /97/, Uzbekistan /107/, Kirgh /36/, Lithuania /41/ и Latvia /50/. Other former republics of USSR lined up as follows: Kazakhstan /78/, Armenia /82/, Turkmenistan /86/, Azerbaijan /91/, Georgia /97/, Uzbekistan /107/, Kirghizia /110/, Moldavia /113/ and Tajikistan /116/. The first places in the list are belonged to Norway, Sweden, Austria, Canada and Netherlands. USA and Japan rank 8 and 9 lines in ranking respectively.
[11] I rely on the SCOT (social construction of scientific facts) approach in this relation with some essential differences. On SCOT see especially publications of Trevor Pynch and Wiebe Bijker such as Trevor J. Pinch and Wiebe Bijker: The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts: Or How the Sociology of Science and the Sociology of Technology Might Benefit Each Other, in:Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (eds.): The Social Construction of Technological Systems, New Directions int he Sociology and History of Technology, The MIT Press, Cambridhe/Mass., London, England, 1987
[12] Technology and Democracy (The Use and IMpact of Technology Assessment in Europe. Proceedings of the III European Technology Assessment Conference, V. I., Copenhagen, 1992, p. 14.
[13] Jeanne Anderer, Alan McDonald, Nebojsa Nakicenovic: Energy in a Finite World, Paths to a Sustainable Future, Ballinger, Cambridge/Mass, 1981, Wolf Haefele: Energy in a Finite World, A Global Systems Analysis, Ballinger, Cambridge/Mass, 1981, /summary and technical details/
[14] Haefele, p. 4.
[15] Lester R. Brown: Building a Sustainable Society, A Worldwatch Institute – book, W. W. Norton and Company, NYNY, London, 1984
[16] World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, 1987
[17] One can say that this situation is becoming more and more typical by now that something formulated as a vague requirement in the cognitive milieu of politics would be the framing to a much more rigorous scientific research to provide for the scientific proof knowledge of its realisability and its alternatives in concrete realisation. As a most recent example one can refer to the importance of ’forefront research’ that is dedicated to overcome the recent conceptual problems of the balancing between the support for basic and applied research.
[18] Forum for utviklungsstudier, Norsk Utenriskpolitisk Institut, Hegland Trikkeri, Flekkefjord, p. 6
[19] One can say that two representations are incommensurable when their ontologies, i.e. the hypothetised beings and their interrelations are different.
[20] Carpenter (1991) in Joseph C. Pitt, Elena Lugo (eds.): The Technology of Discovery and the Discovery of Technology, Book Crafters, Fredricksburg,VA., p. 487
[21] Carpenter (1991), in the same place.
[22] E.g. in Freeman, Christopher, and Perez, Carlotta, “The Diffusion of Technical Innovations and Changes of Techno-economic Paradigm,” in F. Arcangei et al., eds., The Diffusion of New Technologies, Vol. 3: Technology Diffusion and Economic Growth: International and National Policy Perspectives, New York: Oxford University Press, 1990
[23] From this point of view it is to state that it is an important advance in the governance of environmental issues when the regulation goes over to look for a pricing system instead of brute political intervention but it still not itself a new ’world’ of practice in which cooperative actors look for their self-governance in relation to sustaining Nature.
[24] The reductive activity realised in „design work” is also inevitable in any society that realises burocratic work. This design work may then lead to „one valid definition”, possibly based on the widest consensus by all the stakeholders, if the governance is unable to respect the simultaneous actions working on the base of different definitions.
[25] W. Achterberg, 1986, in W. Achterberg, W. Zweers (eds.): Milieufilosofie tussen theorie en pratijk, Utrecht, Erkel, 1986, cited by R. van der Wurff (1992): Sustainable Development, A Cultural Approach, Global Perspective 2010 – Task for Science and Technology, v. 21. FOP 336, Brussels, pps. 19-20
[26] David M. Navarrete (2003): Systems of knowledge for the conservation of the Maya Rainforest (Mexico and Guatemala), Abstract in: A. G. Pereira, M. A. Cabo, S. Funtowicz (eds.): Interfaces between science and society, book of abstracts, European Communities, () (10. January 2005)
[27] Navarrete (2003) in: Pereira, Cabo, Funtowicz, p. 22
[28] p. 23
[29] The term „interpretive flexibility” means that a situation, a cognitive problem, a technological artifact can be validly interpreted differently by different social actors according to their positions and aspirations.
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Figure 25.9. Cyclic voltammetric study for the Fe electrode (WE, CE, RE) in molten eutectic NaOH- KOH system at 200 (C. Scan rate 90 mV s-1.
Figure 25.8. Cyclic voltammetric study for the Pt electrode (WE, CE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 oC. Ag reference electrode was used. Scan rate is indicated in the Figure. The Fe2O3 concentration in the melt is 1 wt%
Figure 25.7. Cyclic voltammetric study for the Pt Electrode (WE, CE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. Ag reference electrode was used. Scan rate 50 mV s-1. The Fe2O3 concentration in the Melt is indicated in the Figure.
Figure 25.6. Anodic chronopotentiogram for the iron electrode (WE, RE, CE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 oC, current density 0.05 A cm-2
Figure 25. 5. Cyclic voltammetric study for the iron electrode (WE, RE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. Graphite crucible was used as a counter electrode. Scan rate 200 mV s-1.
B
B
B
B
B
B
N
Figure 20.4. Values of observed rate constants (kobs, M-1s-1) as a function of pH for the reaction of FeIIIEDTA with hydrogen peroxide at 25 oC.
[pic]
Figure 25.4.œ[pic]
p[30]
s[31]
t[32]
u[33]
v[34]
‰[35]
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û[37]
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ùóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóóó The dependence of the anodic current on the potential scan rate for the iron electrode (WE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 oC.
Figure 25.3. Cyclic voltammetric study for the iron electrodes (WE, CE, RE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. Scan rates are indicated in the figure.
[pic]
Figure 23. 4. Residual concentrations of Fe in the treated effluent with ferrate(VI) and FS at pH 6, FA model water
Figure 25.1. Cyclic voltammetric study for the platinum electrodes (WE, CE) and Ag+/Ag reference electrode (RE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. Scan rate 100 mV s-1.
Figure 25.2. Peak current for the O2-/OH- as a function of the square root of potential scan rate in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 0C.
Figure 23.5. Comparative disinfection performance with ferrate and Cl2+FS
Figure 23.1. The remaining SUVA values in the treated effluents with ferrate(VI) and FS at pH 8, FA model water
Figure 23.3. THMFP (7days) removal with ferrate(VI) and FS, HA model water
Figure 23.2. The remaining DOC in the treated effluents with ferrate(VI) and FS at pH 8, FA model water
Figure 4. Residual concentrations of Fe in the treated effluent with ferrate(VI) and FS at pH 6, FA model water
C
B
B
Figure 25.10. Cyclic voltammetric study for the Fe electrode (WE, CE, RE) in molten eutectic NaOH-KOH system at 200 (C. Scan rate is indicated in the Figure.
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