Discussion#2



…..How do we learn?

ask the theorists and discover…..

SKINNER….. [pic] Operant Conditioning

and positive reinforcements

Piaget… [pic]

Logical Thinking and the environment

Gagne...[pic] [pic]Bandura

Diversity of Learning Social-cognitive

SKINNER…….. [pic]

Basic Assumptions of the Theory

B.F. Skinner, one of the most renowned psychologists of all time, developed an undiminished theory of learning based on his theory known as “operant conditioning.” This theory involved what Skinner called an organism that was in the process of “operating” on the environment, which in everyday terms means it is bouncing around its world, doing what it does. During this “operating,” the organism encounters a special kind of stimulus, called a reinforcing stimulus, or simply a reinforcer (Boeree, 1998). Skinner invented what he called the Skinner Box where he made his discoveries, scientifically in a lab. He believed that behavior is followed by a reinforcement stimulus resulting in the improved likelihood that the desired behavior would take place again. Skinner pursued his interest in operant conditioning by placing a rat in a box. Once a lever was pressed food was rewarded which brought about a desired result. As there are different types of reinforcements to match various stimuli, Skinner relinquish ideas of theories of learning. He viewed learned behavior as something to study like a science rather than a theory and believed behavior that interacted with a controlled environment produced visible outcomes. As learning involved changes in behavior the following assumptions were formulated:

• changes in behavior resulted in learning

• environment contributed to behavior changes

• a controlled, experimental setting validated the relationship with the behavior

• visible facts measure behavior outcomes

• behavior with the environment applies to people and animals

Components of the Theory

Skinner began developing his science of behavior by studying Pavlov’s “classical conditioning” where responses were associated with a particular stimuli. However, Skinner later followed theorist Thorndike’s “law of effect” which called for responses that act on the environment yielding different kinds of outcomes resulting in changed behavior (Gredler, 2001). Skinner’s operant conditioning included:

• a situation allowing for a response

• the actual response

• outcomes reinforcing the response

Skinner’s development of learning, although it made practical sense was limited. It took place scientifically, was controlled and simple, and results were transferred to human learning.

Basic Assumptions Regarding Instruction

Applying operant conditioning to the classroom, Skinner believed that students were motivated to excel, do well and behave knowing there was a reward by the idea of receiving a reinforcement, the key element in Skinner’s theory operant conditioning (). Skinner’s approach was an essential theory to classroom learning. His method and ideas in the early days and now, are relevant especially in regards to classroom management seeking desired behavior. Skinner did not believe that negative reinforcements changed or modified behavior. He felt they were like legalized “scare tactics” and did not seek to permanently change behavior. Skinner’s approach was absolute and built responsibility through positive reinforcements. Basic assumption in this theory were:

• K-12 education primarily consisted of “non real world” experiences.

• classroom sizes that were too big disallowed for unmanageable situations.

• students read and heard about events but rarely did visually experience.

Skinner felt that if students were given negative consequences and were motivated to simply avoid punishment, the learning really did not occur. As students are ready and able to learn, they are capable of absorbing more information. As technology is incorporated and a necessary integration into the curriculum, teachers are able to spend more tutorial time communicating with each student.

Components of Instruction

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Teachers have an extraordinary task of thoughtfully choosing stimuli and reinforcements to promote changes in behavior. Initially, as students are given various forms of stimuli, and as their behavior naturally begins to follow appropriate responses without the stimuli, learning is said to have occurred and instruction is considered effective. Teachers who choose appropriate stimuli will produce desired responses eventually without the stimuli according to Skinner. Providing reinforcement for students motivates learning opposed to always telling students exactly what they are to accomplish.

Other educational issues involve the actual learners. Every student brings to the educational table behavioral baggage which may sway how they are able to acquire new behaviors. However, Skinner believed that regardless of individual differences, programs that are thought-out and planned can contribute to the outgrowth of new skills. In the same vein, carefully designed programs and instruction along with a child’s own readiness and motivation can contribute to the timing of whether a child is ready for the next level of learning.

Cognitive processes are built around intellectual development that draws on “ready to learn” and problem solving skills (Gredler, 2001). Skinner believed that students were able to transfer their learning to other skills, behavior would improve, but not necessarily because of reinforcement. Thinking and self-management behaviors resulting from the introduction of stimuli, all contribute to teaching how to solve problems. Students cognitively acquire skills by interacting with the stimuli and the reinforcement to improve and validate learning.

Interacting socially in a groups is an effective way to manage and modify behavior. As social context plays a role which involves other people in the learning process, the following elements are included in Skinner’s learning process:

• positive reinforcers to gain attention

• approval affection (positive and negative)

• reinforcement of reciprocal attributes

Studying Skinners approach allows teachers methodology supportive of learning that involves stimuli along with important and vital reinforcements within the classroom setting.

[pic]

Classroom Strategies for Instruction:

Skinner offers teachers a strategy for developing learned behavior along with an instructional model of design involving reinforced behavior. Skinner’s goal was to create a classroom environment that provides positive atmosphere of learning. As teachers focus on the success of a child oppose to failures, a motivated classroom environment transpires resulting in effective teaching and learning. The following strategies for classroom success are based on Skinner’s reasoning:

• classroom assessment

• strategies regarding positive reinforcements

• analyze organization of behavior strategies

• implement and modify the behavioral action plan

After assessing the classroom environment with respect to behavior, practical examples of classroom strategies may include providing positive rewards like candy, book mark or extra credit points to reinforcement already established behavior. Another example may be to provide no homework, or homework passes for students who have their homework completed, rather than providing simply a homework grade. The key to Skinner’s theory is providing a stimulus response to create a positive learning environment that promotes self-directed and motivated behavioral changes.

Piaget… [pic]

Basic Assumptions of the Theory:

Piaget believed that childhood learning was a necessary and important part of developing a child’s ability to think in logical ways. As a child is encouraged to think and work through hypothetical issues through imagination and curiosity, their intelligence develops in healthy and constructive ways that nurture cognitive growth. As a result, new knowledge is acquired as students experiment through their own self-directed activities. This theory encourages students to work not only independently, but also in groups to develop new ideas and new ways of thinking in order for the logical and cognitive intelligence to develop (Gredler, 2001).

Components of the Theory [pic]

Piaget’s theory focused on the cognitive development and the processes they make up. His researches in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology had one unique goal: how does knowledge grow? (A Brief Biography, 2003). He believed in phases of development that incorporated the logical and thinking processes. Piaget involved the sciences to include philosophy, psychology and biology and believed that human intelligence was a process dependent upon the natural involvement of the person. How a person progresses through the stages of development and at what pace is dependent on the learner and consists of:

• logical reasoning and thinking

• the environment and the interactions with it

Basic Assumptions regarding Instruction

Changes in the way people think and in how information is processed leads to thinking that is logical according to Piaget. This type of learning does not involve basic memorization of facts, nor does it involve a teacher who does all the talking. Piaget believed that education should support learning by providing ideas, methods and ways of acquiring new information. He believed that education began early in life through curiosity and the freedom to explore and experiment. Methods of instruction could be modified to accommodate how students acquire information. Social interaction plays a role developing logical thinking as students are given opportunities to exchange ideas among themselves rather than just between the teacher.

Components of Instruction:

Cognitive development involves thinking that is logical and reasonable. As students interact with their environment, Piaget felt that changes in their thinking would then occur. As they reorganize their thoughts and consider their tasks at hand, they would be able to reflect on abstract ideas in order to help solve problems. Since Piaget was determined to discover the nature of logic in natural and ordinary ways, he believed the learning process evolved through the use of self-questioning and inferences. Since reasoning skills are developed through “maturation, social influences, and the processes called equilibration,” Piaget’s theory is an ideal and appropriate match for teaching (Gredler, 2001). The nature of the mental processes salient to this theory will challenge young, inexperienced students in both life, social and writing skills. Student’s can discover, through the nature of logic and in very natural ways, all the components necessary to learn.

Other educational issues such as learner characteristics, cognitive processes, social context [pic]

If cognitive outgrowth begins at birth according to Piaget’s theory, then cognitive development must consider characteristics of each person. The foundation of learning by each person affects how they will move through the various phases of intellectual development and therefore must be considered. Another consideration is whether the student is ready to learn and process information that is new. Piaget believed that students would be motivated to intellectually grow because they have a need and motivation to reach a certain goal. Therefore the learning becomes self-directed in response to the need. As students develop socially within the classroom, Piaget believed that skills needed to be developed to teach students methods of learning, how to move on to the next levels of learning, and to teach students how to discover problems solving strategies through experimentation on the part of the students.

Classroom Strategies for Instruction

The four step classroom strategy for implementing Jean Piaget’s concepts can be positively integrated into any curriculum. Piaget’s theories encouraged problem solving skills where student learning becomes learning that is directed by the students while the teacher acts as the facilitator. As students are encouraged to not only justify and explain their answers, but are given time for healthy discussion, problems can be resolved, questions answered and attention refocused. Piaget’s ideas, methods and four step approach maximizes opportunities for students:

1. teachers try to construct opportunities where metacognition is utilized, (thinking skills) where optimum learning can be obtained for themselves. In other words, the teacher does less talking and encourages students to carry out the given activity collectively at first.

2. teachers develop and analyze the classroom activities by evaluating the variety of questions that students come up with.

3. teachers guide and probe more with follow-up questions that seek higher level thinking answers.

4. teachers reflect on the activities, evaluate their success, and question whether learned strategies were attained.

Applicable examples include a student who once took a college class where the instructor placed the students in a circle and basically did all the probing with no lectures. Students had opportunity to think, discuss, and wrestle with his higher level thinking questions. A video was also taken so students could view themselves interpersonally in order to witness and evaluate how they responded within the group and in how they resolved issues both independently and collectively. Students learned more and remembered substantially more than any of their other college classes. Group work (cooperative learning) allows students to not only read and answer questions, but provides the motivation to satisfy the “need to know” where answers will be thoughtfully discussed amongst each other. As students are guided through "how to learn" skills, and as they share and compare ideas, role play and create games to help support their new discoveries, their past and present experiences help to transfer learning. The end result is successful problem solving and ultimate learning using Piaget’s theories to construct knowledge.

Gagne…. [pic]

Basic Assumptions of the Theory

Gagne migrated his learning theory to the educational classroom setting opposed to a scientific lab. His systematic approach to identifying the types of learning and seeking, through instructional designs, how learning can be ascertained is a superior approach to learning theory. Gagne’s system involves both curriculum and instruction requiring the total picture of teaching and learning. Specific goals and objectives are designed based on the needs of the instruction and issues that are key to classroom learning. How a lesson is planned is of utmost importance in determining how and if the instructional objectives will be met. As instruction is developed to increase the complexity of skills. First objectives should be set as to what categories of skills are to be taught. Gagne felt that a system could be developed to appeal to the variety of ways in which people learn (Gredler, 2001). His approach is systematic, sensible and sincere in his assumptions regarding classroom learning and instruction

Components of the Theory

Diversity was a major factor and vital puzzle piece in the development of Gagne’s learning theory whose roots were not easily related to any single learning theory. Gagne drew his theory substantially from the information processing theory (Gagne, 2003). The human characteristics and qualities that humans possess are to be considered along with how they are developed. Gagne believed that human experience was vast and full of variety and therefore needed to studied. He developed guidelines that could be applied to strategies to verify whether a person had learned. Within the diversities of learning, Gagne developed the following criteria that portrays the scope of human education:

• verbal data

• mental methods

• instrumental [pic]

• attitudes

• intellectual strategies

People develop skills not only one their own, but Gagne felt they developed interpersonally with their environment. The atmosphere of a classroom and the present stimuli would help support the interpersonal learning occurrences.

Basic Assumptions regarding Instruction

Instructional design was the focal point for Gagne in understanding how effectively humans learn. He felt instruction played a key role and should therefore be given attention. He wanted to know what really worked with regards to instruction. He believed that children’s development was a spin off of early experiences and that learning occurred even in the absence of teaching. He reasoned that instruction was a support to component’s that a person already possessed. Gagne defined instruction as:

1. learning that occurs regardless

2. instruction plays a variety of roles

3. methods of instruction are dependent on the skill being taught

Instructional design emphasizes instruction to include the use of a variety of teaching materials, methods and media. Gagne recommended that instruction be designed to include:

1. planned instruction

2. organized daily lesson plans fitting into a bigger unit

3. systematic assessment of goals and objectives

4. skills to be learned that drive decisions regarding planning and instruction

Components of Instruction

Gagne’s theory of instruction combine various kinds of capabilities (materials) with various methods of canalization. The five varieties of learning form the cornerstone of Gagne’s theory which recognizes capabilities of the learners and identifies the objectives to be met. Objectives based on performance are established first. Instruction is then planned using the 9 examples of the following instructional events that support various phases of learning (Conditions of Learning, 2003):

1. gaining attention (reception)

2. designing performance objectives (expectancy)

3. stimulating recall (retrieval)

4. providing the stimulus (selective perception)

5. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

[pic]

6. eliciting performance (responding)

7. providing feedback (reinforcement)

8. assessing performance (retrieval)

9. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

Other educational issues such as learner characteristics, cognitive processes, social context

Gagne’s learning theory has a different bent in that it appeals to what the instruction needs which include various classroom issues (Gredler, 2001):

• students are individuals, their differences play a role in how instruction is planned

• eagerness and readiness regarding what students have learned early in their lives

• inspiration and motivation need to be properly channeled to produce planned outcomes

Humans are cognitive learners and instruction is based on Gagne’s theory which employs various teaching styles to include how to help students transfer learning, manage their own learning and how to think and solve problems. Instructional design emphasizes the management of instruction oppose to teaching models. Gagne’s theory connects operant conditioning to cognitive development by focusing attention on effective management of instruction through his theory of instructional design.

Classroom Strategies for Instruction

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Gagne’s approach involves curriculum and instruction and offers all the components needed for an educator to become an effective teacher. Gagne’s systematic approach in formulating lesson plans help to bring about ultimate learning. This diverse and unique theory outlines:

1. specific learning outcomes, identifies types of learning that includes external and internal learning processes that helps teachers analyze learning requirements and understand learning hierarchies.

2. systematic approach, media must be considered and integrated into lesson planning,

3. instructional designs, assessment strategies, feedback opportunities and evaluations.

Practical examples include playing games prior to a test like, “Who Wants to Become A Vocabulaire?” This vocabulary game seeks to review before a test but also helps the teacher analyze prior learning. Another example using Gagne’s instructional design is to break grammar down into parts emphasizing one part of speech per day and a review at the end of the week. Students are allowed to use speech cards, draw pictures to aid in memory and recall and even play music or create a song to help with memory. This systematic approach through proper planning with instruction causes ultimate retention and learning.

Gagne invites teachers to grow and expand as teachers and to better understand the true nature of effective teaching and learning.

Bandura…. [pic]

Basic Assumptions of the Theory:

Bandura’ learning theory revolved around a social setting that emphasized observances of others within the social setting. He believed that students learned from what they saw modeled by others. How people behaved, responded and reacted were all examples of helping others learn. Bandura felt that most behavior acquired was learned behavior through the observations of others. His theory was often referred to as social-cognitive theory which emphasized how people learned along with the learning outcomes (Gredler, 2001). Strengths and weaknesses of others as observed, served to promote learning. As students make observations and acquire information, Bandura’s theory focuses on not only learning as a separate entity, but on the outcomes of how students behave. He believed that even though students could observe behavior, they may acquire ideas through modeling, yet never imitate that particular behavior. In a nutshell:

• decision making and cognitive skills are vital to the learning process

• the environment, personal factors and behavior are all connected

• modeled behavior may or may not become an outcome for the individual

Components of the Theory

Behavioral outcomes occur in various environments. Learning takes place with respect to not only the behavior that is modeled, but also depends on reinforcements and how the students comprehend and processes information. Bandura suggests that not only does the environment cause behavior; but behavior causes environment as well. He labeled this concept: the world and a person’s behavior cause each other (Personality Theories, 2003).

Models of behavior and their outcomes include:

1. social prompts [pic]

2. strengthen areas of weakness and concern

3. modify new behavior

Just as important are the types of stimuli used to model desired behavior. Family, friends, coworkers form a social circle where behavior is modeled either negatively or positively. Students also make their own observations of who they want to model which affects and influences various types of behavior. Rewards also play a role in helping to mold behavior and produce desired outcomes.

The following are some elements that involve learning through modeling behavior:

1. a model of behavior

2. consequences of modeled behavior [pic]

3. learner’s internal process

4. perceived self-efficacy.

Bandura also researched self-efficacy that helps students to evaluate their performance. Perceived self-efficacy refers to one's impression of what one is capable of doing (Bandura, 2003).

Basic Assumptions regarding Instruction

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The improvement of hands-on and thinking skills are the highlights of Bandura’s theory. Since modeling is an important element in teaching students how to learn, instruction in the classroom and the behavior of the instructor and students is of utmost importance.

Components of Instruction:

The following basic assumptions encourage and support the social-cognitive theory outlined by Bandura who believes is the best way students learn. They must:

1. have the right models provided

2. have teachers who assume results to be positive

3. have guidance that offers the “how to’s” regarding hands-on activities, self-control and self efficacy (Gredler, 2001).

Classroom strategies for instruction:

Bandura’s theory is an ideal theory for the classroom. Since learning occurs based on observations from behavior modeled in the classroom, and in guiding students in regards to self-efficacy, or self-monitoring, the following strategies can be developed to help improve instruction:

1. taking into account different characteristics of the students

2. how ready are the students based on their past learning

3. students’ motivation to think

Students need to be taught how to think and tap into their metacognitive abilities.

Other educational issues such as learner

characteristics, cognitive processes, social context

The classroom setting is an important environment where students learn not only

to think but they observe behaviors of others which add to their cognitive development. Students’ readiness to learn, their individual differences and their mental hierarchy of learning associated with cognitive development all play a role in their ability to meet an objective by learning through observation. Students are all different and unique and therefore will respond differently based on their own abilities to encode and decode information. As students are taught to transfer learning, they are also taught the cognitive process of self-direction to help in transferring information to higher levels of thinking. As students continue to learn in the social setting, observe family, friends and students, learning continues to be influenced in the social context supporting Bandura’s theory.

Classroom Strategies for Instruction

Learning is the processing of information along with a prudent analysis of behaviors that are modeled both in and out of the classroom. Bandura believed there were 4 steps in developing a classroom strategy (Gredler, 2001):

1. behaviors to be modeled should be analyzed

2. decide what value the particular behavior possesses and select the appropriate model

3. organized a lesson plan that is orderly and makes sense

4. teach the lesson acting as a facilitator and challenge students to think and act

Some applicable examples involve teachers who decide to take a risk and minimize the lecture allowing students to be the “teacher of the day.” After modeling how to do it, students are invited up to the podium to guide fellow classmates in answering questions to daily homework. Other examples include allowing more discussion as students are given time to converse in groups signifying that what they have to say is important, and as they hear others respond, behavior will be modeled and students will sharpen one another through Bandura’s theory of learning.

By Lisa P. Forbes 09/27/03 [pic]

References

A brief biography of Jean piaget. Retrieved September 26, 2003, from

Bandura personality theories. Retrieved September 26, 2003, from

Boeree, C. G. Personality theories. Retrieved September 26, 2003, from

Conditions of learning. Retrieved September 26, 2003, from

Gredler, M. E. (2001). Albert bandura's social-cognitive learning theory. In Learning and Instruction (pp. 315-352). Upper saddle river: Prentice-Hall Inc..

Gredler, M.E. (2001). B.F. skinner's operant conditioning. In Learning and Instruction (pp. 87-127). Upper saddle river: Prentice-Hall Inc..

Gredler, M. E. (2001). Jean piaget's cognitive development theory. In Learning and Instruction (pp. 237-274). Upper saddle river: Prentice-Hall Inc..

Gredler, M.E. (2001) Robert gagne's conditions of learning. In Learning and Instruction (pp. 129-167). Upper saddle river: Prentice-Hall Inc..

Observational learning. Retrieved September 26, 2003, from

Personality theories. Retrieved September 26, 2003, from

Robert gagne. Retrieved September 26, 2003, from

Skinner box. Retrieved September 26, 2003, from

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