Perception – Gain Control



Executive Control – Rule Generation and Selection

|Task Name |Description |Cognitive Construct Validity |Neural Construct Validity |Reliability |Psychometric Characteristics |Animal Model |Stage of Research |

|The Groton Maze |The Groton Maze Learning Test (GMLT). This hidden maze|Recent factor analyses and exploration of |Mathewson et al. (Mathewson, |(Pietrzak et al., under |The GMLT has excellent psychometric |Cincinnati Water Maze Test |There is evidence that this |

|Learning Test (GMLT) |learning test consists of a 10 x 10 grid of square |convergent validity (Pietrzak et al., under|Dywan, Snyder, Tays, & |review) |characteristics, including very little|– rodent |specific task elicits deficits|

| |tiles presented on a computer touchscreen, in which a |review) suggest that this measure provides |Segalowitz, in press) have used | |practice effects with repeated trials.| |in schizophrenia. |

| |28-step pathway (with 11 turns) is hidden. This is |specific information related to error |this task to elicit clear | |Several papers have been published |(Vorhees, 1985) | |

| |based on the maze developed by Barker (1931) and |monitoring and ability to "maintain set." |feedback-related error | |that describe these characteristics, |(Williams, Morford, McCrea,|Data already exists on |

| |extended by Milner (1965). The tiles at the start and |Recent data in schizophrenia point to a |negativities, an ERP that is tied| |such as: |Wood, & Vorhees, 2002) |psychometric characteristics |

| |the finish are shown to subjects in locations at the |huge number of rule-break errors on the |closely to the function of the | | | |of this task, such as |

| |top left and bottom right locations of the grid, |test, suggesting substantial difficulties |anterior cingulate (ACC) and | |(P. J. Snyder, Bednar, Cromer, & | |test-retest reliability, |

| |respectively. All subjects first complete a timed |in adhering to simple rules and to benefit |related connections to DLPFC in | |Maruff, 2005) | |practice effects, |

| |chase test (TCT) in which they are asked to “chase” a |from them -- with modest improvement in |managing error monitoring - a | |(Maruff et al., 2006) | |ceiling/floor effects. |

| |moving tile around the grid with a stylus pen for 30 |first-episode schizophrenic patients |core frontal executive function | |(P. J. Snyder, Werth et al., 2005) | | |

| |seconds, making as many correct moves as possible. |following one month of treatment with |that is impaired in | | | |There is evidence that |

| |This task is used to familiarize the subjects with the |atypical antipsychotics. |schizophrenia. Moreover, | | | |performance on this task can |

| |testing stimulus. Subjects are then instructed to move| |Mathewson has shown a normal | | | |improve in response to |

| |one tile from the start location and then to continue, |(Pietrzak et al., under review) |effect of aging, leading to | | | |psychological or |

| |one tile at a time, toward the end. While moving | |decreased amplitude and longer | | | |pharmacological interventions.|

| |through the hidden maze, subjects are asked to adhere | |latencies for this ERP. This may| | | | |

| |to two rules; first, they can not move diagonally and | |reflect age-related changes in | | | | |

| |second, they can only move one square at a time (so as | |dopaminergic and cholinergic tone| | | | |

| |not to skip over squares). After each move is made, | |-- both of these neurotransmitter| | | | |

| |the computer indicates whether they are correct with a | |systems are integral to the | | | | |

| |“tick” (was the next step in the pathway) or incorrect | |function of this circuitry. | | | | |

| |with a “cross” (was not the next step in the pathway). | | | | | | |

| |If the choice is incorrect, the subject is required to | | | | | | |

| |go back and touch the last correct tile and then choose| | | | | | |

| |a different direction to advance toward. When the | | | | | | |

| |subject completes the pathway, he or she repeats this | | | | | | |

| |process (the same maze pathway) for four more trials. | | | | | | |

| |On each trial, the number and type of errors (legal, | | | | | | |

| |perseverative or rule-breaks) made as well as the time | | | | | | |

| |(in msecs) to complete each trial is recorded. There | | | | | | |

| |are 20 well-matched alternate forms for this test and | | | | | | |

| |these are selected on each assessment in pseudo-random | | | | | | |

| |order, to ensure that no subject completes the same | | | | | | |

| |hidden path form more than once throughout the study. | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| |(Pietrzak, Cohen, & Snyder, 2007) | | | | | | |

| |(A. M. Snyder, Maruff, Pietrzak, Cromer, & Snyder, | | | | | | |

| |2007) | | | | | | |

| |(P. J. Snyder et al., in press) | | | | | | |

| |(Pietrzak et al., under review) | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| |MANUSCRIPTS ON THE WEBSITE: | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| |Pietrzak, R. H., Maruff, P., Mayes, L. C., Roman, S., | | | | | | |

| |Sosa, J., & Snyder, P. J. (under review). Construct | | | | | | |

| |validity and factor structure of the groton maze | | | | | | |

| |learning test: A new measure of spatial working | | | | | | |

| |memory, learning efficiency, and error monitoring. | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| |Snyder, P. J., Jackson, C. E., Piskulic, D., Olver, J.,| | | | | | |

| |Norman, T. R., & Maruff, P. (in press). Spatial working| | | | | | |

| |memory and problem solving in schizophrenia: The | | | | | | |

| |effect of symptom stablization with atypical | | | | | | |

| |antipsychotic medication. Psychiatry Research. | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

|1-2 AX-CPT |“ Stimuli are presented one at a time in a sequence, |Performance on this task has been modeled |Unpublished Data from Luck & |Unknown |Unknown |Unknown |There is evidence that this |

| |and the |in a neural network modle of frontal-basal |Gold: | | | |specific task elicits deficits|

| |subject must respond by pressing the right key (R) to |ganglia interactions and their contribution| | | | |in schizophrenia. |

| |the target |to working memory (Frank et al., 2001). |The logic of the task is that if | | | | |

| |sequence; otherwise, a left key is pressed. If the | |SC patients cannot remember (or | | | |We need to assess psychometric|

| |subject last saw |Regions in frontal cortex, including DLPFC |use) the 1/2 task instruction | | | |characteristics such as |

| |a 1, the target sequence is an A followed by an X. If a|and inferior frontal sulcus show greater |(the "outer loop"), then they | | | |test-retest reliability, |

| |2 was last |activation when individuals need to |will sometimes miss the target | | | |practice effects, and |

| |seen, then the target is a B followed by a Y. |maintain “outer” and “inner” loop rules |(because they cannot remember | | | |ceiling/floor effects for this|

| |Distractor stimuli (e.g., |than when they just need to maintain |whether a 1-A-X trial was a 1-A-X| | | |task. |

| |3, C, Z) may be presented at any point in a sequence |“inner” loop rules (Reynolds, 2005; |trial or a 2-A-X trial, leading | | | | |

| |and are to |Reynolds, Braver, O'Reilly R, & Cohen, in |them to guess).  In addition, | | | |We need to study whether or |

| |be ignored. Shown is an example sequence of stimuli and|preparation). |they will sometimes make false | | | |not performance on this task |

| |the correct | |alarms on the outer loop foil | | | |changes in response to |

| |responses, emphasizing the inner- and outer-loop nature| |trials (because they cannot | | | |psychological or |

| |of | |remember whether a 2-A-X | | | |pharmacological intervention |

| |the memory demands (maintaining the task stimuli [1 or | |trial was a 1-A-X trial or a | | | | |

| |2] is an | |2-A-X trial,  leading them to | | | | |

| |outer loop, whereas maintaining the prior stimulus of a| |guess).  This is the pattern of | | | | |

| |sequence | |results that we have obtained: A | | | | |

| |is an inner loop)” (Frank, Loughry, & O'Reilly, 2001). | |reduction in accuracy for targets| | | | |

| | | |and for outer loop foils, but no | | | | |

| |MANUSCRIPTS ON THE WEBSITE: | |substantial reduction in accuracy| | | | |

| | | |for the other two trial types.   | | | | |

| |Frank, M. J., Loughry, B., & O'Reilly, R. C. (2001). | | | | | | |

| |Interactions between frontal cortex and basal ganglia | | | | | | |

| |in working memory: A computational model. Cognitive, | | | | | | |

| |Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 1(2), 137-160. | | | | | | |

|Switching Stroop |In this task, participants are shown a cue (or |The Stroop has a long history of research |fMRI studies have shown specific |Specific Indices of this |This task is capable of isolating a | |There is evidence that this |

| |presented with an auditory cue) that tells them whether|supporting its construct validity as a |cue related activation in |task have good internal |specific deficit in goal maintenance. | |specific task elicits deficits|

| |to read the word or name the ink color in which the |measure of cognitive control. The |dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. |consistency. For example, | | |in schizophrenia. |

| |word is presented. One can vary the delay between the |cognitive mechanisms supporting performance| |the alpha for incongruent |(Cohen et al., 1999) | | |

| |cue and the onset of the stimulus. |on this task have been implemented in |(MacDonald, Cohen, Stenger, & |color naming errors at a | | |We need to assess psychometric|

| | |computational models. This task has been |Carter, 2000) |long cue-probe delay is | | |characteristics such as |

| | |shown to elicit specific deficits in | |.90. | | |test-retest reliability, |

| |MANUSCRIPTS ON THE WEBSITE: |individuals with schizophrenia. | | | | |practice effects, and |

| | | | |(Cohen, Barch, Carter, & | | |ceiling/floor effects for this|

| |Cohen, J. D., Barch, D. M., Carter, C., & |(Cohen, Dunbar, & McClelland, 1990; Cohen &| |Servan-Schreiber, 1999) | | |task. |

| |Servan-Schreiber, D. (1999). Context-processing |Servan-Schreiber, 1992) | | | | | |

| |deficits in schizophrenia: Converging evidence from | | | | | |We need to study whether or |

| |three theoretically motivated cognitive tasks. Journal | | | | | |not performance on this task |

| |of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 120-133. | | | | | |changes in response to |

| | | | | | | |psychological or |

| | | | | | | |pharmacological intervention |

| |MacDonald, A. W., 3rd, Cohen, J. D., Stenger, V. A., & | | | | | | |

| |Carter, C. S. (2000). Dissociating the role of the | | | | | | |

| |dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex | | | | | | |

| |in cognitive control. Science, 288(5472), 1835-1838. | | | | | | |

REFERENCES:

Cohen, J. D., Barch, D. M., Carter, C., & Servan-Schreiber, D. (1999). Context-processing deficits in schizophrenia: Converging evidence from three theoretically motivated cognitive tasks. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 120-133.

Cohen, J. D., Dunbar, K., & McClelland, J. L. (1990). On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review, 97(3), 332-361.

Cohen, J. D., & Servan-Schreiber, D. (1992). Context, cortex and dopamine: A connectionist approach to behavior and biology in schizophrenia. Psychological Review, 99(1), 45-77.

Frank, M. J., Loughry, B., & O'Reilly, R. C. (2001). Interactions between frontal cortex and basal ganglia in working memory: A computational model. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 1(2), 137-160.

MacDonald, A. W., 3rd, Cohen, J. D., Stenger, V. A., & Carter, C. S. (2000). Dissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive control. Science, 288(5472), 1835-1838.

Maruff, P., Werth, J., Giordani, B., Caveney, A. F., Feltner, D., & Snyder, P. J. (2006). A statistical approach for classifying change in cognitive function in individuals following pharmacologic challenge: an example with alprazolam. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 186(1), 7-17.

Mathewson, K., Dywan, J., Snyder, P. J., Tays, W., & Segalowitz, S. (in press). Electrophysiological correlates of older and younger adults' response to error feedback using a maze learning task. Psychophysiology.

Pietrzak, R. H., Cohen, H., & Snyder, P. J. (2007). Spatial learning efficiency and error monitoring in normal aging: an investigation using a novel hidden maze learning test. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 22(2), 235-245.

Pietrzak, R. H., Maruff, P., Mayes, L. C., Roman, S., Sosa, J., & Snyder, P. J. (under review). Construct validity and factor structure of the groton maze learning test: A new measure of spatial working memory, learning efficiency, and error monitoring.

Reynolds, J. R. (2005). On the roles of duration and computational complexity in the recruitment of fronto-polar prefrontal

cortex. Washington University, St. Louis.

Reynolds, J. R., Braver, T. S., O'Reilly R, C., & Cohen, J. D. (in preparation). Prefrontal cortex interactions associated with frequency and goal complexity.

Snyder, A. M., Maruff, P., Pietrzak, R. H., Cromer, J. R., & Snyder, P. J. (2007). Effect of Treatment with Stimulant Medication on Nonverbal Executive Function and Visuomotor Speed in Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Child Neuropsychol, 1-16.

Snyder, P. J., Bednar, M. M., Cromer, J. R., & Maruff, P. (2005). Reversal of scopolamine-induced deficits with a single dose of donepezil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia, 1, 126-135.

Snyder, P. J., Jackson, C. E., Piskulic, D., Olver, J., Norman, T. R., & Maruff, P. (in press). Spatial working memory and problem solving in schizophrenia: The effect of symptom stablization with atypical antipsychotic medication. Psychiatry Research.

Snyder, P. J., Werth, J., Giordani, B., Caveney, A. F., Feltner, D., & Maruff, P. (2005). A method for determining the magnitude of change across different cognitive functions in clinical trials: the effects of acute administration of two different doses alprazolam. Hum Psychopharmacol, 20(4), 263-273.

Vorhees, C. V. (1985). Comparison of the Collaborative Behavioral Teratology Study and Cincinnati Behavioral Teratology test batteries. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol, 7(6), 625-633.

Williams, M. T., Morford, L. L., McCrea, A. E., Wood, S. L., & Vorhees, C. V. (2002). Administration of D,L-fenfluramine to rats produces learning deficits in the Cincinnati water maze but not the Morris water maze: relationship to adrenal cortical output. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 24(6), 783-796.

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