Chapter 8: Business Crisis and Continuity Management and ...



Chapter 8: Business Crisis and Continuity Management and Planning

Chapter Outline

1. Introduction of topics and concepts to be discussed in this chapter.

a. Introduction

b. The term Business Crisis and Continuity Management (BCCM)

c. Moving ahead – the future of BCCM

d. A functional framework for BCCM

e. BCCM definitions

f. Conclusion

g. References

2. Case Studies

a. The 2003 Northeast Blackout

b. The Marriott Corporation Practices Business Continuity Planning

c. The University of Washington’s Experience with the FEMA Disaster Resistant Universities Program

3. Additional Sources of Information

4. Glossary of Terms

5. Acronyms

6. Discussion Questions

a. General

a. The 2003 Northeast Blackout

b. The Marriott Corporation Practices Business Continuity Planning

c. The University of Washington’s Experience with the FEMA Disaster Resistant Universities Program

7. Suggested Out of Class Exercises

Introduction

All organizations from all sectors (public, private and not-for-profit) face the possibility of disruptive events that have impacts ranging from mere inconvenience and short-lived disruption of normal operations to the very destruction of the organization. Organizational functions supporting business[1] disruption prevention, preparedness, response and recovery such as risk management, contingency planning, crisis management, emergency response, and business resumption and recovery are thus established and resourced based upon the organization’s perception of its relevant environments and the risks within those environments.

Unlike public sector emergency management, which is a primary function at all levels of government, Business Crisis and Continuity Management (the term Business Crisis and Continuity Management [BCCM] will be defined in the next section] remains largely a supporting project or program that is discretionary except in highly regulated industries such as healthcare[2] and banking[3] where BCCM related requirements and standards have been established. The preparations for Y2K and the impacts of the 9/11 attacks have provided some impedance for the more widespread recognition and acceptance of BCCM as a strategic function and have resulted in the development of voluntary BCCM standards/guidelines across the private sector and not-for-profit sectors such as National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1600 Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs[4] and the ASIS International Business Continuity Guideline.[5]

Despite these recent advances in BCCM, resources required to develop an ongoing and robust program still compete with other organizational priorities which may result in a less than optimal program with functional deficiencies, poor integration and dispersed authority and responsibility. Witness the August 2005 study Disaster Planning in the Private Sector: A Look at the State of Business Continuity in the U.S. conducted by the International Association of Emergency Managers and AT&T.[6] This study found that business continuity planning is not a high priority at four in ten companies surveyed and that almost one third of the companies have no business continuity plans. The reasons for this low priority may extend beyond resource considerations to a lack of understanding of what actually comprises a comprehensive BCCM program. A functional framework for BCCM, displaying the component functions and their relationships to one another is provided in this chapter and is intended to be simple enough to be understandable at all levels of the organization, yet complete enough to identify and support the need for the various functions and their integration. This functional BCCM framework should be considered in the context of the case studies presented in this chapter.

The Term Business Crisis and Continuity Management

The hybrid term business crisis and continuity has been introduced as a title for an enterprise wide strategic program and process. It is necessary to include a brief discussion of the creation and choice of this term since much of the current literature and business practices use the individual terms crisis management or business continuity management separately and often interchangeably while recognizing that they work together to support overall business enterprise management. The Business Continuity Institute’s Business Continuity Management: Good Practices Guidelines (Smith, 2002) and the Standards Australia draft Business Continuity Handbook (Standards Australia 2003) use the term Business Continuity Management as a unifying process and the umbrella under which multiple supporting functions, including crisis management and business continuity operate and integrate. United States based organizations such as Disaster Recovery Institute International (DRII 2004), ASIS International (ASIS 2004), and the Association of Contingency Planners (ACP 2004) also use the term Business Continuity Management or Business Continuity Planning as an umbrella with crisis management as an essential component. Noted experts such as Ian Mitroff (Mitroff and Pauchant 1992) and Stephen Fink (Fink 1986) use crisis management as their umbrella term with business continuity as one of many supporting functions.

Despite the difference in terminology, there is little debate in the business continuity and crisis management literature that crisis management, business continuity management, and their supporting functions need to be thoroughly integrated in support of overall business enterprise management. Business Continuity Management: Good Practices Guidelines explains the inconsistency in terminology by stating “Crisis Management and BCM (Business Continuity Management) are not seen as mutually exclusive albeit that they can of necessity stand alone based on the type of event. It is fully recognized that they are two elements in an overall business continuity process and frequently one is not found without the other.” (Smith 2002)

Thus, in an attempt to emphasize the inter relatedness and equal importance of crisis management and business continuity management, Business Crisis and Continuity Management has been chosen as the umbrella term for this proposed research study and is defined as:

Business Crisis and Continuity Management – “The business management practices that provide the focus and guidance for the decisions and actions necessary for a business to prevent, mitigate, prepare for, respond to, resume, recover, restore and transition from a disruptive (crisis) event in a manner consistent with its strategic objectives.” (Shaw and Harrald 2004)

Moving Ahead – The Future of BCCM

The reality of business is that increasing and dynamic natural, technological and human induced threats, business complexity, government regulation, corporate governance requirements, and media and public scrutiny demand a comprehensive and integrated approach to BCCM. Classic natural, technological and human induced events such as Hurricane Andrew (1992), the Northridge Earthquake (1994), the Exxon Valdez oil spill (1989), the Bhopal chemical release (1984), the World Trade Center attack of 1993, and the Tylenol poisoning case (1982) have provided lessons learned that emphasize each of these factors and the need for coordination and cooperation within and between organizations, and between all levels of government, the private and not-for-profit sectors. The tragic events of September 11th, 2001 and the implications for businesses directly and indirectly impacted by the physical events further reinforce the need for enterprise wide recognition and coordination of the multiple functions supporting BCCM.

One of the barriers to more universal acceptance and implementation of comprehensive BCCM programs that support the strategic goals of individual businesses and business sectors is a lack of understanding of the necessary and sufficient components of such a program and their inter relations within and between organizations. Attempts to define such a program, as found in most literature prior to the 9/11 attacks, provide a list of business continuity planning steps/elements such as those set forth in Geoffrey Wold’s Disaster Recovery Journal (DRJ) article Disaster Recovery Planning Process[7] (Figure 1) or the Disaster Recovery Institute International (DRII) Professional Practices for Business Continuity Professionals[8] (Figure 2).

Figure 1

Business Continuity Planning Steps

1. Obtain Top Management Commitment

2. Establish a planning committee

3. Perform a risk assessment

4. Establish priorities for processing and operations

5. Determine Recovery Strategies

6. Perform Data Collection

7. Organize and document a written plan

8. Develop testing criteria and procedures

9. Test the Plan

10. Approve the plan

Figure 2

Disaster Recovery Institute International Professional Practices for

Business Continuity Professionals

1. Project Initiation and Management

2. Risk Evaluation and Control 

3. Business Impact Analysis 

4. Developing Business Continuity Management Strategies 

5. Emergency Response and Operations

6. Developing and Implementing Business Continuity Plans

7. Awareness and training Programs

8. Exercising and Maintaining Business continuity Plans

9. Crisis communications

10. Coordination with External Agencies 

There is no argument that these are necessary steps/elements, however a mere listing falls short of emphasizing the inter relationships and temporal nature of the functions that comprise a comprehensive and ongoing program and the establishment of widely accepted standards. In the aftermath of 9/11, there have been several initiatives to define and communicate such standards.

The National Fire Protection Association Standard, NFPA 1600 Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs (2004)[9] provides a “total program approach for disaster/emergency management and business continuity programs (NFPA 2004).” Similar to the DRJ and DRII and steps/elements, NFPA 1600 does not provide a functional framework for, but lists a set of program elements (Figure 3) that contain general descriptions and are referenced to the DRII Professional Practices.

Figure 3

NFPA 1600 2004 Edition Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs Elements

1. General

2. Law and Authorities

3. Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment and Impact

Analysis

4. Hazard Mitigation

5. Resource Management

6. Mutual Aid

7. Planning

8. Direction, Control and Coordination

9. Communications and Warning

10. Operations and Procedures

11. Logistics and Facilities

12. Training

13. Exercises, Evaluations, and Corrective Actions

14. Crisis Communication and Public Information

15. Finance and administration

The NFPA 1600 Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs has been recommended as a national standard by the 9/11 Commission Report [10]and the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004[11] and is evolving into the de facto standard for private sector continuity.

Complementing the NFPA Standard, ASIS International, a preeminent organization not-for-profit organization dedicated to increasing the effectiveness and productivity of security professionals published its ‘all sector’ Business Continuity Guideline [12]document which provides a generic planning guide applicable to any organization. The Guideline makes the following statement which places the importance of the Business Continuity/Continuity of Operations process in the context of organizational survival and success:

“Recent world events have challenged us to prepare to manage previously unthinkable situations that may threaten the organization’s future. The new challenge goes beyond the mere emergency response plan or disaster management activities that we previously employed. Organizations must now engage in a comprehensive process best described generically as Business Continuity. … Today’s threats require the creation of an on-going, interactive process that serve to assure the continuation of an organization’s core activities before, during, and most importantly, after a major crisis event. Regardless of the organization – for profit, not for profit, faith-based, non-governmental—its leadership has a duty to stakeholders to plan for its survival (ASIS 2005).”

The ASIS Business Continuity Guideline does provide a functional framework (figure 4) which provides a means of visualizing some BCCM functions, but falls short of providing a level of detail necessary to capture and explain the totality of a comprehensive program.

Figure 10

ASIS Business Continuity Framework

[pic]

A Functional Framework for BCCM

The intent of this chapter is not to be critical of any of the before mentioned lists of steps/elements and the ASIS framework, but to recommend areas of improvement. Each of them were the result of a consensus process representing multiple constituencies and present a logical and necessary first step in the development of national standards written at a level of detail that can be used to define and measure compliance. As presented, they provide relatively broad descriptions of the program steps/elements with minimal detail and remain open to very liberal interpretations as to what actually comprises compliance at the function and program level. A listing of the program elements is useful, but a graphical presentation of the elements, their hierarchy and interdependency could assist in the understanding and marketing of a comprehensive program that truly integrates the component parts.

The functional framework presented below (Figure 5), which displays the hierarchy of the functions (from top to bottom) and the temporal nature of each (from left to right), accompanied by functional area and function definitions (provided following the functional diagram) provides such a graphical presentation. This framework reflects the following research process as documented in the Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management article The Core Competencies Required of Executive Level Business Crisis and Continuity Managers (2004).[13]

1. A literature search of existing frameworks.

2. Synthesis of existing frameworks into a proposed framework

3. Expert review – Fourteen interviews with recognized ‘experts’ from the private, public and education sectors.

4. Revision of the proposed framework based upon the ‘expert’s’ comments

5. A final ‘expert’ review – Six interviews with recognized ‘experts’ from the private, public and education sectors.

Figure 5

Business Crisis and Continuity Management Framework

It must be emphasized that the BCCM framework, as presented, is in no way intended to prescribe a model organization chart for any business. It is merely the representation of multiple functions that require integration and coordination for the sake of program effectiveness and efficiency. Definitions for each of the functions are provided as a common point of understanding since there is significant disparity in the various glossaries of Business Crisis Management and Business Continuity Management found in sources such as NFPA 1600, The Business Continuity Institute, Disaster Recovery Institute International, and the Business Contingency Planning Group.

Business Crisis and Continuity Management Definitions

Enterprise Management – The systemic understanding and management of business operations within the context of the organization’s culture, beliefs, mission, objectives, and organizational structure. - Enterprise wide programs and structures, including Business Crisis and Continuity Management, should be aligned and integrated with overall Enterprise Management.

Crisis Management – The coordination of efforts to control a crisis event consistent with strategic goals of an organization. Although generally associated with response, recovery and resumption operations during and following a crisis event, crisis management responsibilities extend to pre-event mitigation, prevention and preparedness and post event restoration and transition.

Crisis Communication – All means of communication, both internal and external to an organization, designed and delivered to support the Crisis Management function.

Knowledge Management – The acquisition, assurance, representation, transformation, transfer and utilization of information supporting Enterprise Management. Environmental Sensing, Signal Detection and Monitoring and Organizational Learning are functions emphasized as essential components of the Knowledge Management functional area.

Environmental Sensing, Signal Detection and Monitoring – Continual monitoring of the relevant internal and external environment of the business to detect, communicate and initiate appropriate actions to prevent, prepare for, respond to, recover, resume, restore and transition from a potential or actual crisis event.

Organizational Learning – Developing a business culture and support mechanisms that allow the business and its members to gain insight and understanding (learning) from individual and shared experience with a willingness and capability to examine and analyze both successes and failures for the purpose of organizational improvement.

Risk Management – The synthesis of the risk assessment, business area analysis, business impact analysis, risk communication and risk-based decision making functions to make strategic and tactical decisions on how business risks will be treated – whether ignored, reduced, transferred, or avoided.

Risk-Based Decision Making – Drawing upon the results of the risk assessment, business area analysis, and business impact analysis, the development of strategic and tactical risk management (risk reduction, risk transfer, risk avoidance, and/or risk acceptance) goals and objectives and the allocation of resources to meet those objectives. Risk-based decision-making is a continual process that requires dialogue with stakeholders, monitoring and adjustment in light of economic, public relations, political and social impacts of the decisions made and implemented. Risk-based decision making requires the consideration of the following questions:

1. Can risk be reduced?

2. What are the interventions (controls) available to reduce risk?

3. What combination of controls make sense (economic, public relations, social and political (adapted from Haimes 1998)

Risk Assessment - The identification, analysis, and presentation of the potential hazards and vulnerabilities that can impact a business and the existing and potential controls that can reduce the risk of these hazards. Risk assessment requires consideration of the following questions:

1. What can go wrong (hazards identification)

2. What is the likelihood that it would go wrong?

3. What are the consequences (adapted from Haimes 1998)?

4. What controls are currently in place?

Business Area Analysis – The examination and understanding of the business functions, sub-functions and processes and the interdependencies amongst them. Business area analysis requires consideration of the following questions:

1. What are our business functions?

2. What are our business sub-functions and processes?

3. Which are critical to the continuity of our business?

Business Impact Analysis – Applying the results of the risk assessment to the business area analysis to analyze the potential consequences/impacts of identified risks on the business and to identify preventive, preparedness, response, recovery, continuity and restoration controls to protect the business in the event of business disruption. Business impact analysis requires consideration of the following questions:

1. How do potential hazards impact business functions, sub-functions and processes?

2. What controls are currently in place?

Risk Communication - The exchange of risk related information, concerns, perceptions, and preferences within an organization and between an organization and its external environment that ties together overall enterprise management with the risk management function. Risk communication requires consideration of the following questions:

1. To whom do we communicate about risk?

2. What do we communicate about risk?

3. How do we communicate about risk?

Planning – Based upon the results of risk management and within the overall context of enterprise management, the development of plans, policies and procedures to address the physical and/or business consequences of residual risks which are above the level of acceptance to a business, its assets and its stakeholders. Plans may be stand alone or consolidated but must be integrated. Some example plans include:

• Crisis management plan

• Incident management plan

• Communication plan

• Business continuity plan

• Business recovery plan

• Business restoration and transition plan

Program Implementation – The implementation and management of specific programs such as physical security, cyber security, environmental health, occupational health and safety, etc. that support the Business Crisis and Continuity Management (BCCM) program within the context of Enterprise Management.

Systems Monitoring – Measuring and evaluating program performance in the context of the enterprise as an overall system of interrelated parts.

Awareness/Training/Exercising – A tiered program to develop and maintain individual, team and organizational awareness and preparedness, ranging from individual and group familiarization and skill based training through full organizational exercises.

Incident Management – The management of operations, logistics, planning, finance and administration, safety and information flow associated with the operational response to the consequences/impacts (if any) of a crisis event.

Incident Response – The tactical reaction to the physical consequences/impacts (if any) of a crisis event to protect personnel and property, assess the situation, stabilize the situation and conduct response operations that support the economic viability of a business.

Business Continuity – The business specific plans and actions that enable an organization to respond to a crisis event in a manner such that business functions, sub-functions and processes are recovered and resumed according to a predetermined plan, prioritized by their criticality to the economic viability of the business. Business continuity includes the functions of business resumption and business (disaster) recovery.

Business Recovery – Plans and actions to recover essential business systems that support business resumption and eventual business restoration and transition. The alternative term of “disaster recovery” is often used interchangeably with business recovery and carries with it an information technology (IT) connotation. For the purpose of this research, business recovery applies to all business systems and not just those related to IT.

Business Resumption - Plans and actions to resume (continue) the most time sensitive (critical) business functions, sub-functions, processes and procedures essential to the economic viability of a business.

Restoration and Transition - Plans and actions to restore and transition a business to “new normal” operations following a crisis event.

Conclusion

Business Crisis and Continuity Management, by what ever title it is assigned (Business Continuity, Crisis Management, Disaster Planning, etc.), is a strategic program with supporting functions that must be integrated for the sake of overall efficiency and effectiveness. A functional framework and function definitions are presented to visualize the structure and inter dependencies of the components of a comprehensive BCCM program. The following case studies should be considered in the context of this framework.

In the case of the 2003 Northeast Blackout, would a BCCM program have assisted individual businesses and overall industries, prevent, prepare for, respond to and recover from the highly disruptive event.

The Marriott Corporation is presented as a model for comprehensive Business Continuity (their title for BCCM). The case study describes the BCCM functions at Marriott and how they are brought together as a comprehensive program,

The FEMA Disaster Resistant University program encourages Universities to apply mitigation measures to prevent and/or decrease the impacts of disasters. University responsibilities extend to preparedness, response and recovery which encompass the BCCM functions.

References

Association of Contingency Planners – International. Web Site. Oak Creek, WI. 2004. .

ASIS Commission on Guidelines. Business Continuity Guideline: A Practical Approach for Emergency Preparedness, Crisis Management, and Disaster Recovery. Guideline. Alexandria, VA. July 12, 2004.



Disaster Recovery Institute International. Introduction and Professional Practices for Business Continuity Professionals. DRI International. Falls Church, VA. 2005. .

Disaster Planning in the Private Sector: A Look at the State of Business Continuity in the U.S.2005. .

Federal Emergency Management Agency. Emergency Management Guide for Business and Industry. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Washington, DC. 1996.

Fink, Steven. Crisis Management: Planning for the Inevitable. Authors Guild Backprint Edition. 1986, 2002.

Harrald, John R. A Strategic Framework for Corporate Crisis Management. The International Emergency Management Conference 1998 (TIEMS ’98) Proceedings. Washington, DC. 1998.

Laye, John. Avoiding Disaster: How to Keep Your Business Going When Catastrophe Strikes. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ. 2002.

Mitroff, Ian I., Pauchant, Thierry, C. Transforming the Crisis-Prone Organization. Jossey-Bass, Inc. San Francisco, CA. 1992.

Mitroff, Ian. I. Managing Crises Before They Happen: What Every Executive and Manager Needs to Know About Crisis Management. Amaco. New York, NY. 2001.

9/11 Commission Report. U. S. Government Printing Office. Washington, DC. 2004.

NFPA. NFPA 1600 Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs. 2004 Edition. Quincy, MA. 2004.

Shaw, Gregory. L. and Harrald, John. R. Required Competencies for Executive Level Business Crisis and Continuity Managers. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management. Jan. 2004.

Smith, David, J. Editor. Business Continuity Management: Good Practices Guidelines. The Business Continuity Institute. London, England. 2002. .

Standards of Australia Ltd. A Handbook on Business Continuity Management: Preventing Chaos in a Crisis. Consensus Books. Sydney, Australia. 2002.

Standards of Australia Ltd. Draft Business Continuity Handbook. Sydney, Australia. 2003.

United States Government. Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. Section 7305. Private Sector Preparedness. Washington, DC. 2005.

U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Interagency Paper on Sound Practices to Strengthen the Resilience of the U.S. Financial System .

White House Administrative Office. National Strategy for the Physical Protection

of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets. Washington, DC. February 2003.

Wold, Goeffrey. Disaster Recovery Planning Process. Disaster Recovery Journal. 1992.

Case 8.1: The 2003 Northeast Blackout

Introduction

On August 14, 2003, the largest power blackout in North American history occurred, affected eight U.S. States and the Province of Ontario. In less than an hour, approximately 50 million people were left without electricity. Though much of the power was returned within 29 hours, outages persisted for up to two weeks in some places.

For many businesses, electricity is a vital resource without which they would not survive. Many businesses take for granted the fact that electricity flows into their buildings each day, rarely considering what they would do should the power disappear. Some businesses, however, have performed business continuity planning, and have worked through what they could do to ensure that they are able to remain operational in the event of a power outage. Such planning, or the lack thereof, determined who suffered that hot August day in 2003.

This case will examine the effect of the 2003 blackout on small businesses. It will give a brief background on the causes and the events surrounding the blackout. An analysis of business performance in the aftermath of the blackout will be given. Finally, lessons learned will be provided.

The Event

August 14 started out like any other day in the North-Central and Northeast United States, other than that it was slightly warmer than usual. Then, at about 1:30 in the afternoon, a power generation plant in Ohio, FirstEnergy Unit 5, shut down due to conditions that were not necessarily out of the ordinary. However, another plant in the area, FirstEnergy’s Davis-Besse nuclear power plant, had just previously been shut down for maintenance. The combination of the two outages set into motion the series of events that led to the great power outage that followed.

Power grids in the United States are tightly interconnected, and depend upon each other to an extent to both supply and receive generated power. The primary components of these grids are the generation plants and transmission lines. The demand load on any power grid must be matched exactly by the amount of power supplied, and its ability to transmit that power must not be impeded. Because any great overload of a power transmission line, or under- or overload of a generator, can cause costly and difficult-to-repair damage, the power grid is disconnected whenever a serious imbalance is detected.

Whenever a single generation plant is taken out of the grid, the power that was being routed through that local grid becomes backed up, and must be accommodated by the remaining plants and transmission lines that exist nearby. They do this by increasing or decreasing their own power output to adjust to the changes in supply and demand. When parts of the grid are taken off line, the power transmitted through the lines still connected increases for some time, making the transmission lines heat up and sag. If they sag far enough such that they make contact with a tree branches that have not been pruned, they ground out, causing that section of the grid to automatically trip off. This phenomenon is what began to occur throughout Ohio after FirstEnergy Unit 5 shut down.

Operators are able to reverse to flow of electricity through the transmission lines when events like this occur, to reduce the amount of power flowing through the transmission lines. However, four main systems of transmission lines were out of service before power was routed out of the area, including 200 megawatts that was coming in from Michigan. When this reversal happened, the load on the systems in Michigan increased significantly, and by 4:06 pm, the direction of the power was reversed again such that it was flowing back into the already-strained Ohio lines. More and more lines sagged and tripped off, causing increased power loads on systems throughout several states, including Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Michigan and Ontario in Canada.

To avoid damaging their systems, and unaware of the growing problems throughout the larger system of power grids, many of these individual plants independently chose to take themselves ‘offline’. Within minutes, several plants were taken offline, and individual grids began reversing power away from their transmission lines to avoid tripping them off. However, due to the number of plants that were down, taking the electricity out of the system become impossible due to the backups that resulted, and one by one more plants and transmission lines were shut down in rapidly-increasing succession.

By 4:13 pm, the system completely failed, resulting in shutting down 531 generation plants in the United States and Canada. Fifty million people were without power, forty million of which were in the United States. 61,800 megawatts of power demand was taken out of the international system. Figure 8.1.1 displays the area affected by the power outages.

Crews immediately began working on restoring power to customers. Power was restored by the night of August 14th in New Jersey, parts of Pennsylvania and Ohio, parts of Long Island, NY, and in eastern Connecticut. New York City, however, went that entire night without power (though Kennedy and LaGuardia airports had power by that first night). It was not until the evening of August 16th that all of New York City was back online.

Consequences

Virtually all systems that require the use of electrical power were affected, and many that did not, but were associated with systems that did were affected as well. The following section describes a sample of the affected systems, and provides examples of how the systems were affected.

Power Generation

Under normal circumstances, if one or two generation plants is taken offline, other plants are able to fill in for the lost power or accommodate the surge that results from the line disruption. However, with the cascading failures that occurred, almost all of the plants were shut down entirely, and the nuclear power plants were placed into a ‘safe mode’ to prevent accidents. Restarting them from this mode is a slow process. Other fossil fuel plants were able to go back online soon after the blackout, but were unable to supply all of the necessary power required. To accommodate these shortfalls, people and businesses were asked to use only as much power as they absolutely required to avoid further failures. Though the power companies were the source of this disaster, it must be noted that these facilities are businesses themselves, and the losses they incurred are included in the overall cost of the disaster.

Water Supply

Because many of the public water systems run on electric pumps, many people and businesses lost water pressure. Many businesses depend upon a constant source of water, without which their production ceases (such as restaurants, chemical plants, among others). The low pressure and failing pressure in the water systems resulted in many cases of water supply contamination as a result of the backwashing that occurred. There were many instances of sewage systems spilling out raw sewage into rivers, confounding this problem. In many cities, including Detroit, a ‘boil advisory’ was issued to prevent outbreaks of waterborne diseases. Many restaurants in the affected area were ordered closed pending water decontamination. There were also cases of chemical plants accidentally releasing chemicals into the water due to problems the power outage caused to their pumping systems.

Transportation

Trains, which run primarily on electricity, were severely impacted by the outage. All Amtrak lines north of Philadelphia, including all going in and out of New York City, were out of service during the blackout. Commuter trains leaving New York City, and the New York City subway system were out of service as well. Many commuters, including hundreds of thousands in New York City, were unable to return home, and images of workers in business suits sleeping in the streets dominated the news.

Although airplanes did not require electricity, the passenger screening systems were not operational, and therefore flights were cancelled. The same was true for ticketing issues, which continued even after power had been restored at many airports.

Gas stations that lost power were unable to provide gasoline, limiting the amount of transportation in personal vehicles that could be conducted. Major trucking lines were held up due to the inability to purchase fuel as well. Traffic in some areas was backed up due to cars running out of gas on major roadways and highways. Gas station operators that did have power tended to raise their gas prices significantly to guard against the possibility that they might not be able to operate should their tanks not be able to be refilled in a timely manner. Many of the refineries on the East Coast that produced gasoline for the area were unable to operate as well, justifying the station operators’ fears.

Communication

Land-based (‘wired’) telephone systems were mostly unaffected by the outage. Their services, however, were severely impeded due to a dramatically increased call volume. Cellular systems, on the other hand, were out of service for most of the duration of the blackout. Most radio stations had backup power and were able to remain online. Though television media stations were able to remain online, most of their transmissions were disrupted because the cable companies, upon which customers relied, were without power, as were the customers’ homes, rendering their televisions useless. Cable internet service was disconnected during the blackout, but dialup service was unaffected.

Economic Impacts of the 2003 Blackout

ICF Consulting estimated that the blackout would cause financial impacts ranging from $7 to $10 billion (basing their figures on estimates of direct costs per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of the power outage (e.g., losses due to food spoilage, lost production and overtime wages) and indirect costs due to the secondary effects of the direct costs.) ICF asserts that these estimates have been corroborated by simulations of potential outages in California. Anderson Economic Group, however, estimated that the impact ultimately fell between $4.5 and $8.2 billion (with a mid-point of $6.4 billion.) These figures include $4.2 billion in lost income to workers and investors, $15 to $100 million in extra costs to government agencies (e.g., due to overtime and emergency service costs), $1 to $2 billion in costs to the affected utilities, and between $380 and $940 million in costs associated with lost or spoiled commodities. The most frequently cited cost estimate for the blackout, established by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), is about $6 billion. (Electricity Consumers Resource Council, 2004).

One month after the blackout, a survey of affected companies was conducted by Mirafex Systems, LLC, and the Weatherhead School of Management. In total, 142 companies were interviewed, across the full range of locations, sizes, and industries. The purpose of the survey was to determine the costs incurred by businesses during the blackout period. The following points detail their findings:

• Two-thirds of the businesses surveyed (66.2%) lost at least a full business day due to the blackout. One-quarter (25%) of the businesses surveyed were impacted for two or more business days.

• Over one-fifth of the businesses surveyed (21.9%) lost more than $50,000 per hour of downtime—meaning at least $400,000 for an 8-hour day. One business in ten, lost between $100,000 - $500,000 per hour. And 3.5% of businesses surveyed lost more than $1 million for each hour of downtime.

• Nearly half of the businesses surveyed (47%) said lost employee productivity was the largest contributor to losses suffered due to the blackout. Employee productivity is largely impacted by availability of information technology resources and workplace environmental conditions (e.g. drinking water, sanitary systems, HVAC, etc.).

• Production/Manufacturing was the area of business hardest hit (31.7%) followed by Sales and Marketing (18.3%) and Information Technology (14.8%). Also, Customer Services was identified as being impacted (12.7%) by The blackout.

• Though half say the blackout will have “no impact” on their company’s plans for the future, nearly 10% say the blackout will affect their decision-making with regards to either growth or relocation. Nearly 27% say future plans will involve Disaster Recovery & Risk Management initiatives.

• More than a third of the businesses surveyed (34.5%) felt it was somewhat or very likely that the region’s image would suffer as a result of the blackout.

• More than half the businesses surveyed say the top threat of future interruption is either Cyber-Crime (26%) or a Utility Outage (26%), outdistancing other concerns more than 2:1. The loss of key staff (13.4%) and Regulatory Changes (8.4%) were also identified as key areas of concern (Mirafex Systems, LLC, and Weatherhead School of Management, 2004).

Examples of Impacts on Specific Industries (Adapted from ELCON, 2004)

Businesses of all kinds were affected by the blackout, no matter their size. Whether a family owned business with one computer or a multinational company with several plants employing thousands, it seemed that all suffered some negative consequence. The following list, compiled by the Electricity Consumers Resource Council, profiles many of these individual consequences.

Motor Vehicle & Automotive Parts Industries

At least 70 auto and parts plants and several offices were shutdown by the blackout, idling over 100,000 workers. General Motors Corporation reported that the blackout affected approximately 47,000 employees at 19 manufacturing facilities and three parts warehouses in Michigan, Ohio and Ontario.

The Ford Motor Company reported that 23 of Ford’s 44 plants in North America were shut down, as were numerous office, engineering and product development facilities in southeastern Michigan. Other facilities were affected by disruptions in parts supply lines. At Ford’s casting plant in Brook Park, Ohio, the outage caused molten metal to cool and solidify inside one of the plant’s furnaces. The company reported that a week would be required to clean and rebuild the furnace.

The North American operating units of DaimlerChrysler AG, lost production at 14 of its 31 plants. Six of those plants were assembly plants with paint shops. All the vehicles that were moving through the paint shop at the time of the outage had to be scrapped. The company reported that, in total, 10,000 vehicles had to be scrapped.

Three Neff-Perkins Company manufacturing plants, located in Lake, Geauga, and Ashtabula counties, Ohio, lost production from 4:10 pm on August 14 until 7:00 am on August 15. The company also shut down certain presses and air conditioning in the office areas to comply with the local utility’s request to cut back power consumption. Neff-Perkins is a manufacturer of custom-molded rubber and plastic parts for the automotive and controls industries.

Petroleum Refineries

The blackout affected at least eight oil refineries in the U.S. and Canada. The loss of production at the damaged refineries threatened a gasoline shortage in the Detroit Metropolitan Area, creating the potential for a broader energy emergency. As a result the Governor of Michigan issued two Declarations of Energy Emergency on August 22 that, in part, suspended certain air quality regulations that might have exacerbated a gasoline shortage.

Affected refineries and their production capacities included:

• Marathon Oil Corporation – 76,000 barrels per day (bpd) at Detroit, Michigan

• BP PLC – 160,000 bpd at Toledo, Ohio

• Sunoco Inc – 140,000 bpd at Toledo, Ohio. The refinery also produces cumene feedstock for the company’s phenol plant in Frankford, Pennsylvania.

• Imperial Oil Ltd. – Two refineries: 119,000 barrels per day at Sarnia, Ontario, 118,000 bpd at Nanticoke, Ontario.

• Petro-Canada – 90,000 bpd at Oakville, Ontario.

• Shell Canada Ltd. – 75,000 bpd refinery at Sarnia, Ontario.

• Suncor Energy Inc. – 70,000 bpd at Sarnia, Ontario. The main pipeline network for Canadian oil shipments to the U.S. Midwest and southern Ontario—operated by Enbridge Inc.—was also crippled by the blackout.

Much of the 2 million bpd system, the world’s longest for crude oil and petroleum products shipments, was shut down east of Lake Superior. Enbridge reported that it was forced to cut volumes moving to its terminal at Superior, Wisconsin, from Alberta to prevent overfilling storage tanks.

The blackout was responsible for triggering emergency shutdown procedures at the Marathon Oil Corporation’s Marathon Ashland refinery about 10 miles south of Detroit. During those procedures, a carbon monoxide boiler failed to shut down properly, causing a small explosion and the release of a mixture of hydrocarbons and steam. As a pre-cautionary measure, police evacuated a one-mile strip around the 183-acre complex and forced hundreds of residents to seek shelter elsewhere. The Marathon refinery can process 76,000 barrels of crude oil per day into a variety of petroleum products.

Approximately half the production from the refinery is gasoline designed to meet the air quality requirements in southeastern Michigan. Full production was not restored at the refinery until eight days after the onset of the outage. During that time the company was unable to deliver to the local market approximately 500,000 barrels of gasoline and other products.

Steel Industry

United States Steel’s Great Lakes Works, the company’s second largest plant, resumed production on August 18, four days after the blackout knocked the plant off line. U.S. Steel is the largest integrated steel maker in the country. The Great Lakes Works is located in Ecorse and River Rouge, Michigan.

Rouge Industries Inc. reported that its huge Dearborn, Michigan, plant was completely shutdown for 24 hours with only limited power for several days thereafter. The company lost the equivalent of four days’ worth of production.

The International Steel Group Inc. reported that its Cleveland Works was shut down by the blackout and did not restart steel production until four days later. When the plant lost power, 1,250 tons of molten iron had to be dumped into two slag pits along the west bank of the Cuyahoga River. ISG said that the plant suffered some damage as a result of the outage.

AK Steel Corporation’s Manfield, Ohio, facility lost power at 4:15 pm on the day of the blackout. The plant’s melt shop had six heats of steel in process, all of which were lost. Also in Manfield, Bunting Bearings Corporation, a manufacturer of bronze, plastic, powdered metal and aluminum bearings and solid bars, could not cast for four days.

BCS Cuyahoga LLC reported that its Cleveland plant was shutdown until August 18. When the power failed, plant personnel had to manually fill the water-cooling jackets on the reheat furnaces to prevent damage.

An explosion and fire caused significant damage to Republic Engineered Products’ No. 3 Blast Furnace in Lorain, Ohio, as a result of the blackout. No one was injured due to the explosion. Within 15 to 30 minutes after the outage began, the plant lost the ability to cool the iron inside the furnace and the molten metal burned through the side of the structure and started spilling inside the building. Several fires erupted sending an orange-gray plume of smoke that was visible throughout the city. Company officials refused to allow firefighters on the premise, but the company’s workers were able to successfully contain the fires. The company announced that it expected to resume production at Lorain by the middle of September. Republic is North America’s leading producer of special bar quality (SBQ) steel. On October 6, 2003, Republic announced that it had been forced to file for protection under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy laws. It cited the August 14 explosion and fire at Lorain as a contributing factor.

Chemical Industry

Over thirty chemical, petrochemical and oil refining facilities are located in the “Chemical Valley” area near Sarnia, Ontario. All the plants suffered some form of outage resulting in the flaring of products at most of the facilities. Massive clouds of black smoke were visible throughout the area. Estimates of the cost to producers in the Valley range from $10 to $20 million per hour of outage.

Nova Chemicals Corporation reported that plant outages resulting from the blackout reduced third-quarter earnings by $10 million or 12 cents per share. The power outage hit production at its Corunna, Moore Township, Sarnia, and Sti. Clair River, Ontario, and Painesville, Ohio, facilities. Nova stated that it lost a total of 150 million pounds of ethylene and co-products, polyethylene (PE), styrene and expandable polystyrene (EPS) production by the time its facilities returned to normal. The company declared force majeure on ethylene co-product deliveries from Corunna. Nova restarted its ethylene plant at Corunna and its styrene plant at Sarnia, as well as portions of its Moore Township complex about a week after the outage began.

DuPont reported that all five plants in Ontario were downed by the blackout. The company produces nylon and nylon intermediates at Kingston and Maitland, specialty polymers at Sarnia, polyethylene films at Whitby, and automotive finishes at Ajax. Three DuPont facilities in the U.S. were also affected by the blackout. DuPont said that sodium and lithium production at Niagara Falls and operations in Buffalo, NY, where Corian® solid surfaces and Tedlar® PVF film are manufactured, were shut down on Thursday, August 14, but were back to full power by Thursday night. Its automotive finishes facility in Mount Clemens, Michigan, suffered a complete outage but started to receive power a day later. The facility at Kingston, Ontario, was down for more than week.

Approximately ten Praxair, Inc. air separation plants in Connecticut, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Ohio and Pennsylvania, as well as three in Ontario, Canada, were out of service as a result of the regional electricity failure at 4:11 p.m. on August 14, 2003. All plants either returned to service when power was restored or temporarily remained off-line at the request of the local utility on Friday and Saturday. Praxair plant operations and logistics responded to the sudden power outage safely and successfully. The North American Logistics Center in Tonawanda, NY, took steps to shift product deliveries to customers in the affected area.

Other Impacts on Industry and the Commercial and Public Sectors

Alcan Inc., the world’s second largest aluminum producer, reported that its cold rolling plant in Kingston, Ontario, was shutdown by the blackout.

Revere Copper Products Inc., in Rome, New York, lost copper and alloy production as a result of the blackout. The plant facilities include melting, casting, hot rolling, cold rolling extrusion, bar making and testing equipment. Paper-maker Domtar Inc. shutdown its pulp mill in Espanola, Ontario, and a paper mill in Cornwall, Ontario, as a result of the blackout. Forestry company Tembec Inc. shutdown sawmills in Timmins,Cochrane, Huntsville and Hearst, Ontario, a pulp mill in Smooth Rock Falls, Ontario, and a newsprint mill in Kapuskasing.

The National City Corporation reported that across the bank’s six-state franchise, approximately 174 branches were closed due to the power situation: 30 in Ohio, 134 in Detroit, Michigan and 10 in Pennsylvania.

Kroger Company, the largest U.S. supermarket chain, reported that 60 of its stores were without power as a result of the August Blackout. Most of the stores were in Michigan.

The Associated Food Dealers of Michigan estimates that over $50 million in perishable foods were lost due to the lack of refrigeration caused by the blackout.

Local telephone service was also jeopardized by the energy emergency created by the blackout. SBC, the dominant carrier in Michigan, requested assistance from Michigan’s State Emergency Operations Center (SEOC) to locate supplemental supplies of petroleum liquids to assure the continued operation of the local telephone system. This fuel was needed for both standby generators and company vehicles to allow travel to remote locations to assure continued operation of telephone equipment.

Duane Reade Inc., the largest drug store chain in the metropolitan New York City area, reported that the August 14th Blackout forced the closure of all of the company’s 237 stores. The company estimates that as a result of the interruption, lost sales totaled approximately $3.3 million.

Airports were closed in Toronto, Newark, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, Montreal, Ottawa, Islip, Syracuse, Buffalo, Rochester, Erie, and Hamilton.

The New York City comptroller’s office estimated that losses topped $1 billion, including $800 million in gross city product. The figure includes $250 million in frozen and perishable food that had to be dumped. The Restaurant Association calculated that the city’s 22,000 restaurants lost between $75 and $100 million in wasted food and lost business. Broadway lost approximately $1 million because of cancelled performances. New York City’s mayor estimated that the city would pay almost $10 million in overtime related to the outage.

Lessons Learned

Nearly one in five businesses suffer a major disaster every year (Global Partnership for Preparedness, 2004). No matter where a business is located, and regardless of how small it’s employee base, it can never be fully removed from the effects of disasters. These “disasters” need not materialize in the form of a hurricane, flood, or terrorist attack. Power outages, denial-of-service internet attacks, economic downturns, robberies and civil unrest can all prove equally or more devastating in the consequences they produce.

That approximately $6 billion in losses were incurred during the 2003 blackout indicates that a great number of businesses were not prepared for a sudden, unexpected loss of electrical power. For some of these companies, even if their facilities were not directly impacted, it was the case that their suppliers, their customers, or their transportation services were impacted, which in turn indirectly caused them to suffer. In comprehensive continuity planning, all of these ‘upstream’ and ‘downstream’ factors are considered.

This event was relatively short lived. Power outages can and have lasted for much longer than occurred in this event. Following hurricanes, tornadoes, ice storms, floods, and other disasters where the power generation and transmission infrastructure is damaged or destroyed, it can be several days or even weeks before full production capacity is returned. Businesses must consider how they will continue to operate under these circumstances before the event occurs, and invest in these measures as they see appropriate.

In the Mirafex / Weatherhead survey (Mirafex Systems, LLC, and Weatherhead School of Management, 2004), it was discovered that over one-third of firms surveyed (34%) had no risk management or disaster recovery plans in place when the blackout occurred. Another study, by Info-Tech Research, found that 60 percent of businesses did not have plans to help IT departments deal with the blackout, even if they did have business continuity plans. While these figures may seem unforgivable, they are not necessarily surprising. Business continuity planning can require both time and money to conduct, which many companies may be unwilling to commit. Many feel that they do not have the resources or even the ability to perform business continuity planning – others have convinced themselves that it is not necessary. The survey also found, however, that nearly half (46%) of the businesses surveyed claimed they would be investing more in risk management, business continuity and/or disaster recovery in the future. Apparently, this was a lesson learned through the difficult experience of negative consequences. Not all businesses should have to suffer before they commit to planning for emergencies.

It has been predicted that power outages like that which occurred in 2003 could become much more common as infrastructure ages and demand for electricity increases. The blame for the 2003 outage boils down most simply to poor tree-trimming by a single component in the greater power transmission interconnected system. Though Congress has since addressed the issue of the power system’s fragile nature, companies cannot assume that they need not worry about the issue any longer. The 2003 blackout should serve as a wake-up call to all businesses that do not currently have comprehensive business continuity plans.

References:

Electricity Consumers Resource Council. 2004. The Economic Impacts of the August 2003 Blackout. February 9.

Global Partnership for Preparedness. 2004. “What is being done for businesses: The Facts.” GPP Small Business Preparedness Campaign.

Government Accountability Office (GAO). 2003. “2003 Blackout Identifies Crisis and Opportunities for the Electricity Sector. November. GAO-04-204.

Mirafex Systems, LLC, and Weatherhead School of Management. 2004. An Analysis of the Consequences of the August 14th 2003 Power Outage and its Potential Impact on Business Strategy and Local Public Policy.

New York Independent System Operator (NYISO). 2004. “Interim Report on the August 14, 2003 Blackout.” January 8.

Small Business Computing. 2003. “Most Businesses Unprepared for Blackout.” August 22.

Figure 8.1.1: Area Affected by the 2003 Blackout

[pic]

Source: GAO, 2003

Sidebar 8.1.1: Timeline of the Blackout

• 2 p.m. FirstEnergy's Eastlake Unit 5, a 680-megawatt coal generation plant in Eastlake, Ohio, trips off. A giant puff of ash from the plant rains down on neighbors. On a hot summer afternoon, "that wasn't a unique event in and of itself," says Ralph DiNicola, spokesman for Akron, Ohio-based FirstEnergy. "We had some transmission lines out of service and the Eastlake system tripped out of service, but we didn't have any outages related to those events."

• 3:06 p.m. FirstEnergy's Chamberlin-Harding power transmission line, a 345-kilovolt power line in northeastern Ohio, trips. The company hasn't reported a cause, but the outage put extra strain on FirstEnergy's Hanna-Juniper line, the next to go dark.

• 3:32 p.m. Extra power coursing through FirstEnergy's Hanna-Juniper 345-kilovolt line heats the wires, causing them to sag into a tree and trip.

• 3:41 p.m. An overload on First Energy's Star-South Canton 345-kilovolt line trips a breaker at the Star switching station, where FirstEnergy's grid interconnects with a neighboring grid owned by the American Electric Power Co. AEP's Star station is also in northeastern Ohio.

• 3:46 p.m. AEP's 345-kilovolt Tidd-Canton Control transmission line also trips where it interconnects with FirstEnergy's grid, at AEP's connection station in Canton, Ohio.

• 4:06 p.m. FirstEnergy's Sammis-Star 345-kilovolt line, also in northeast Ohio, trips, then reconnects.

• 4:08 p.m. Utilities in Canada and the eastern United States see wild power swings. "It was a hopscotch event, not a big cascading domino effect," says Sean O'Leary, chief executive of Genscape, a company that monitors electric transmissions.

• 4:09 p.m. The already lowered voltage coursing to customers of Cleveland Public Power, inside the city of Cleveland, plummets to zero. "It was like taking a light switch and turning it off," says Jim Majer, commissioner of Cleveland Public Power. "It was like a heart attack. It went straight down from 300 megawatts to zero."

• 4:10 p.m. The Campbell No. 3 coal-fired power plant near Grand Haven, Mich., trips off.

• 4:10 p.m. A 345-kilovolt line known as Hampton-Thetford, in Michigan, trips.

• 4:10 p.m. A 345-kilovolt line known as Oneida-Majestic, also in Michigan, trips.

• 4:11 p.m. Orion Avon Lake Unit 9, a coal-fired power plant in Avon Lake, Ohio, trips.

• 4:11 p.m. A transmission line running along the Lake Erie shore to the Davis-Besse nuclear plant near Toledo, Ohio, trips.

• 4:11 p.m. A transmission line in northwest Ohio connecting Midway, Lemoyne and Foster substations trips.

• 4:11 p.m. The Perry Unit 1 nuclear reactor in Perry, Ohio, shuts down automatically after losing power.

• 4:11 p.m. The FitzPatrick nuclear reactor in Oswego, N.Y., shuts down automatically after losing power.

• 4:12 p.m. The Bruce Nuclear station in Ontario, Canada, shuts down automatically after losing power.

• 4:12 p.m. Rochester Gas & Electric's Ginna nuclear plant near Rochester, N.Y., shuts down automatically after losing power.

• 4:12 p.m. Nine Mile Point nuclear reactor near Oswego, N.Y., shuts down automatically after losing power.

• 4:15 p.m. FirstEnergy's Sammis-Star 345-kilovolt line, in northeast Ohio, trips and reconnects a second time.

• 4:16 p.m. Oyster Creek nuclear plant in Forked River, N.J., shuts down automatically because of power fluctuations on the grid.

• 4:17 p.m. The Enrico Fermi Nuclear plant near Detroit shuts down automatically after losing power.

• 4:17-4:21 p.m. Numerous power transmission lines in Michigan trip.

• 4:25 p.m. Indian Point nuclear power plants 2 and 3 in Buchanan, N.Y., shut down automatically after losing power.

Source: Associated Press, August 17, 2003. Published on CNN, August 17, 2003, .

Case 8.3: The University of Washington’s Experience With the FEMA Disaster Resistant Universities Program

Introduction

During the late 1990’s, in partnership with six major universities, FEMA developed the Disaster Resistant University (DRU) Program. FEMA officials recognized at that time the major role universities played in both the structure and stability of the local economy within which they operated, and postulated that the result of a hazard impact that forced one of these institutions to close would have a dramatic negative effect on the surrounding community. Universities are unique organizations that not only serve their communities and states, but also the Federal government which has invested significant economic and social capital in them. Each year, in fact, Federal agencies fund approximately $15 billion in university research. Much of these research grants and allocations are multi-year programs, and the value of ongoing research is understandably even higher (Comerio 2000).

The Disaster Resistant University program was established within the Pre-disaster Mitigation Grant Program, to be funded by competitive grants (FEMA, 2003). The DRU Program’s primary objective is to encourage universities to implement mitigation through actions that extend beyond simple life safety codes and that focus on safeguarding their research capacity as well as the human capital associated with their academic environment.

This case study will briefly examine the history of disasters on the campuses of United States universities, and the impact these disasters have inflicted. The historical background of the DRU program as it relates to these disasters will follow. Finally, an examination of the DRU program and its implementation at the University of Washington will be provided.

Disasters at Universities in the United States

Disasters have affected a great number of the hundreds of universities dispersed throughout the United States. In many of these instances, members of the student body, the faculty, or the staff were injured or killed. Without exception, however, the disaster events caused some level of structural damage to these universities and their grounds, resulting in a tangible negative financial impact to the afflicted institutions.

In the past decade alone, disasters have caused tens of millions of dollars of damages at US universities. Examples include, but are not limited to, earthquake damage at Stanford University and California State University, Northridge; hurricane damage at the University of Miami, Tulane University and East Carolina University; a power outage at Columbia University; flooding damage and business interruption at the University of North Dakota, Colorado State University, Syracuse University, and many others. The following five examples, representing only a small sample of all recognized impacts, are provided to expand upon these details:

• The Northridge earthquake, which struck southern California in January of 1994, caused significant damage to three universities in the Los Angeles area. California State University, Northridge suffered the most of the three: nearly all of its buildings were damaged and the university was forced to close for one month. It was able to resume classes for approximately 30,000 students that were enrolled at the time through the use of 450 trailers that served as temporary classrooms. Damages to the university were estimated to be about $380 million (FEMA, 2003).

• Hurricane Andrew passed over the city of Miami in 1992, which is home to the University of Miami. The storm resulted in $17 million in damage to the University. As result of these damages, the school was forced to close for almost one month because of a lack of both water and electricity. The university incurred the cost of round-trip transportation for all of its student body in order to help them return to their homes during this period. As a result of this disaster, the University’s insurance premiums increased dramatically (FEMA, 2003).

• On Labor Day in 1998, a severe windstorm occurred in central New York State. The storm damaged or destroyed many buildings, trees, and utilities on the Syracuse University campus. After the storm had passed, the university found itself having to close residence halls. Six-hundred students needed to be relocated immediately. The final cost to the university for repairs to roofs, windows, and masonry, and for the removal of debris, exceeded $4 million (FEMA, 2003).

• In July of 1997, a local creek that passed through the Colorado State University overflowed. Water poured into both the library and the bookstore, damaging hundreds of thousands of books and other valuable documents. Most of the campus was closed for one to two weeks while clean up was underway. Damages exceeded $100 million (FEMA, 2003).

• In June of 2001, Tropical Storm Allison inundated the Houston Area and its universities and colleges with 10 to 24 inches of rain. The University of Texas at Houston Medical School Building had 22 ft. of water in it, causing the hospital to close for the first time in its history and seriously disrupting its research efforts. Damage to the Medical School has been estimated at more than $205 million.

The Economic Impact of Disasters to US Universities

In addition to being businesses, universities are also genuine communities, both irrespective and intermixed with the greater civic communities that surround them. These institutions often employ thousands and house tens of thousands of people. Like the communities within which they reside, universities experience the full impact of disasters; to their members, their infrastructure, and their individual business processes. The long term impacts and resulting needs, likewise, are comparable.

In 2000 a study was conducted for the University of Berkeley entitled The Economic Benefits of a Disaster Resistant University: Earthquake Loss Estimation for UC Berkeley. This study, performed by Mary Comerio of the Institute of Urban and Regional Development of UC Berkeley, examined earthquake hazards and the associated economic consequences of potential losses at the University of California. Comerio estimated that the cost of replacements and repairs to the facilities of UC Berkeley that would result from an earthquake could range from $600 million to $2.6 billion (assuming that buildings with 60 percent or more structural damage would be replaced.) She also found that, in the event that an earthquake of 7.0 magnitude (“rare”) occurred, approximately 40 to 60 percent of all campus space would require more than twenty months for repairs.

The study further estimated that an earthquake of 7.25 (“very rare”) magnitude or greater could close the campus for up to one year. As an illustration of the uncertainty involved in such estimations, whose reality universities must contemplate, the study displayed how building damage and the time needed for repair varies significantly depending upon the location of the epicenter, the duration and directivity of the ground motions, and the availability of money and materials for repair (Comerio, 2000).

A fact that was not lost on the officials at FEMA who developed the DRU program was that universities helped to drive the economic engine in the communities where they resided. The universities helped to provide jobs, a source of income for residents (through the students’ needs and the local services required by the university itself), and even a certain level prestige and identity to the community. Comerio’s study reinforced these findings, reporting that a severely damaged UC Berkley would have a significant impact on the surrounding Berkeley, CA community through a loss of capital flow (operating expenditures, salaries, and income) from the University. The study found that a yearlong campus closure would result in the loss of approximately 8,900 jobs, $680 million in personal income, and $861 million in sales. While these losses would be offset in the larger economy by the increase in construction jobs generated, it is important to note that the losses and gains are in very different sectors of the economy (Comerio, 2000).

In her study, Comerio also addressed the issue of vulnerability. She found that 50 percent of the research funded projects, as a measure of dollars funded to the university, were concentrated in just seven buildings, or 12 percent of campus space. Expanding upon these findings, the study reported that 75 percent of research funded projects are located in just 17 buildings – or one third of campus space. The seismic ratings of eleven of these buildings are such that they would be closed for an extensive period following an earthquake of 7.0 magnitude (Comerio, 2000).

The study also looked at some of the indirect benefits that universities provide, that were at risk from the impacts of disasters, such as the long-term contribution that students made to the local economy. Comerio reported that a significant number of out-of-state students continued to reside in California after graduation. Each additional out-of-state graduate that remained in California resulted in almost a million dollars in increased state output (gross domestic product), and $100,000 in state tax revenue, over their lifetime, in present value terms (Comerio, 2000). It can be assumed that, in the event of a closure of one year, many of these out-of-state students would seek enrollment elsewhere.

Development of the Disaster Resistant Universities Program

The Disaster Resistant Universities first grew out of the FEMA Mitigation Division “Project Impact: Building Disaster Resistant Communities” initiative. The Project Impact program had begun to show progress in reducing both the human and economic impacts of disasters within the communities where it had been adapted. In recognition of the important role universities played within the communities where they operated, it was proposed by FEMA Director James Lee Witt that there be a special program that addressed the unique mitigation and preparedness needs of university communities.

FEMA leadership began developing the program in late 1998 and early 1999 together with six universities from around the country that showed a dedication to disaster prevention and preparedness. The UC Berkeley study, described above in detail, was part of this developmental effort. The six universities and FEMA leadership met several times during this developmental period to hash out the details of the program, and to agree upon a program that was satisfactory in scope and requirement by all participants.

On October 2nd of 2000, FEMA selected these same six universities to serve as pilots for a larger future program. The six universities were:

• Tulane University

• University of Alaska at Fairbanks

• University of California at Berkley

• University of North Carolina at Wilmington

• University of Miami

• University of Washington.

Each of these selected universities was awarded a $100,000 grant from FEMA, which they were required to match 100%. These universities were tasked with developing and implementing sustainable, long-term mitigation projects on their campuses as prescribed by the program’s guidelines (FEMA, 2000).

Building upon their collective efforts, the six universities and FEMA leadership developed prescriptive publications for use by other universities interested in performing emergency preparedness and mitigation on their campuses, including the widely-accepted self-help guide entitled, "Building a Disaster-Resistant University." This guide became the prescriptive text for future awardees within the DRU program.

In recognition of the success of the six pilot programs that received grant funds in 2000, FEMA offered over $3.4 million in competitive Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM) Disaster Resistant University grants in fiscal year 2003 (FEMA-PDM, 2003). These DRU funds were competitively awarded within the bounds of a national priority of ensuring that the program funds benefited a representative range of universities, based on hazard type, size, geography, and academic community served, which included consideration of Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Tribal Colleges and Universities. In total, 28 universities were awarded funds in this round. Figure 8.3.1 lists these awards.

The University of Washington DRU Program

FEMA provides Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM) funds through its DRU initiative to assist universities, through State and local governments, to implement a sustainable pre-disaster natural hazard mitigation program that seeks to reduce overall risk to facilities, research assets, students and faculty. The primary objective of the PDM DRU grant program is to raise risk awareness of the importance of disaster mitigation and planning by universities and communities, and to reduce the Nation's disaster losses at universities through pre-disaster mitigation planning. The DRU grant-funded programs are expected to include the implementation of planned, pre-identified, cost effective mitigation measures designed to reduce injuries, loss of life, and damage and destruction of property from all hazards, including damage to critical facilities, and research operations (FEMA-PDM, 2003). The implementation of the DRU program at one of the six pilot universities, University of Washington, will be examined in the analysis of the Disaster Resistant University program.

The University of Washington is the oldest State institution of higher education on the West Coast, is the largest university in the Pacific Northwest, and is consistently ranked as one of the top public universities in the nation. The University is also very well recognized for the comprehensive medical services it provides through its teaching hospital. Its School of Medicine consistently ranks at or near the top of the nation's primary-care medical schools. The University is among the nation's top five institutions in Federal research grants and contracts awarded to its faculty, which directly contributes to the educational goals of graduates, professional students, and undergraduates. In addition, the University serves as a hub for cultural resources and events, and a recreational center for the community and region (UW, 2002).

UW is a fully accredited, publicly funded regional institution of higher education. The University's academic program is divided into 18 schools and colleges that contain 124 academic departments and degree programs. The University's libraries system is one of the largest research libraries in North America, with collections that exceed 5 million catalogued volumes, an equal number of microform, and several million in other formats (UW, 2002). Annual research funding exceeds $650 million (one-third of the University's annual budget), accounts for more than 5,200 jobs on campus (return on Investment, 2000). Of significant interest is that there are more than 2,200 laboratories on the UW campus. They house priceless research and teaching programs that use biological, chemical, radioactive, and flammable materials; animals; rare and sensitive specimens and cell lines; and highly specialized research equipment (UW, 2002).

Through its primary mission of education and research, the UW makes a substantial economic impact on the State of Washington. The UW employs almost 23,000 people on its three campuses and has an annual budget of $1.9 billion. The funds spent on salaries, equipment, goods, services, and capital expenditures circulate through the economy, generating even more economic activity through job creation, and more demand for local goods and services. This re-circulation of money through the economy, known as the "multiplier effect," was estimated to be $5.1 billion in 1999 alone. Furthermore, the presence of the UW is estimated to have indirectly resulted in the creation of 46,000 jobs in addition to the 23,000 people employed directly by the University. As the UW has become more integrated into the economy, the total economic impact made by the university on the local economy has increased from $3.4 billion in 1995 to $5.1 billion in 2002 - even as State Investment in the University has remained under $400 million per year (UW-Return Investment, 2000).

Analysis of the UW Disaster Resistant University Program

The University of Washington followed the DRU guidelines in creating their Emergency Response Management Plan (ERMP). The DRU Guidelines, as illustrated in the FEMA Guidebook “Building A Disaster Resistant University,” in turn follow FEMA's mitigation planning guidance for local communities. This follows in line with the recognition of universities themselves being small or medium-sized communities that are capable of drawing upon important lessons learned through the efforts of counties and municipalities (FEMA, 2003).

The four phases of the DRU's mitigation process are described as:

Phase 1- Organize Resources (on and off campus stakeholders)

Phase 2 - Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment

Phase 3 - Developing the Mitigation Plan

Phase 4 - Adoption and Implementation

Each of these phases will be described in brief below, with an examination of the actions taken by the University of Washington to fulfill the phase requirements.

Phase 1

In Phase 1, "Organize Resources," the university is instructed to take the initial step of identifying stakeholders from within both the university and the surrounding community, and to inventory the resources that are available to the planners. An advisory committee is created out of these efforts, after all appropriate parties have been identified and invited to join. FEMA advises that, “Planning organizations exist at many levels of the university, and it is important to identify all of the various planning committees that might share an interest or have jurisdiction in the area of hazard mitigation before the planning process gets too far.” Clearly, only by having a representative from each of these levels and components can a committee ensure that they have considered all of the universities needs and vulnerabilities.

The University of Washington created an Emergency Management Planning committee composed of representatives from both academic and operating units of the university. They also included members of the community that had a stake in the planning process, such as emergency management coordinators and planners. The included officials selected were those that were able to (and continue to) design and develop the plan, and then subsequently provide guidance and day-to-day program oversight for the University's emergency and disaster management programs that result from the process. To ensure that the planning process was thorough, open, and transparent to the community at large, all meetings were and continue to be open to any member of the campus community. To see a list of the committee members, see sidebar 8.3.1.

FEMA stresses that an important objective for the first meeting of the advisory committee is to develop a mission statement to help committee members understand what outcomes they will seek to achieve. Doing so, they claim, will build a common understanding of the mitigation plan's purpose (FEMA, 2003). The University of Washington did just this, stating that the mission of their Hazard Mitigation Planning process was to "Guide the University in protecting its people, its facilities, environment, equipment and systems by identifying appropriate initiatives and projects.” The statement continued to say that the plan “will also help the University to prepare business resumption plans in order to resume normal education and research operations as quickly as possible following a disaster" (UW, 2004).

Once the initial inventory of resources has been completed, stakeholders identified, advisory committee formed, project manager determined, and timeline established, FEMA recommends moving into Phase-2 of the program – Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment.

Phase 2

In Phase-2, "Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment," the university is instructed to complete a thorough assessment of the hazards faced by the campus, the associated risks they pose, and the institution's vulnerability to those risks (FEMA, 2003). This section guides higher education institutions on the methodology of conducting a hazard identification and "single-point" risk assessment that will be used to identify and prioritize the mitigation actions in the hazard mitigation plan (FEMA, 2003). Included in this process is the detailing of hazard profiles that address in specific terms the scope and extent of damage that a particular hazard event could cause to the university.

By conducting a Hazard Identification and Vulnerability Assessment (HIVA), UW identified the below hazards that could have a potential impact on the University's Main Seattle Campus (UW, 2002):

Natural Hazards

• Earthquake

• Severe Local Storm

• Snow Storm

• Fire

Man-made Hazards

• Civil Disturbance

• Hazardous Materials Release

• Terrorism

• Transportation Accident

• Urban Fire

In the HIVA, UW assessed terrorism, urban fires and earthquakes as the most destructive hazards that it faces. They also assessed those hazards that have a local presence, but from which the campus would experience have minimal impact potential. This was done in order to minimize the later mitigation efforts dedicated to them in favor of more likely hazards. These less-likely hazards include:

• Avalanches

• Drought

• Flood

• Landslide

• Tsunami

• Volcano

Included as Sidebars 8.3.2 are two examples of hazard profiles created by the university during this process. Also included as Sidebars 8.3.3 and 8.3.4 are the UW Hazards Worksheet and Hazard Impact Matrix completed by the university for their Disaster Resistant Universities Project. As part of a detailed hazard analysis, the UW defined each hazard in order to understand the nature of the hazard, the direct and indirect effects, and the secondary impacts that maybe created. This included a historical data to provide documentation of the reality of the hazards that UW has faced in past and to calibrate planning and preparedness efforts. The main goal was to assess the vulnerability of the University's people, property, and environment to hazards in order to their impact, and to develop strategies for mitigation and emergency preparedness (UW, 2003).

Phase 3

After the campus’ risks have been identified and vulnerabilities to these hazards assessed, the university can continue on to Phase 3, "Developing the Mitigation Plan." This step focuses on the development of the hazard mitigation plan upon which the committee will base its future actions for disaster reduction and preparedness.

FEMA stresses that the development of a comprehensive hazard mitigation plan should draw from, and complement existing plans, to include those of local and state jurisdictions (the FEMA how-to guide Developing the Mitigation Plan (386-3) provides helpful guidance for state and local governments on this process and may assist a college or university in aligning their mitigation plan with those of their surrounding jurisdictions (FEMA, 2003)). A university's mitigation plan should address all of the hazards that were identified in the HIVA and prioritize those hazards based on the vulnerability of the institution to a particular natural and man-made hazards (FEMA, 2003). FEMA advises that the university’s mitigation plan do the following:

• Establish goals and objectives aimed at reducing or avoiding vulnerabilities to the identified hazards

• Identify actions that will help you accomplish the established goals

• Set forth strategies that detail how the mitigation actions will be implemented and administered

• Provide continuity to the planning process as it provides a link between determining what your community's risk are and actually implementing mitigation actions

• Establish a process for regular updates and review of the plan

The hazard mitigation plan documents how a university will reduce its vulnerability to natural and man-made disasters. The plan details the purpose of the planning effort, the process that was followed, and the actions that need to be taken. Once the plan is finalized, the next step is for it be formally approved and implemented. (FEMA, 2003).

In 2003, the University of Washington developed a Hazard Mitigation Plan as part of its DRU program. This plan is attached as Sidebar 8.3.5. The University's plan includes hazard mitigation action items that provide guidance and suggests specific activities that academic and operational units can undertake to reduce risk and prevent loss from earthquake or severe storms. Each action item is accompanied by ideas for implementation, which can be considered by decision-makers as opportunities arise for funding (FEMA, February 2004). In developing a University Hazard Mitigation Plan, UW followed the previously discussed process from FEMA's "Building a Disaster-Resistant University." The Senior Advisory Committee which was facilitated by an Emergency Management Specialist developed mitigation plan's mission, goals and action items (UW, 2004). The Committee also reviewed all materials proved by the Hazard Mitigation Plan (HMP) coordinator for additions, comments and corrections (UW, 2004).

As part of this process the HMP coordinator conducted more than 50 interviews with individuals associated with key academic and administrative units in order to identify common concerns related to natural and technical hazards (UW, 2004). Also, in developing the HMP the coordinator informed and consulted with the University's senior leadership (UW, 2004). As recommended in Phase-1 of the DRU Guide, the HPM coordinator examined State and Federal guidelines and requirements for mitigation plans. Consulted with the Washington State Emergency Management Division, FEMA, the City of Seattle Emergency Management Office, the King County Office of Emergency Management, the Seattle Fire Department and the Seattle Police Department (UW, 2004).

With this plan in hand, the University of Washington was armed to submit an application to FEMA for a Pre Disaster Mitigation (PDM) grant for DRU funding in the FY2003 round of grants Because of their comprehensive efforts, the University of Washington was recipient of the largest amount of funding from the program. The following summary list highlights the eight priority initiatives proposed by UW in its 2003 Disaster Resistant University PDM Grant application (for which they were awarded $500,000):

1. Development, Implementation, and Evaluation of the UW's first major Functional Tabletop Exercise since 1998 ($43,807)

2. Establishment of a Pilot Campus Emergency Response Team (CERT) modeled after FEMA's Community Emergency Response Teams ($51,858)

3. Development of a model business continuity Planning and Resumption Model for critical UW financial, administrative and support functions ($120,395)

4. Hosting a 2-Day DRU University Workshop and Best Practices Symposium ($23,000)

5. Co-hosting a campus-wide Student and Staff Emergency Preparedness and Personal Safety Fair ($13,000)

6. Updating and Improving the University's emergency Management Website ($13,000)

7. Development Emergency Plans for Campus Special-Needs Populations ($18,000)

8. Seismic Retrofit for the University of Washington Bryant Building home t the UW Police 9-1-1 Dispatch Center and Emergency Operations Center ($200,000)

Phase 4

The final phase in the disaster-resistant university process is the adoption and implementation of the mitigation plan. Adoption and implementation go hand in hand. Adoption refers to the formal and informal acceptance of the plan by appropriate entities, such as a formal vote or a statement of support or memorandum of understanding. Implementation refers to putting the plan into action by taking steps to adopt the mitigation actions described in the plan. At some point in this process, it is expected that the university will hold a press conference or other means of announcing their work in progress to the community (FEMA, 2003).

At UW the Executive Vice President and Provost were given the responsible for adopting the University's HMP because of their authority to promoting University policy regarding hazards. The University's Office of Emergency Management, with oversight by the Capital Facilities Committee, is responsible for coordinating the overall implementation of the mitigation plan and undertaking the formal review process every six months (UW, 2004). A key objective of the University's implementation strategy is to use existing programs existing programs to address identified hazard mitigation goals and objectives (UW, 2004).

Lessons Learned

The University of Washington Emergency Management Office's published lessons learned from the Disaster Resistant University Pilot Program, in order for other universities to benefit from the experience of the genuine leadership role that UW took in the DRU process. These lessons are listed as:

• Conduct the HIVA in-house with committed and knowledgeable staff of campus activities, operations, and its physical layout.

• The individual(s) conducting the HIVA should have an established and positive relationship with faculty, staff and students as well as local emergency response agencies.

• UW had no formal archives of information related to specific hazard events.

• There is a lack of communication between the academic side of the University and the operational side implementing hazard mitigation strategies.

• Facilities information not available on Geographic Information Systems (GIS) limited ability to analyze infrastructure.

Having completed its goals for the pilot DRU Program, the University Washington has established the following objectives for its second round DRU Program awarded in 2003:

• Participate in the FY 03 FEMA Disaster Resistant University Program to enhance the initial efforts began in 2000-2001.

• Continue the seismic retrofit for existing buildings and implement a campus-wide nonstructural mitigation program aimed at loss reduction in laboratories, libraries, classrooms and offices.

• Assess hazards and vulnerabilities when making space allocation decisions for University activities.

• Construct a Loss Estimation model to assess financial risks associated with business interruption.

• Create a strategic campus plan encompassing academic and facility planning, as well as business continuity and resumption planning that incorporates the recommendations from HIVA and Emergency Response Action Committee (ERAC) reports to improve the quality of teaching and research activities.

• Improve record keeping on the damage, costs and effects of hazard events to aid future planning and mitigation efforts.

• Shift UW maps/records to the similar coordinate system used by the city of Seattle in order to manage data and provide the information to conduct analysis on Geographic Information Systems.

Conclusion

For any major teaching and research institution where operations are threatened by natural disasters, hazards mitigation and post-disaster recovery strategies must be a regular part of the ongoing planning in every academic department and management unit. In implementing hazard mitigation and post-disaster recovery strategies the University of Washington is only one of many universities that has since demonstrated that the Disaster Resistant University Program is an effective enabler towards accomplishing these objectives. UC Berkley has initiated both structural and non-structural mitigation programs to limit the economic impact of an earthquake, including performing above life-safety criteria seismic retrofits of identified critical infrastructure for continued operations after a large earthquake and also a campus-wide non-structural mitigation program aimed at loss reduction of the contents in laboratories, libraries, classrooms and offices (Comerio, 2000). At the University of Washington, the DRU program seed money was a catalyst for many other disaster mitigation and preparedness activities throughout the campus community (UW, 2004).

As a result of the DRU process, the University of Washington has since hired a full-time professional Emergency Manager, established an Office of Emergency Management, and is aggressively pursuing several structural and non-structural mitigation programs (UW, 2004). This action, in concert with the creation of the plan described in this case, helps to ensure that disaster mitigation and planning at the university remain ongoing and adaptable. As stated by Sandra Lier, the Associate VP for Business Services of the University of Washington in the introduction to their Emergency Response Management Plan, “This plan is not the end of emergency planning; it is just the beginning.”

References:

Comerio, Mary C. 2000. “The Economic Benefits of a Disaster Resistant University: Earthquake Loss Estimation for UC Berkeley.” Institute of Urban & Regional Development. IURD Working Paper Series. Paper WP-2000-02.

Federal Emergency Management Agency. 2000. “UW Pilots Disaster Resistant University Initiative-FEMA Initiative Helps Universities Limit Disaster Damage.” FEMA Press Release.

Federal Emergency Management Agency. 2003. Building a Disaster-Resistant University. FEMA 443.

Federal Emergency Management Agency. 2003. Grant Guidance Pre-Disaster Resistant University-Disaster Resistant University - Competitive Grants: CFDA#97.063.

University California, Berkley. 2000. Campus News: The Economic Benefits of a Disaster Resistant University: Earthquake Loss Estimation for UC Berkeley.

University of Washington. 2000. Homeland Security: Conducting a Vulnerability Assessment. Provided by University of Washington's Office of Emergency Management.

University of Washington. 2000. The Return on an Investment in Education: How the University of Washington Benefits the Region's Economy.

University of Washington. 2002. Hazard Identification and Vulnerability Assessment. Provided by University of Washington's Office of Emergency Management.

University of Washington. 2003. Disaster Resistant University/PDM Grant Proposal.

Provided by University of Washington's Office of Emergency

Management.

University of Washington. 2004. Agency Annex for the 2003 Washington State Hazard

Mitigation Plan.

Figure 8.3.1: List of Universities Funded by the DRU Program in FY 2003.

|State |College/University |Activity |Federal Share Awarded |

|CA |San Jose State University |Plan |$ 99,957.00 |

|CA |University of California-Berkeley |Plan |$ 67,100.00 |

|CA |University of Southern California |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|CO |University of Colorado-Boulder |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|FL |University of Miami |Project |$ 226,500.00 |

|FL |Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University (FAMU) |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|FL |Florida International University (FIU) |Plan |$ 99,759.00 |

|GA |University System of Georgia |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|KY |University of Louisville |Plan |$ 94,958.00 |

|LA |Tulane Power Plant |Project |$ 18,113.00 |

|LA |Southern University (LA) |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|LA |University of New Orleans |Plan |$ 99,750.00 |

|MA |Colleges of the Fenway |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|MA |Mass. Institute of Tech. |Plan |$ 99,750.00 |

|MO |Metropolitan Community College |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|MS |University of Mississippi |Plan |$ 75,000.00 |

|NC |UNC-Wilmington |Project |$ 80,000.00 |

|NC |UNC-Wilmington |Project |$ 24,000.00 |

|NC |UNC-Wilmington |Project |$ 57,000.00 |

|NC |UNC-Wilmington |Plan |$ 110,000.00 |

|ND |North Dakota State University |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|ND IT |Sitting Bull College |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|NV |University of Nevada-Reno |Plan |$ 50,000.00 |

|OH |University of Akron |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|OK |University of Central Oklahoma |Plan |$ 75,000.00 |

|OR |University of Oregon |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|SC |Horry-Georgetown Tech |Plan |$ 89,002.00 |

|TN |University of Memphis |Plan |$ 100,000.00 |

|TX |Texas State Technical College |Project |$ 75,000.00 |

|TX |Texas University-Medical Center |Plan |$ 97,500.00 |

|VA |Radford University |Plan |$ 31,500.00 |

|VA |Virginia State University |Plan |$ 75,000.00 |

|VA |Virginia Tech |Plan |$ 75,000.00 |

|WA |University of Washington-Seattle |Project |$ 200,000.00 |

|WA |University of Washington-Seattle |Plan |$ 300,000.00 |

|TOTAL |  |35 |$3,419,889.00 |

Source: FEMA, 2003.

Sidebar 8.3.1: University of Washington’s Senior Advisory Committee for Disaster Resistant University Program

• Director of Records Management Services

• Executive Director of Health Sciences Administration

• Assistant Vice President for Regional Affairs

• Director of the Institute for Hazard Mitigation Planning & Research

• Disaster-resistant University Coordinator

• Director of Student Activities and Union facilities

• Director of the Student Health Center

• Director of Purchasing and Stores

• Representative form the Real Estate Office

• Associate Vice President for Business Services

• Associate Vice President for Facilities Services

• Director of Communications Technologies

• Director of University computing services

• Assistant vice Provost for Research

• Chief of the University Police

• Associate Director of University Computing Services

• Director of News and Information

• Lieutenant from the University Police Department

• Associate Vice President for Capital Projects

• Seismology Lab Coordinator in Geophysics

• Director of Academics Services & Facilities

• Director of Environmental Health & Safety

• Representative from University Relations

• Representative from Faculty Council on University Facilities and Services

Representation from the community:

• Program Manager for King County Emergency Services Public Health

• Local risk consultant

• Director of Seattle Emergency Management Section

• Manager of King County Office of Emergency Management

• Local planning analyst

Sidebar 8.3.2: UW Emergency Management Planning Committee

Sandra Lier

Associate VP for Business Services

Charles Chamberlain

UW Libraries

Ralph Robinson

UW Police Department

Barbara McPhee

Environmental Health and Safety

Bob Roseth

News & Information

Carol Garing

Publication Services

Brad VanPelt

Student Representative

Steve Charvat

Emergency Management

Scott Mah

C & C / Communications Technology

Lincoln Johnson

Office of the VP for Student Affairs

Ron Fouty

Capital Projects

Tamlyn Thomas

UW Medical Center

Chip Lydum

Athletics

Stephanie Steppe

Health Sciences

Jim Calbreath

Health Sciences

Andrew Ward

Computing & Communications

Eric Holdeman

King County Emergency Management

Duane Mariotti

Harborview Hospital

Debra Nelson

Office of the VP for Student Affairs

Elenka Jarolemik

Emergency Management

Anne Guthrie

Facilities Services

Clare Donahue

Computing & Communications

Kelly Hudson

UW Bothell

Doug Gallucci

Environmental Health & Safety

Tom Profit

Computing & Communications

Liz Coveney

Human Resource

Bob Freitag

CREW

Sidebar 8.3.2: Examples of Risk Profiles from the UW HIVA

LANDSLIDE

Definition

There is tension between stresses pulling down on a slope and the resistance holding it in place. The slope becomes unstable as the forces of resistance and stress converge. The change in these forces is due to dynamic forces. Some develop gradually, such as normal erosion and weathering. Others occur suddenly, such as earthquakes and torrential rains that increase water pressure within the slope. Usually, the most catastrophic landslides occur on slopes that already have a low margin of safety and are struck by a sudden event. Determining a slope’s slide potential rests on discovering the inherent stability of the slope and the intensity of forces that attack it.

There are four kinds of slides:

Slump – the earth moves as a coherent mass;

Block slide – a chunk of rock slips on a layer of loose material underneath it like wet clay;

Debris slide – loose, dry material falls chaotically;

Debris or mudflow – the slide material is wet and churns as it moves.

Slumps and block slides are the least dangerous because the material does not usually move far and does not break apart. Mudflows are the most dangerous because they move quickly and run out far from the slope where they are. Sometimes they are even classified as flash floods.

The Seattle HIVA cites one prominent study that argues that landslides are not well understood nationally as a threat to public safety. It has been estimated they cause between $245 million and $1.5 billion of damage, kill 25 people annually, and cause numerous transportation problems (Seattle HIVA, 1999). It concludes that they are often perceived as individual events rather than symptoms of a wider problem.

History

Landslides are common in Seattle. Some that have occurred near the University include:

1941 - Several slides during December around Sand Point

1965 - SR 520 threatened, one lane closed, Roanoke interchange on I-5 closed

1983 - Queen Anne slide closes Aurora for a day. Mud travels as far as Lake Union

1997 - Over 100 slides and the accompanying snow caused approximately $100 million in damages. Slides occur on most slide prone slopes throughout the Seattle area in a continuation of the wet winter.

Vulnerability

Late winter and early spring are the most common times for slides in Seattle. According to Tubbs (1975), the probability of sliding rises after a wet, cold winter, especially if a freeze occurs in late winter and early spring. The ground becomes saturated over the winter, and then porous following a freeze, so a subsequent rain will penetrate the surface while the high water table will prevent the ground from absorbing it. The water increases the stress to the slope by adding weight and by increasing pore pressure within the soil.

In the past, the greatest vulnerability has been to property rather than public safety. Most landslides in Seattle start as slumps that develop slowly, giving people in danger some warning.

Landslides can also disrupt roads and other lifelines, with roads most frequently affected. The University is vulnerable since several arterials run along slopes with potential for landslides, including Montlake Blvd. and the 45th St. viaduct, as well as the Montlake Cut. Structures that could be affected include Fluke Hall, residence halls, Nuclear Physics Lab, and Plant Services. According to the Shannon & Wilson report, intermediate or transitional soils in Zones B, C, and D may be at moderate hazard of ground instability, such as earthquake-induced landslides or liquefaction (Earthquake Microzonation Study, 1991).

Effects

Significant impacts could include the interruption of lifeline services, such as water, sewer and transportation. Landslides can induce other disasters, particularly flooding storm drains and lead to releases of hazardous materials by destroying waste and storage sites.

Any attempt to mitigate the damage must weigh the potential harm against the costs of prevention; there is a gap in knowledge. Until more information exists, it will be hard for the University to plan for mitigation and recovery efforts.

TERRORISM

Definition

Terrorism is the unlawful, premeditated use of violence, or threat of violence committed by a group of two or more individuals against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of a political or social objective.

Terrorists use threats to create fear among the public, to try to convince citizens that their government is powerless to prevent these acts of violence, and to get immediate public recognition for their causes. Bombing, kidnapping, sabotage, assassination, and extortion, whether politically or criminally motivated, are included under the definition of terrorist activity. The types of terrorist organizations that may be operating in the United States include:

• Ethnic separatist and émigré groups;

• Left-wing Radical organizations;

• Right-wing racist, anti-government groups (i.e., militia groups);

• Foreign and domestic terrorist organizations; and

• Issue-oriented groups that use violent forms of protest.

The media play an important role for terrorists and give them a powerful new voice worldwide. The ability and willingness of television to bring terrorists’ acts of violence into the homes of Americans has greatly enhanced terrorism as an effective weapon. Terrorism has come to depend on the mass media to extend their audience from local to global and to greatly exaggerate the impression of violence and its results (Snohomish County HIVA, 2000).

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) –

• Weapon or device that is intended, or has the capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors; a disease organism; or radiation or radioactivity.

• Explosive, incendiary, or poison gas, bomb, grenade, rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces, or a missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one quarter ounce, or mine or device similar to the above;

• Poison gas and weapons involving a diseased organism

• Weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life.

Until recently, most recent terrorist incidents in the United States have involved “conventional” threats in the form of plastic explosives, agricultural chemicals (fertilizer mixed with diesel fuel), and car, pipe, or letter bombs using materials easily obtainable through open markets. The increasing accessibility of more exotic agents, such as biological, chemical, and possibly even nuclear (WMDs) weapons, heightens the concern about terrorism in the U.S.

History

• During the 1960's-1970's several University buildings were bombed by the domestic terrorist groups. The bombings and other related anti-Viet Nam activities influenced the development of the Seattle Police Bomb Squad.

• In recent years, some UW researchers have been targeted by animal rights extremist groups. Crimes have included threats, vandalism to University and private property, and criminal trespass and vandalism at researchers’ homes. In one incident, just before the 1999 World Trade Organization (WTO) meeting, an extremist kicked in the front door of a primate researcher’s home in Seattle.

• Other crimes that targeted primate researchers included mail (letters) booby trapped with razor blades. The letters also included a threatening letter giving the researcher a year to get out of their line of research or face retribution.

• Doctors on the Organ Transplant Committee have been threatened because they make life and death decisions on who will and will not receive transplants. Other Doctors who perform abortions or work with fetal tissue have been victims of harassment, home visits by demonstrators, and have had lectures disrupted.

• The most recent domestic terrorist incident in May, 2001, was the arson fire at Merrill Hall, for which the group Earth Liberation Front claimed responsibility. It resulted in the total loss of the building and significant loss of contents and research materials. The current replacement cost of the building is estimated at $4.5 million.

Vulnerability

A basic and fundamental function of the University is to carry out research in an open and unrestricted manner, with complete freedom to publish or otherwise disseminate the results of its search for knowledge. The requirements of secrecy and restrictions on freedom to publish that are inherent in security classification, or the restrictions on dissemination that derive from proprietary rights of privately sponsored research, are in direct opposition to this function (UW Handbook, 1995).

The inherent open environment of an academic research institution makes the University of Washington vulnerable to terrorist attack. A daytime population of 60,000 moving freely around the campus makes it difficult to track activities of individuals who might chose to harm the University’s people, programs, and properties. Large concentrations of University people (Stadium, Pavilion, lecture halls, etc.) could be at risk from external as well as internal threats.

• Employment

Pre-employment criminal history checks are only carried out on individuals as currently required by specific statute for prospective employees who will be driving commercial vehicles, working with children or dependent populations, handling cash or drugs, or working for the UW Medical Center or the UW Police Department (only UWPD applicants are fingerprinted). This means that individuals who may wish to harm the University could be provided with access to facilities, vehicles, laboratories, food supplies, and other potentially vulnerable areas of the campus.

• Research and researchers

Particularly vulnerable are research projects and researchers on the campus. Nine of the UW’s Schools and Colleges receive more than half of their total expenditures from external sources such as grants and contracts. University offices are individually responsible for the management of their records. The Office of Risk Management recommends that each department implement adequate security measures to supplement the insurance, especially for equipment that has a high theft potential. However, research is not monitored at an institutional level for what is being done and where, and most offices do not implement specific security measures to protect research. Security consulting services offered by UWPD and C&C are underutilized. In addition, researchers may be vulnerable to personal attack whether at home or office.

• Health Sciences

The Health Sciences complex is of particular concern because of the large concentration of research dollars and sensitive research located in the complex. Security measures may need to be upgraded. The complex has a large transient population ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 people per day; staff, faculty, and students are not required to wear photo I.D.; and individuals can enter freely from the UW Medical Center into HSC. Between midnight and 8:00 a.m., one security guard walks the 22 miles of corridor (Stephanie Steppe, Personal Interview, Oct. 2001).

Animal and genetic engineering research have been threatened or attacked in the recent past by extremist groups. The UWPD has identified groups and individuals who pose threats.

A key missing piece is the early identification of potentially sensitive research projects that may need additional security. While research projects proposed for outside funding are reviewed for use of animals, human subjects, biohazards, and other elements, currently there is no systematic review for special safety or security requirements. In the light of experience in recent years, this needs to be addressed. Departments and Schools/Colleges should be reviewing at the local level, and consulting with UWPD, C&C, Risk Management, etc., as needed.

In the HSC, specific security response plans have been developed for research projects using animals and fetal tissue. Individual departments have developed health and safety plans, and building emergency/evacuation plans are in place. Recent UW Medical Center work has developed a plan for mass decontamination and quarantine space; Environmental Health and Safety is inventorying laboratories for hazardous substances.

• Buildings and infrastructure

As a large complex with 285 buildings on campus, the University faces a critical issue in locating sensitive research in secure spaces. Other buildings with specific vulnerabilities are:

o Fluke and Wilcox Halls contain poisonous gases used for research. The gas is stored in exposed containers. Containers are located behind locked gates, but they are vulnerable to individuals determined to tamper with them.

o The residence halls on the Northeast campus are located near these tanks (large tanks of liquid oxygen) and near the Cyclotron. Several residence halls have parking garages located beneath them (vulnerable to car bombs).

o Clark Hall where the ROTC department is located and Gerberding Hall were in the past the locations of bombings and violent protests. Also adjacent to Gerberding Hall lies the underground Central Plaza Garage.

o Applied Physics Laboratory/Henderson Hall is located at the edge of the West Campus near the University Bridge. Currently it conducts some classified research funded by the military.

o Bryant Building, location of EOC and UW Police Department, sits exposed on the waterfront and has a number of storage lockers below it that are easily accessible.

o Power Plant and West Receiving Station receive power from Seattle City Light. They are located on busy arterial streets with additional road access around the area.

o Utility Tunnels that carry normal and emergency power throughout the campus can be accessed through many buildings. Access to the tunnels is restricted, and there's a special key. Accesses from the West Receiving Station and the Power Plant are alarmed. Maintenance staff are in the tunnels every day. Hatches out on the campus sometimes have been vandalized--and when discovered by UWPD or maintenance personnel are reported and repaired immediately.

• Campus Health and Safety

Terrorist incidents elsewhere in the City could have an impact on the University, especially UWMC. As a tertiary care facility and part of the regional hospital/healthcare network, the UWMC is prepared for mass casualties. However, the link to the operation of the University campus is less clear.

UW EH&S has close ties with the State Department of Health and participates in special Department of Health task forces, e.g., bioterrorism. UW EH&S is involved in efforts to plan the distribution of medication in case of an emergency and works closely with the Seattle Fire Department about the buildings and potentially hazardous materials located on the campus.

Managed by UW EH&S, the Environmental Safety Storage Building (ESSB), located on the east campus, stores chemicals and other hazardous waste. ESSB has been specially designed on pylons with built-in locked area, alarm and sprinkler systems, and a secondary containment area. Any fire would most likely be contained.

An inventory of chemicals used on camps is maintained by EH&S in an online database. A similar database for biological agents has not been developed. A key concern is that assembling and recording this kind of information may subject it to public records requests and thus increase the University’s vulnerability to harm.

Radioactive materials used for research are tightly controlled and monitored, and are least likely to cause problems. The Nuclear Reactor is no longer in operation (radioactive core is gone) although it is still considered a contaminated site. EH&S is in communication with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the State Health Department regarding decommissioning of the site.

Faculty are working with EH&S to track who, what, when, and where select agents are located, yet it is assumed that the University has a low number of these select agents located on the campus. A Federal law requires registration of any select agent obtained and its transfer to other facilities (Van Dusen, Personal Interview, Nov. 2001). Major surveys of laboratories are done once a year, however the staff conducting these surveys is small to deal with the 1,000+ laboratories on campus. Any new laboratory construction undergoes plan review with Capital Projects Office and EH&S, which also requires certain kinds of laboratory equipment and facilities to ensure health and safety protection (Van Dusen). Any project involving animals used must go through the animal care committee and must be reviewed by EH&S before release. EH&S also reviews the record of the laboratory’s performance.

Responsibility for oversight of laboratories rests with their home colleges and departments. EH&S’s role is to provide advice and assistance, not oversight, and bioagent research is particularly hard to keep track of. EH&S reviews research projects at the proposal stage, but there is no direct feedback to EH&S regarding which projects get funded. Emergency communications network needs to be improved to rapidly disseminate information on response efforts, including building evacuations. There is no campus-wide evacuation plan.

• Communications

Communications is the heart in any major organization where intellectual property, personnel information, medical records, and other information if not securely protected could be accessed and used for illegal purposes or to harm the institution. A staff of three people in Computing and Communications (C&C) are dedicated to dealing with network security, including working with law enforcement agencies. In addition, C&C offers consulting services to other departments on campus, and provides recommendations to strengthen computer security, because it is seen as essential to have security measures in place, as there are constant attempts to break into the system even though in most cases they do not constitute terrorist attack. Yet most departments have not taken advantage of these services, and usually wait till after an attack occurs.

Other forms of terrorism can make C& C vulnerable to attack. C&C’s location in part of a building that is not owned by the University raises concerns about control of security. The building also contains a four story parking garage with a majority of the spaces utilized by the public. Although a key card is required to enter most parts of the building, 500 individuals have these cards. The building is located at a major intersection, very close to the street, with an alley behind the building. C& C is reassessing the risks associated with its location and reviewing building security (Tom Profit, Personal Interview, October 2001).

• UW Police Department (UWPD)

UWPD needs updated training and equipment for weapons of mass destruction and light urban search and rescue. UWPD has staff trained in Incident Command, first aid, and CPR. They are well trained to work on large events, demonstrations, and political rallies, however, due to recent budget cuts, they are short on staff to cover security for aspects of the campus and need some equipment to handle these large events. A particular problem associated with vulnerability to attack by terrorists is that in most cases UWPD is not usually given adequate time to prepare for Highly Controversial Visitors, which could place the campus population at risk (John Schultz, Personal Interview, October 2001).

Effects

The disaster potential of terrorism is unknown. There are no areas safe from terrorist violence. Terrorism is a battle with no quarter, and to most terrorists, anything and anyone is fair game; nothing is too sacred to be considered a target (Snohomish County HIVA, 2000).

It will be difficult--perhaps impossible--to determine the extent of a terrorist attack. There could be significant numbers of casualties and/or damage to buildings and infrastructure. Evacuation from an affected area could be difficult. Local, state, and federal law enforcement would be heavily involved because of the event’s criminal nature. Clean up could take months. Health and mental health resources may be strained or overwhelmed. Extensive media coverage, strong public fear, and international implications and consequences can continue for a prolonged period.

Other forms of terrorism could have major implications for the University. Cyber terrorism attack on communications and computer systems could cause large amounts of intellectual data, personnel information, and records to be destroyed or used for illegal purposes.

Biological attacks can be far more difficult to respond to than conventional terrorist attacks. They are covert rather than overt, so it could take some time to discover that an attack had occurred. For example, with anthrax, up to 80 percent of people infected by inhaled spores die within days if untreated (Weiss, 2001). By the time symptoms appear--fever, rash, and congested lungs—it is usually too late.

Contagious diseases--unlike explosions--keep spreading long after an initial attack. Smallpox, for example, is a highly contagious disease (30% mortality; no treatment) and it is easily spread by coughing and sneezing. The disease was declared eradicated in 1980, but vials of the virus were saved and the whereabouts of some may be uncertain. Vaccination no longer occurs, leaving an entire population susceptible to attack.

In a June 2000 Federal exercise, 24 simulated cases of smallpox were "discovered" in U.S. hospitals as part of an assessment of U.S. preparedness for bioterrorism. Less than two weeks after those cases popped up, computer models indicated that--if the exercise had been real--15,000 people would have contracted the disease and 1,000 would have died. The "epidemic" was still raging when the exercise ended. The computer models predicted that rioting and looting would have broken out as vaccine supplies ran out (Weiss, 2001).

Source: The University of Washington

Sidebar 8.3.3: University of Washington – DRU HAZARDS WORKSHEET

|Primary Hazard |Secondary Hazard |Frequency of |Possible |Location |Ability to Predict |Major predicted impacts on UW |

| | |Events |Effects | | | |

|Flooding |- Bank erosion |1% chance of a |- Damage to individual |East & south |Lake Washington and |1. Flooding outside Seattle may indirectly affect water quality |

| |- Hazardous |100-year flood |buildings |campus |Ship Canal water |2. Flooding along Thornton Creek north of campus. Has a direct impact on University. |

| |material releases |occurring in the |- Disrupt | |level are regulated |3. Transportation system could be affected |

| |- Water shortage |Seattle area in |transportation | |by the locks | |

| |- Landslide |any given year. | | | | |

|Landslide |- Flooding |Frequent |- Damage to individual |East campus in |Warning available |1. Earthquakes and torrential rains can cause stresses in slope to fail. |

| |- Hazardous material |occurrence in |building |area around | |2. Multiple slides incidents can occur throughout the city, indirectly affecting the |

| |releases |Seattle area; |-Disruption of |Fluke Hall, | |University. |

| | |usually coincide |transportation |along Montlake | |3. Roads are most frequently affected. Major highways and arterials run along landslide|

| | |with snowstorms |- Blockage of storm |Blvd and Burke | |prone areas. (e.g., NE 45th St viaduct) |

| | | |drains |Gilman Trail, | |4. Significant impacts include interruption of lifeline services (water, sewage, power,|

| | | | |45th Viaduct | |transportation). |

| | | | | | |5. I-5 corridor runs through large slide areas around Beacon Hill |

| | | | | | |6. Can cause flooding by blocking storm drains and lead to releases of hazardous |

| | | | | | |materials by destroying waste and storage sites. |

|Severe Local Storms |- Lightning |Less then one per |- Damaged buildings and|Entire Campus |National Weather |1. The seasons with the highest probability for a tornado seems to be late spring and |

| |- Flash flooding |year |utilities | |Service weather |late fall. |

| |- Strong winds | |- Smashed windows | |warning network |2. Lightly constructed buildings are most vulnerable |

| |- Hail | |-Uprooted vegetation | |broadcast over VHF |3. The most likely tornado in the Seattle Area would have wind speeds of 40 to 72 |

| |- Nonstructural | |- Interruption to | |radio and Internet |miles per hour |

| |objects | |transportation | |- Storm Watch (24-36| |

| |- Uprooted vegetation | |- Low casualties | |hours advance | |

| |- Damaged lifelines | |- Disruption to | |notice) | |

| | | |academic, research and | |- Storm warning | |

| | | |business functions | |(12-24 hours advance| |

| | | | | |notice) | |

|Snow Storms |- Fire |Snowfall of more |- Damage to individual |Entire campus |See Severe Storm |1. This hazard most likely to occur more often then the other hazards identified. |

| |- Flooding |than 4 inches |buildings | | |2. Heavier the snowfall, the greater the safety risks and costs of the storm |

| |- Landslide |occurring slightly|- Disrupt | | |3. Snow and cold weather endanger utility lifelines through direct impact and by |

| | |more than 1 per |transportation | | |increasing demand on some systems, most notably electrical power. |

| | |year |-Power outages | | |4. Halts ground transportation in heavy storms. |

| | | | | | |5. Snow removal costs. |

| | | | | | |6. Substantial economic losses resulting from work stoppages |

|Tsunami and Seiche |- Run – up |- Tsunami in Lake |Damage to built |East & South |Strong chance of |1. Seiche could affect 520 floating bridge and the east and south campus (WAC). |

| |- Sloshing |Washington |environment |campus |occurring before |2. Damage to boats on south campus by battering them against docks and moorings, Lake |

| |- Landslides |(Rare) |-Disruption to | |warning can be |Washington and Lake Union. |

| | |- Seiches tend to |transportation | |delivered |3. Infrastructure and built structures located near the water could be damaged. |

| | |occur with |- Possible casualties | | |4. Tsunamis can be generated by landslides. |

| | |earthquakes or | | | | |

| | |windstorms | | | | |

|Volcanic Eruption |- Ashfall |.01% - .02% per |- Damage to built |Entire campus |Since an eruption is|1. Ashfall causes many indirect effects on health (respiratory troubles), hazardous |

| |- Acidic rainfall |year |environment | |usually preceded by |driving conditions, damage to mechanical equipment, and interference with wireless |

| |- Landslide | |- Disrupt | |a swarm of small |communications |

| |- Mudflow | |transportation, | |earthquakes, |2. Campus safe from mudflows, but could get large amounts of ash or gas depending on |

| |- Rain/mud | |wireless communication,| |Cascades Volcano |how the wind blows. |

| | | |and power generation | |Observatory would be|3. Seattle’s electric generation facilities and water resources in the Cascades are |

| | | |- Strong impact on | |able to give some |vulnerable to ashfall and mudflow. |

| | | |economic activity | |warning to cities | |

| | | |- Increase in | |that could receive | |

| | | |respiratory aliments | |damage | |

|Water Shortages/ |- Power shortage |Every 5–10 years |Strong economic impact |Entire campus |Seattle depends on |1. Shortages can occur due to long periods without precipitation, but can be caused by |

|Drought |- fire | | | |winter snow pack for|over consumption or structural failures such as pipeline breaks. |

| | | | | |its water supply, |2. Low water supply can affect power generation for the campus. |

| | | | | |but still cannot |3. Unforeseen shortages may force emergency purchases (costly) |

| | | | | |predict summertime |4. Drought does not necessarily cause water shortages but can contribute to one. |

| | | | | |demand. |5. Contamination can cause system to be shut down. |

| | | | | | |6. UW Medical Center and Vivariums will be immediately affected by water shortage. |

| | | | | | |7. Summer droughts impact public safety by drying vegetation and contributing the |

| | | | | | |spread of grass and bldg fires |

| | | | | | |8. UW is considered a Large Water User and could be strongly affected, causing a |

| | | | | | |significant economic impact. |

|Wind storms |- Power outage |One big storm once| - Damage to built |Entire campus |See Severe Storm |1. Universal Bldg Code maps of the US show that Western Washington can receive 70 –80 |

| |- Tree fall |every 3-4 years |environment | | |mph winds and that the Puget Sound area is a “Special Wind Region” where the speeds can|

| |- Seiche | |-Disruption to | | |go even higher. |

| |- Flying debris | |transportation | | |2. Mutual aid may be unavailable since Northwest windstorms are regional and affect the|

| | | |- Power outages | | |whole Puget Sound region. |

| | | | | | |3. The 520 floating bridge is a special concern, because it is vulnerable to storm |

| | | | | | |generated waves and is of large economic and social importance. |

| | | | | | |4. Windstorms halt normal economic activity and can cause widespread and extensive |

| | | | | | |property loss. |

| | | | | | |5. Structural damage can occur at wind speeds as low as 32 mph and destroy wood frame |

| | | | | | |structures at speeds around 100 MPHs. (Seattle’s highest sustained winds were 85 mph.).|

| | | | | | |6. Power outages are common during windstorms and some can last for days. |

|Human-Caused Hazards |

|Civil Disturbance |- Fires |Moderate to high |- Personal assaults |-Stadium |- Highly |1. Disturbances often occur in areas that are crossroads and natural gathering places -|

| |- Rock throwing |chance that a |- Destruction of public|- Red Square |controversial |The Seattle HIVA identifies the University District as an area where a disturbance |

| |- Rioting and looting |significant act of|and private property | |visitors or event |could occur. |

| | |civil disturbance |-Disrupt transportation|University Way |- Announcement of a |2. Biggest danger to campus would be many roving bands of individuals setting fires and|

| | |could occur on |- Potential lawsuits |- Magnuson |controversial |damaging property. |

| | |campus. |against the University |Health Sciences |decision |3. Looting is the most common form of property damage |

| | | | |Center |- Game days |4. Rock throwing and personal assaults have not been common at the University. |

| | | | | | |5. Economic backlash against the University may occur. |

|Hazardous Materials |- Fire |There is a |- High casualties |- Magnuson |Annual inspection |1. Fixed sites, (i.e., labs and other research facilities), are the most common |

|Incident |- Transportation |moderate chance |- Damage to built env’t|Health Sciences |conducted by |locations for accidents, but the greatest vulnerability is to transportation accidents |

| |accidents |for a hazardous |- Disruption to |Center, |Environmental Health|2. Other disasters (i.e., earthquakes, landslides) could produce hazardous materials |

| |- Epidemic outbreaks |materials incident|academic research and |- UW Medical |and Safety |incidents. |

| |of illnesses |to occur on campus|business functions |Center, | |3. Areas up to one half mile downwind from an accident site are considered vulnerable |

| | |in a given year. |- Disrupt |- Henderson | |according to the US Dept. of Transportation, which could affect thousands of people in |

| | | |transportation- |Hall, | |densely populated areas. |

| | | |moderate impact on |-EH&S Storage | |4. Incidents in other locations demonstrate that a single hazardous materials incident |

| | | |economic activity |Building, | |can kill or injure hundreds of people. |

| | | |- Increase in |- Bagley Hall | |5. Most incidents would be localized emergencies without large economic impact on the |

| | | |respiratory aliments | | |University |

| | | |and other health | | | |

| | | |problems | | | |

| | | |- Overwhelm local | | | |

| | | |emergency personnel, | | | |

| | | |and hospitals | | | |

|Terrorism |- Fires |There is a |- High casualties |-Magnuson Health|- Highly |1. Terrorist use threats to create fear among the public. |

| |-Epidemic outbreaks of|moderate chance |- Damage to built |Sciences Center |controversial |2. Bombing, kidnapping, sabotage, assassination and extortion are included in the |

| |illnesses |for a terrorist |environment |- Henderson Hall|visitors, research |definition of terrorist activity. |

| |- Hazardous |act occur on |- Disruption to |-Gerberding Hall|or event |3. Terrorism has come to depend on the mass media to extend their audience from local |

| |naterial releases |campus in a given |Academic research and |- Clark Hall, |- Announcement of a |to global and to greatly exaggerate the impression of violence and its results. |

| |- Structural failures |year. |business functions |- 4545 building |controversial |4. Weapons of Mass Destruction and increased accessibility of more exotic agents, such |

| |of buildings | |- Disrupt |- Power Plant |decision |as biological, chemical and nuclear weapons heightens the concern about terrorism. |

| |- Non-structural | |transportation- | |- Football Game Days|5. The inherent open environment of an academic research institution makes the UW |

| |failures of building | |Moderate impact on | | |vulnerable to terrorist activity. |

| |components | |economic activity | | |6. Health Sciences complex is of particular concern because of large concentration of |

| |- Damaged lifelines | |- Increase in health | | |research dollars and sensitive research located in the complex. |

| |- Rioting and looting | |problems | | |7. Cyber terrorism attack on communications and computer systems could cause large |

| | | |- Overwhelm local | | |amounts of intellectual data, personnel information, and records to be destroyed or |

| | | |emergency personnel, | | |used for illegal purposes. |

| | | |hospitals and blood | | |8. Contagious diseases--unlike explosions--keep spreading long after an initial attack.|

| | | |banks | | |9. Fear alone could create a mass exodus of faculty and students that could affect the |

| | | | | | |financial future of this institution. |

|Trans-portation |- Hazardous material |There is a high |- Human injury and mass|- Montlake Blvd.|- High volume |1. The two major effects of transportation accidents are human injury and hazardous |

|Accident |release |chance for a |casualties |- Pacific Ave. |traffic times |material releases. |

| |- Fire |transportation |- Traffic jam |- Stevens Way |- Football Game Days|2. In heavily populated areas like the University District, there are secondary |

| |- Civil disturbance |accident to occur |- Crowd control |- NE 45th St. |- Foggy or inclement|problems such as crowd control and slow emergency response time due to congestion. |

| | |on campus or in |problems |- SR 520 |weather |3. For three hours, six days a year during Husky football games the chances of a major |

| | |the vicinity each |- Inability of |- I-5 |- High speed zones |traffic accident on the University campus increase. |

| | |day. |emergency personnel to |- NE 15th Ave. | |4. Bigger the volume on SR520 or I-5 the greater the impact on the University. |

| | | |access site | | |5. Draw bridge failure could cause major problems for traffic flow Southbound. |

| | | |- Overwhelm local | | |6. 28,000 people out of approximately 60,000 live within 5 miles of the campus. |

| | | |emergency personnel, | | | |

| | | |hospitals and blood | | | |

| | | |banks | | | |

|Urban Fire |Hazardous material |There is a high |- Human injury and mass|- Older |- Annual inspections|1. Fires are caused by criminal acts, residential accidents and industrial accidents. |

| |release |chance for an |casualties |buildings |by EH&S, Seattle |2. Large structural fires are a substantial risk and are most likely to occur in older|

| |- Conflagration or |urban fire to |- Damage to built |without fire |Fire Department and |buildings. |

| |Fire storm |occur on campus in|environment |suppression |Insurance Companies |3. Any fire can become disastrous because any one can cause high casualties and induce |

| |- Civil disturbance |a given year. |- Disruption to |systems, | |secondary impacts such as hazardous materials release and damaged lifelines |

| |- Explosion | |academic research and |Magnuson Health | |4. A large fire could close off a large part of campus and block major roadways to |

| |- Structural failures | |business functions |Sciences Center,| |facilitate movement of emergency vehicles. |

| |of buildings | |- Disruption to | | |5. The worst case scenario would probably be connected with an earthquake or riot. |

| |- Non-structural | |transportation |- UW Medical | | |

| |failures of building | |- Crowd control |Center, | | |

| |components | |problems |- Henderson | | |

| |- Damaged lifelines | |- Inability of |Hall, | | |

| |- Power outage | |emergency personnel to |-EH&S Storage | | |

| | | |access site |Building, | | |

| | | |- Overwhelm local |- Bagley Hall | | |

| | | |emergency personnel, | | | |

| | | |hospitals and blood | | | |

| | | |banks | | | |

Sources: The City of Seattle – HIVA, USGS, NOAA

University of Washington - Hazard Impact Matrix

Expected Hazards |UW Campus Area Affected |Casualties |Disruption

of Academic Research |Utilities |Transportation |Structures |Non structural |Mass Care & Medical Services |Secondary Hazards | |Civil Disturbance

|High |High |Moderate |Low |Moderate |Moderate |High |High |High | |Earthquake

|High |High |High |High |High |High |High |High |High | |Flooding

|Low

|Low

|Low |Low |Low |Low |Low |Low |Low | |Hazardous Materials Incident |Moderate |High |High |Moderate |High |High |High |High |High | |Landslide

|Low |Low |Low |Low |Low |Low |Low |Low |Low | |Severe Local Storm |High |Low |Moderate |Moderate |High |Moderate |High |Low |High | |Snow Storm

|High |Low |Moderate |High |High |Low |Low |Low |Moderate | |Terrorism

|High |High |High |Low |High |Moderate |Moderate |High |High | |Transportation Accident |Moderate |Moderate |Low |Low |High |Low |Low |High |Moderate | |Tsunami/Seiche

|Low |High |Moderate |Moderate |High |High |Moderate |Low |Moderate | |Urban Fire

|High |High |High |High |High |High |High |High |High | |Volcanic Eruption

|High | Low |High | High |High |Moderate |Moderate |Moderate |Low | |Water Shortage

|High |Low |High |High |Low |Low |Low |Low |Low | |Wind Storm

|High |Low |High |High |High |Moderate |High |Low |Low | |HIGH: There is strong potential for a disaster of major proportions during the next 25 years; or History suggests the occurrence of multiple disasters of moderate proportions during the next 25 years. The threat is significant enough to warrant major program effort to prepare for, respond to, recover from, and mitigate against this hazard. This hazard should be a major focus of the County's emergency management training and exercise program.

MEDIUM: There is moderate potential for a disaster of less than major proportions during the next 25 years. The threat is great enough to warrant modest effort to prepare for, respond to, recover from, and mitigate against this hazard. This hazard should be included in the county's emergency management training and exercise program.

LOW: There is little potential for a disaster during the next 25 years. The threat is such as to warrant no special effort to prepare for, respond to, recover from, or mitigate against this hazard. This hazard need not be specifically addressed in the county's emergency management training and exercise program except as generally dealt with during hazard awareness training. Source: Thurston County Office of Emergency Management – HIVA

Source: The University of Washington

Sidebar 8.3.5: Excerpts from the UW Annex for the 2003 Washington State Hazard Mitigation Plan

Through the primary missions of education, research and public service, the University

makes a substantial economic impact on the state of Washington. The University

employs the full-time equivalent of 23,000 people and has a $2.2 billion annual budget

(Fueling Our State’s Economic Future, 2002). The funds spent on salaries, equipment,

goods, services and capital expenditures circulate through the economy, generating even

more economic activity through job creation and demand for goods and services. This recirculation of money through the economy was estimated to be $6 billion (Fueling Our

State’s Economic Future, 2002). Furthermore, the presence of the University is estimated

to have created an additional 56,000 jobs. As the University has become more integrated

into the economy, the total economic impact that it makes has increased from $3.4 billion

1995 to $4.8 billon today, even as state investment in the University has remained under

$414 million per year (Fueling Our State’s Economic Future, 2002).

With its 643-acre campus located in the city of Seattle, the University is a powerful

magnet for attracting investment and produces a highly educated workforce for the Puget

Sound region and the state. A significant natural or human-caused hazard would affect

the University’s people, programs and facilities. Hazards affecting the Seattle Main

Campus were evaluated in the 2001 University of Washington Hazard Identification and

Vulnerability Assessment (UW HIVA), prepared as part of the FEMA-funded Disaster

Resistant University (DRU) Project.

Along with terrorism and urban fire, earthquakes are the most destructive natural hazard

the University faces. Three major earthquakes have affected the University in the past 52

years (in 1949, 1965 and 2001). New information about the nature and extent of the

seismic threats in Seattle and the Puget Sound region increases the urgency for University

planning. The majority of potential damage and causalities would come from building

damage and the effects of unsecured equipment and other non-structural elements throughout campus buildings. The secondary hazards of fire and release of hazardous materials could overwhelm University resources. If the University prepares for earthquake, the impacts of the other hazards would be mitigated as well.

This report also addresses severe storms, which, based on an historical record of high frequency, could affect the entire campus. According to the UW HIVA, the following natural hazards have been assessed to have minimal impact on the University’s Seattle Main Campus:

• Avalanche: University of Washington Seattle Main Campus is not located in an area for avalanche activity.

• Drought: University of Washington Seattle campus will have minimal direct impact from water shortages.

• Flood: University of Washington Seattle campus is not located in a NFIP designated flood hazard zone.

• Landslide: University of Washington does not have designated landslide areas on the Seattle Main Campus.

• Tsunami: University of Washington Seattle campus is not located in a tsunami inundation zone.

• Volcano: University of Washington Seattle campus is not located in a volcano hazard zone and will not be impacted directly from a lahar.

Future updates to the Agency Annex for the 2003 Washington State Hazard Mitigation

Plan will evaluate terrorism and urban fire in more detail. Future updates will also include the vulnerabilities of the UW Tacoma and UW Bothell campuses as well as University-owned off-campus sites. Essentially, the University must have an all-hazards

approach to recovering quickly from natural and human-caused events in order to

preserve the institution and its valuable services.

University of Washington Hazard Mitigation Planning Mission

As a condition of receiving federal mitigation financial assistance after November 1, 2003, states and localities must prepare a plan that addresses natural hazards following a

FEMA requirement as set forth in Section 322, Mitigation Planning, of the Robert T.

Stafford Disaster Relief Emergency Assistance Act, enacted by Section 104 of the

Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000.

The Agency Annex for the 2003 Washington State Hazard Mitigation Plan will guide the

University in protecting its people, its facilities, environment, equipment and systems by

identifying appropriate initiatives and projects. It will also help the University to prepare

business resumption plans in order to resume normal education and research operations

as quickly as possible following a disaster.

University of Washington Hazard Mitigation Planning Goals

Protect Health and Life Safety

• Integrate personal and workplace safety considerations into planning and design of circulation elements, buildings and open spaces.

• Implement a non-structural program that assists in reducing injury and loss of life by making furnishings, equipment and systems more resistant to natural and human-caused hazards.

• Support the disaster response efforts of Harborview Medical Center and the University of Washington Medical Center (UWMC).

• Improve education and outreach programs to increase campus wide public awareness of the risks and responses associated with natural and human-caused hazards.

• Develop the tools, partnership opportunities and funding to assist in implementing mitigation activities.

• Appoint and train appropriate Campus Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) to respond to disasters on campus.

Create Backup Systems for Lifeline Systems

• Set priorities to replace, retrofit or relocate aging and vulnerable water, sanitary and storm sewers, gas, electrical, communication and fire suppression and alarm systems.

• Maintain security of computing and voice systems and environments.

• Establish mutual aid agreements with local utility providers, as well as with out-of- area campuses and contractors, to quickly restore loss of critical infrastructure systems.

Support the University Mission of Teaching, Research and Public Service

• Ensure the capability of resuming medical care, instruction and research activities within a predetermined time after a major disaster.

• Prioritize and quantify restoration of functions in accordance with the University’s mission.

• Continue preparedness support systems for faculty and staff.

• Review and enhance communication strategies for students, parents, faculty and staff to follow in an event of an emergency.

• Work with faculty to integrate disaster-resistance concepts into curricula in relevant disciplines at the University.

• Host public events at the University that emphasize safety and disaster preparedness.

Reduce Known Sources of Risks

• Supplement the policy structure and support management processes to reduce risk.

• Incorporate information on risk identification and reduction methods and programs currently in place in other University departments such as Environmental Health & Safety (EHS), University of Washington Police Department (UWPD), Emergency Management and Facilities Services into overall hazard mitigation planning.

• Create a data management (GIS) system for documenting, tracking and updating identified risks, hazards and mitigation efforts.

• Continue structural retrofit programs through restoration of older campus facilities to protect lives and reduce damage.

Create and Develop Business Continuity Initiatives

• Develop business continuity plans for critical University business, financial and other key operations to resume activity within a predetermined time.

• Enhance procedures and priority rankings necessary to guide decisions about resumption of critical activities.

• Prioritize the restoration of emergency response facilities and other critical facilities.

• Create support systems to re-develop facilities, financial recovery and other initiatives.

Protect and Preserve Facilities and Contents

• Preserve and promote the use of the buildings as sites of special historical, aesthetic and architectural significance while providing for the future and allowing development of architectural innovations.

• Identify unique and valuable contents that include records, research data, collections and specimens, and develop a plan for preservation.

Maintain Continuity of Transportation Systems

• Maintain the availability of access to and within the campus.

• Require emergency access to all buildings through existing service or vehicular routes.

• Cooperate with the City of Seattle and adjacent communities to improve traffic flow on street networks surrounding and leading to the University.

• Develop a campus evacuation plan including staged departures and designated alternate route to ensure a safe and orderly evacuation of campus in coordination with the City of Seattle and surrounding communities.

Protect the Environment

• Commit to protecting the environment and complying with environmental regulations as part of all University-sponsored activities, including disaster management and response.

• Develop contingency plans for emergencies involving identified environmental risks.

• Incorporate Environmental Management Systems (EMS) concepts and practices into hazard mitigation planning and program activities.

For security reasons, other sections of the Hazard Mitigation Plan are not available for public viewing. Please call the UW Office of Emergency Management at (206) 897-8000 or email at disaster@u.washington.edu for more information.

Source: The University of Washington

Additional Sources of Information on the 2003 Blackout

Edison Electric Institute Blackout Investigation Page



Harvard Kennedy School of Government 2003 Blackout Reference Page



North American Electric Reliability Council Blackout Investigation Page



The Blackout History Project



Union of Concerned Scientists “Lessons Learned” from the 2003 Blackout



Additional Sources of Information on the Marriott Corporation and BCP

ASIS Guidelines -

Disaster Recovery World -

FEMA Emergency Management Guide for Business and Industry -

Marriott WTC Information from



NFPA 1600 -

Business Continuity Page -

Additional Sources of Information on Disaster Resistant Universities

DRU Grant Announcement -

FEMA Disaster Resistant Universities Page -

University of Alaska, Fairbanks DRU Program



University of Central Oklahoma DRU Program



University of Oregon DRU Program



University of Washington DRU Program



Glossary of Terms:

Chapter 11 - A reorganization proceeding in which the debtor may continue in business or in possession of its property as a fiduciary. A confirmed Chapter 11 plan provides for the manner in which the claims of creditors will be paid in whole or in part by the debtor.

Cold Rolling - The rolling of metal at a temperature below the softing point of the metal. This allows work hardening during forming

Force Majeure - French for an act of God; an inevitable, unpredictable act of nature, not dependent on an act of man. Used in insurance contracts to refer to acts of nature such as earthquakes or lightning

HVAC - A system that provides heating, ventilation and/or cooling within or associated with a building

Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) - 1,000 watts for one hour. A measure of electric power consumption.

Power Grid - A network of electric power lines and associated equipment used to transmit and distribute electricity over a geographic area.

SARS - a clinical syndrome characterized by fever, lower respiratory symptoms, and radiographic evidence of pneumonia

Y2K Crisis - Year 2000. The Year 2000 problem was the possibility that financial institutions' computer systems would fail on 1 January 2000 and spark a loss of public confidence in individual institutions or at worst, in the financial system as a whole. In the event, the arrival of Y2K was virtually incident-free.

Acronyms:

BCO – (Marriott) Business Continuity Office

BCP – Business Continuity Planning

BPD – Barrels Per Day

CERT – Community Emergency Response Team

DHS – Department of Homeland Security

DOE – US Department of Energy

DRU – Disaster Resistant Universities Program

ERAC – Emergency Response Action Committee (UW)

ERMP – Emergency Response Management Plan

FBI – Federal Bureau of Investigation

FEMA – Federal Emergency Management Agency

GAO – Government Accountability Office

HIVA – Hazard Identification and Vulnerability Assessment

HMP – Hazard Mitigation Program

IAEM – International Association of Emergency Managers

NEMA – National Emergency Management Association

NFPA – National Fire Protection Agency

PDM – Pre-Disaster Mitigation

SARS – Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

SEOC – Michigan State Emergency Operations Center

UC – University of California

UW – University of Washington

Y2K – Year 2000 Crisis

Discussion Questions

General

1. Why should a business consider the risks of suppliers and customers when conducting BCCM planning?

2. Do all businesses need to conduct BCCM planning? Why or why not?

3. Are there any benefits that a business can enjoy as result of BCCM planning outside of times of disaster?

4. Should the government require BCCM planning for publicly traded companies? Why or why not?

5. What BCCM requirements are placed on private sector businesses by the National Response Plan (2004) and the National Incident Management System (2004)?

6. What are the similarities between municipal emergency planning and BCCM planning? What are the differences?

7. Why does a business need to look beyond the data needs of the company when conducting BCCM planning?

2003 Blackout

1. Is it surprising that so much money was lost by US businesses during the 2003 blackout? Would you have expected that much, more, or less? Explain your answer.

2. Should the utility companies be liable for business losses during blackouts? Why or why not?

3. Is there any difference to companies performing BCCM planning in their consideration of blackouts like the one that occurred in 2003 and losses of power that result from disasters? Explain.

4. What can companies do to prevent business losses during blackouts? Is a comprehensive BCCM program the answer to preventing business losses? Provide a theoretical example of a business, their electricity dependence, and a solution to a power-loss crisis.

5. Is it possible to bring the amount of business lost during a blackout like the one that occurred in 2003 to zero dollars? Explain your answer.

Disaster Resistant Universities

1. How are universities like traditional businesses? How are they different? How do these similarities and differences affect Business Continuity Planning?

2. What is the appropriate role for students in the development and implementation of Business Continuity Planning and Emergency Preparedness and Response at a University?

3. What lessons and experience can universities borrow from municipal emergency management?

4. Why is it vital to the DRU process that participation is garnered from members of the greater community within which the university operates?

5. Should the Federal Government require that this process be conducted by all US universities? Why or why not?

6. If your university were to close, in what ways would the community be affected?

Suggested Out Of Class Exercises

1. Learn the basics of business continuity planning. Contact a small business in your community and offer to volunteer your time to help them prepare a business continuity plan.

2. Research and critique your Universities’ Business Continuity Plan and overall emergency response readiness. Is the Business Continuity Plan appropriately available and communicated to all stakeholders?

3. Find out if your university participates in the DRU program. If so, discuss with them the planning process, and report your findings to the class. If they are not participating, find out what they have done to prepare for disasters and report these findings to the class instead.

4. Contact your local emergency management office. Interview the emergency manager to find out how local businesses participate in the emergency planning process of the community. Report your findings to the class.

5. Visit the website of the Public Entity Risk Institute (PERI – ). Download their publications describing BCP for municipal offices. Learn the differences and similarities between businesses and public entities.

6. Download and take the free FEMA Higher Education Project course entitled “Business and Industry Crisis Management.” ()

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[1] The term business refers to any organization in any sector (public, private, or not-for-profit) that provides a product or service to its customers.

[2] JCHAO Standard EC.4.10 Emergency Management

[3] U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Interagency Paper on Sound Practices to Strengthen the Resilience of the U.S. Financial System . Last accessed 08/26/06

[4] NFPA 1600 Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs. PDF/nfpa1600.pdf?src=nfpa. Last accessed 08/26/05

[5] ASIS International Web Site. Business Continuity Guideline: A Practical Approach for Emergency Preparedness, Crisis Management, and Disaster Recovery (2005), . Last accessed August 9, 2005.

[6] Disaster Planning in the Private Sector: A Look at the State of Business Continuity in the U.S.2005. .

[7] Wold, Goeffrey. Disaster Recovery Planning Process. Disaster Recovery Journal. 1992. .

[8] Disaster Recovery Institute International Professional Practices for Business Continuity Professionals. 2005. .

[9] NFPA 1600 Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs 2004 Edition. Quincy, MA. 2004

[10] 9/11 Commission Report. U. S. Government Printing Office. Washington, DC. 2004.

[11] United States Government. Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. Section 7305. Private Sector Preparedness. Washington, DC. 2005.

[12] ASIS International Web Site. Business Continuity Guideline: A Practical Approach for Emergency Preparedness, Crisis Management, and Disaster Recovery.

[13] Shaw, Gregory. L. and Harrald, John. R. Required Competencies for Executive Level Business Crisis and Continuity Managers. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management. Jan. 2004.

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Source: NOAA

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