Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)-All Chapter Test Reviews
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 1-Wildland Fire Behavior: Fuel, Weather, Topography
Test Review
▪ Fire is actually a by-product of a larger process called combustion.
▪ Rapid oxidation occurs in either smoldering or steady-state phases.
▪ Fuels exist in solid, liquid, and gas form.
▪ Only fuels in gas form will burn.
▪ Pyrolysis is a chemical change caused by the action of heat.
▪ Heat generated by a fire evaporates the moisture in the fuel and heats the fuel to ignition temperature.
▪ Heat transfer takes place by conduction, convection, and radiation.
▪ Heat transfer by conduction has limited effect on the spread of wildland fires.
▪ Materials that rise into the atmosphere by convection may fall back to earth as much as a mile downwind, starting spot fires ahead of the main fire.
▪ Direct flame contact preheats fuels upslope.
▪ Heat waves, also called infrared rays, radiate in all directions from their source and travel through space until partially or totally absorbed by an opaque object.
▪ Radiated heat is one of the major sources of fire spread in wildland fires.
▪ Radiant heat is responsible for many burn injuries in wildland fires.
▪ Combustion can be interrupted by removing the fuel, removing oxygen, removing heat energy, or inhibiting flame-producing chemical reactions.
▪ Heat from catalytic converters on cars can start grass fires.
▪ Clearing a space of all surface fuels down to the mineral soil is a common way of controlling wildland fires.
▪ All forms of vegetation, alive or dead, are fuel for wildland fires.
▪ The NFDRS classifies fuels as grasses, brush, timber (trees), or slash.
▪ Grasses are either annual (rye, wild oats) or perennial (saw grass, various tundra species).
▪ Solar heating alone will not cause ignition, but will facilitate ignition.
▪ Water is present in the environment in the form of precipitation, ground moisture, and humidity.
▪ Fuel moisture varies according to plant species, age of plant, and weather conditions.
▪ One system of fire behavior prediction is based on weather cycles and fuel types.
▪ Fuels on North-facing slopes are less affected by solar heating.
▪ Fuels on North-facing slopes are less affected by solar heating, so their daytime moisture content is generally not as low as fuels on level or South-facing slopes.
▪ Wildland fuels are based on position such as subsurface, surface, and aerial.
▪ Subsurface fuels are roots, peat, duff, and partially decomposed organic matter.
▪ Surface fuels include needles, leaves, twigs, grass, field crops, brush up to 6 feet in height, downed limbs, logging slash, and small trees.
▪ Twigs, needles, and grass are sometimes referred to as flashy fuels.
▪ Ladder fuels include hanging pine boughs, tree moss, tall grasses, brush beneath aerial fuels, and downed limbs or logs in contact with surface fuels.
▪ Aerial fuels are physically separated from the ground surface.
▪ Aerial fuels include brush over 6 feet tall, live/dead leaves and needles on tree limbs, branches, snags, hanging moss, and lichen.
▪ Fuel load is commonly reported in terms of tons of fuel available per acre.
▪ Fuel types are classified according to fuel loading (volume), fuel bed depth (position), and moisture of extinction.
▪ Continuous fuels are spread evenly over an area.
▪ Patchy fuels are separated by bare ground such as grass growing in clumps.
▪ Fuel compaction is the amount of space between the fuel molecules,
▪ The rate of heat transfer and changes in moisture content is directly related to the size of the fuel.
▪ Fuels are described as light, medium, or heavy.
▪ Light fuels, also called fine, flashy, or flash fuels, are short grass and light brush up to 2 feet that burn rapidly.
▪ More firefighters are killed in light fuels that any other type.
▪ Weather is a key factor in firefighter safety and survival on the fireline because of its influence on fire behavior.
▪ Weather is the most changeable factor in regards to wildland fire behavior.
▪ The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and is responsible for most ground level atmospheric conditions.
▪ Unstable air encourages the vertical movement of air and tends to increase fire activity.
▪ Stable air discourages vertical movement of air and reduces fire activity.
▪ Haze and smoke tend to rise in unstable air and spread horizontally in stable air.
▪ Fires may suddenly blow up and become erratic in unstable atmospheres.
▪ Air that is cooled by the earth's surface at night forms surface inversions, also called a night inversion.
▪ Marine inversions are common in the summer, caused by cool, moist air spreading inland in a layer.
▪ The top of an inversion layer is called the thermal belt.
▪ Thunderstorm cloud-to-ground lightning and downdrafts can greatly influence fire behavior.
▪ Visual indicators of thunderstorms include: Tall, building cumulus clouds, cauliflower-shaped cloud tops, clouds with dark, flat bases, rain that evaporates before reaching the ground, and anvil-shaped clouds with fuzzy appearance.
▪ Adiabatic cooling is loss of temperature when heat is neither gained nor lost by mixing with the surrounding air.
▪ Relative humidity is the percentage of moisture relative to the total amount of moisture that the volume of air can hold.
▪ Wind direction is identified as the direction from which the wind is blowing.
▪ Local winds are a by-product of daily heating and cooling patterns, also called diurnal cycle.
▪ Heating of hilly or mountainous terrain causes upslope winds, likewise, cooling causes downslope winds.
▪ Heating of flat terrain can cause whirlwinds or dust devils.
▪ Frontal winds occur at the front of warm or cold air masses.
▪ Gradient winds flow from areas of high barometric pressure to areas of lower pressure.
▪ Gravity winds, also called foehn winds, result from air being forced over mountain ridges by convection or high barometric pressure.
▪ Convective winds are caused by the localized heating of air that expands and rises while cooler, denser air descends to replace it.
▪ Examples of convective winds include: Slope winds, valley winds, land/sea breezes, and thunderstorm winds.
▪ Steep valleys, chutes, drainages, and similar terrain are sometimes referred to as chimneys.
▪ Firewhirls are usually formed on the leeward side of elevated terrain features.
▪ A direct attack on firewhirls is not recommended.
▪ Wind and fuel moisture are the two most important weather-related elements of wildland fire behavior.
▪ The features of the earth's surface, both natural or constructed, are termed topography.
▪ Fire usually move faster uphill than downhill.
▪ The aspect of a slope is the compass direction in which the slope faces.
▪ A fireline located just beyond a ridge can be very effective.
▪ A steep V-shaped drainage is called a chute, also called gullies.
▪ A depression between two hilltops is called a saddle, also called arroyos.
▪ Fuel, weather, and topography are major factors affecting wildland fire behavior.
▪ The rate that a fire extends its horizontal dimensions is termed Rate of Spread.
▪ Rate of Spread is usually measured in feet per minute.
▪ Crowning is burning through the tops of trees or shrubs, more of less independently of the surface fire.
▪ The amount of heat and fire produces over time and distance is the fire's intensity, also called fireline intensity.
▪ A blowup is sometimes considered to be the wildland equivalent to a flashover.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 2-Fire Apparatus & Communication Equipment for Wildland Fires
Test Review
▪ Structural apparatus lend themselves to roadside fires and structure protection.
▪ Structural fire engines with open cabs are unsafe for wildland fires.
▪ The lower the number assigned to a resource, the higher its capabilities.
▪ Fire pumps are either centrifugal or positive displacement.
▪ The ability to draw water from an unpressurized (static) water source is particularly important for wildland fire apparatus.
▪ Laying protective foam blankets over structures exposed to wildland fires is commonly known as drive-by foaming operations.
▪ Partially-filled tanks are less stable than full tanks.
▪ Behind the cab while wearing a restraint system or walking beside the apparatus in view of the driver are the only places outside a cab that is safe for pump-and-roll operations.
▪ With the ICS system, mobile water supply apparatus are called water tenders, however, may be called tenders in many jurisdictions.
▪ A quick-dump discharge system is the most efficient way to discharge water into a portable tank.
▪ Direct, face-to-face voice communication is the preferred method of communication.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 3-Wildland Fire Fighting Tools & Personal Protective Equipment
Test Review
▪ Grass fires usually require more use of scraping or smothering tools.
▪ Brush fires require more use of cutting tools.
▪ Cutting tools are primarily used for fireline construction.
▪ Pulaski tools have a cutting edge and a grubbing edge.
▪ Scraping tools include: Shovels, McLeods, Fire rakes, Hoes, Combination tools, and Wire brooms.
▪ Cutting tools include: Axes, Pulaski tools, and Brush hooks.
▪ McLeod tools consist of a flat hoe blade and hoe portion for trenching/grubbing.
▪ A wire broom is designed for use in grass, grain, and moss fires.
▪ Fire swatters and gunny sacks are most often used to smother wildland fires.
▪ Refueling, purging, and lubricating are the three most common chain saw functions performed in the field.
▪ Booster hose or hardline hose are common names for noncollapsible rubber hose.
▪ Rubber-covered hose is used for mop-up and mobile attack on very low-intensity fires.
▪ Clothing worn in wildland fires must withstand great levels of radiant heat.
▪ Reflective trim is not required on wildland gear.
▪ White or silver trim is recommeded on wildland gear.
▪ Goggles are the most preferred form of eye protection for wildland fires.
▪ Respiratory protection is NOT a major part of the personal protective equipment package for wildland fire fighting.
▪ Particulate respirators are typically used for respiratory protection for wildland fires.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 4-Water Supply
Test Review
▪ Water mixed with penetrants is commonly called "Wet Water".
▪ Class A foam is used with grass and wood.
▪ Class B foam is used with flammable and combustible liquids.
▪ Class B foams are protein or fluorocarbon based surfactants with good film-forming capabilities.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 5-Initial Fireground Command
Test Review
▪ Identifying resources that may be needed for wildland fire operations is the most significant function of pre-fire planning.
▪ Data on bridge weight limits should be of extreme importance in pre-fire planning.
▪ Fireground communication is an important factor in successfully dealing with wildland fires.
▪ Unity of objective, unity of command, span of control, and personnel accountability are factors in developing an organization.
▪ Unity of command simply means that no one firefighter reports to more than one supervisor.
▪ The safety officer has the authority to stop any officer or firefighter engaged in any unsafe activity.
▪ Personnel accountability is the most important fireground safety measure.
▪ Proper size-up and ordering of resources is one of the most important functions of the IC.
▪ Direction of the overall incident is the function of Command.
▪ Implementing the actions of Command is the function of the Operations section.
▪ Collection, evaluation, and dissemination of tactical information is the function of the Planning section.
▪ The Logistics section provides all support needs.
▪ The Finance section is responsible for costs and cost-recovery.
▪ More can be learned from operational deficiencies and mistakes than from operations that went according to plans.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 6-Fire Suppression Methods
Test Review
▪ A slopover occurs immediately across and adjacent to the control line.
▪ Spot fires occur some distance from the control line.
▪ Aerial fuels left unburned in the black can cause a reburn.
▪ L.C.E.S. stands for Lookouts, Communications, Escape Routes, and Safety Zones.
▪ Safety zones are areas mostly devoid of fuel to allow personnel to be safe of dangerous levels of radiant heat and flames.
▪ Most roads are not wide enough to be effective safety zones.
▪ Burned-over areas (the black) make some of the best safety zones.
▪ During size-up, the wind speed/direction, presence of dust devils, expected weather changes, and inversion effects should be closely noted.
▪ Fire will continue to spread at a constant rate unless affected by changes in fuel, topography, or wind.
▪ A combination strategy utilizes offensive actions for structures already involved and defensive action for those nearby.
▪ A control line is any and all constructed or natural barriers used to control fire.
▪ The fire edge is the boundary of the burned or burning fuel at any given time.
▪ A fireline is part of a control line that is scraped or dug down to the mineral soil.
▪ When determining fireline width, the type of fuel, weather, slope, part of fire, size of fire, and possibility of cooling should be determined.
▪ When plenty of water or dirt is available to cool a fire, a narrow fireline will usually suffice.
▪ Rotten logs near a fireline should be wet down or covered with dirt.
▪ A fireline should be wide enough to be effective, but no wider.
▪ Firelines should be constructed as close to the fire edge as safety permits.
▪ A scratch line is a narrow fireline hastily constructed to temporarily stop the spread of fire.
▪ Remove all branches that hang over a fireline.
▪ Swampers, also known as line locators or flag persons may be used to direct heavy equipment in smoke or heavy fuels.
▪ The primary advantage of a direct attack is that firefighters are close to or working in the burned area, which can be used as a safety zone.
▪ A frontal attack is an attack on the head of a fire and can be very dangerous.
▪ Hotspotting involves making a rapid attack on hot-burning points on a fire's edge.
▪ Backfiring involves extensive burning under adverse conditions.
▪ When working in the green, always have a planned escape route or accessible safety zone.
▪ A wet line is not a control line and in itself will not reliably stop an advancing fire.
▪ The gpm of a fog nozzle must exceed the fire's expected thermal output.
▪ Pilots making air drops must be warned of hazards in the drop zone.
▪ Aerial ignition is the dropping of burning material onto uninvolved areas.
▪ Carry all tools horizontal when approaching or leaving helicopters.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 7-Wildland / Urban Interface Fire Suppression
Test Review
▪ Fire department records and reports reveal an area's fire history.
▪ Reporting conditions on arrival is one of the most important parts of initial size-up.
▪ The candle/moth syndrome is when an officer is drawn to the first flame seen while ignoring the rest of the situation.
▪ The overall priority of an incident is life safety, incident stabilization, and property conservation.
▪ Considerations of firefighter safety include ingress/egress routes, power lines, smoke, hazardous materials, and LPG and aboveground fuel storage.
▪ Structural characteristics that should be evaluated are: Roofs, siding, windows, heat traps, sizes of structures, and position on slopes.
▪ Fuels surrounding structures should be evaluated for size and arrangement, age, proximity, loading, types, fencing, yard accumulations, and explosives.
▪ Fire behavior should be observed for rate/direction, topographic/weather influences, flame length, spotting, time of day/year, and barriers to fire spread.
▪ Available resources should be monitored for kind, type, amount, capability, limitations, and locations of the resources.
▪ Triage priorities in order of importance are life safety (including livestock), residences, commercial/governmental buildings, and unoccupied buildings.
▪ A variety of individual resources may be available from task forces.
▪ When defending a structure, survey the surrounding fuels, the structure itself, hazards present, resources on-site, sources of water, and resources adjacent to structure.
▪ A short length of hose should be maintained for crew/engine protection.
▪ Firelines are cut down to the mineral soil.
▪ Fuels left between the fireline and a structure are termed intermediate fuels.
▪ Hoselines should not be deployed in front of an apparatus.
▪ Solid stream nozzles should only be used for mop-up.
▪ The area immediately downwind of the fire front is termed the spotting zone.
▪ Water supply considerations should include capacity, flow rate, pressure, and reliability of the supply.
▪ The communications plan is one of the most important elements of the IAP.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 8-Firefighter Safety & Survival
Test Review
▪ Isolated portions of large fires and small fires produce the most incidents of injury.
▪ Fight fire aggressively with safety in mind.
▪ Initiate actions based on current/expected fire behavior.
▪ Recognize current/expected weather conditions.
▪ Ensure clear communications for orders and instructions.
▪ Obtain current fire situation often.
▪ Remain in constant communication with crew, officers, and mutual aid forces.
▪ Determine and know escape routes and safety zone areas.
▪ Establish lookouts for hazardous situations.
▪ Retain control at all times.
▪ Stay alert, calm, and think clearly, and decisively.
▪ As a line progresses, blacklining should be done from the anchor point at the top.
▪ Wildland firefighting gear is commonly called "brush gear".
▪ Toxic products given off by wildland fires include CO, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and reactive aldehydes.
▪ Drip torches are preferred against fusees.
▪ Cutting tools should be used with short, sharp cutting strokes.
▪ Voltage drops as electrical current flows from the point of contact outward in all directions.
▪ Fires beyond one span between poles with downed power lines can be fought as regular fires.
▪ Escape routes from a snag should be at right angles to the expected fall line.
▪ Smoke from wildland fires can contain CO2, CO, hydrogen cyanide, and hydrogen chloride.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 9-Fire Prevention & Investigation
Test Review
▪ Cause/origin data provide a basis for fire prevention activities.
▪ Locating the area of origin is the first step in fire investigation of a wildland fire.
▪ Tree limbs may bend in the direction of fire spread.
▪ The area of origin will contain more unburned material and less effects from flames than the head of the fire.
▪ Cupping is a process by which the windward side of a fuel burns deeper than the more protected leeward side.
▪ Unburned grass often points toward the fire origin.
▪ A deeper char on the windward side of a wood object is termed the alligator effect.
▪ An incendiary fire is one set with malicious intent.
▪ Documentation for chain of evidence must occur each time evidence passes to another person.
▪ Graph paper, often called quadrille-ruled paper, is used to sketch a fire scene with accurate distances/measurements.
▪ Code enforcement, education, and engineering activities are the general components of fire prevention programs.
▪ Fuel breaks involve removing most, but not all fuel from an area.
▪ Firebreaks involve removing all fuel down to the mineral soil.
▪ The first step in a fire prevention program is to identify problems, followed by applying solutions, and evaluating results.
Wildland Firefighting (3rd Edition)
Chapter 10-Fire Protection Planning
Test Review
▪ Creating a greenbelt between structures and wildlands is a permanent way of separating housing developments from wildlands.
▪ Severe hazards in urban/wildland interfaces are aircraft hangars, cereal/flour mills, and explosives manufacturing.
▪ High hazards in urban/wildland interfaces are auditoriums, theatres, freight terminals, mercantiles, and warehouses.
▪ Moderate hazards in urban/wildland interfaces are amusement parks, libraries, restaurants, and textile manufacturing.
▪ Low hazards in urban/wildland interfaces are parking garages, bakeries, breweries, churches, and service stations.
▪ Letter on signs should contrast with the background.
▪ Fire protection water supplies must be in place and operable before combustible building material can be brought into a construction site.
▪ The National Electrical Code handbook applies throughout the United States.
▪ The Life Safety Code (NFPA 101), is used internationally.
▪ The Uniform Building Code is used in the Western U.S.
▪ The Building Officials and Code Administrators code is used in the Midwest.
▪ The Southern Building Code Congress International applies in the Southern U.S.
▪ The National Building Code applies where other building codes are not in place.
▪ Pre-incident planning for developments adjacent to wildlands should include block/unit designation system, aerial photos/special instructions for the block/unit, preferred routes of travel, possible helispots, and locations of water supplies, support facilities, staging areas, special problem areas, and areas for unloading heavy equipment.
▪ When cutting a chain to open a gate, cut the link nearest the lock.
▪ The Emergency Alert System is a requirement of commercial broadcasters as a condition of their operating license.
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