MRLC2000 topics



This outline in the beginning is not really an outline of the document but a kind of index. In the document discussions were kept in the basic order in which they occurred, but they are organized in the outline by subject, with each subject linked to its section in the document (some together, some scattered…).

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MRLC2000 topics

Pilot issues (prep issues)

Homogeneous plots only? – how do we determine this…

GPS’d plots only – how many do we have…

Do we need %crown cover on the plots?

Can we use FIA plots for training

Problem of getting %forest cover below 20%

Timeliness

NRI has data as well—can we use it…

Timeline

Objectives for pilot and pilot questions

Questions for EDC

What plot/tree data to take

RSB to-do items

Recommend NLCD for Phase I

Put together a list of datasets to be gathered and kept at RSAC’s Geospatial data clearinghouse

Perhaps take the accurate plot coordinates issue to the Mgmt team…

Put together a briefing paper for the Mgmt team of what we need to bring to EDC

RSB’s responsibilities

Providing stratification layer to IMC

Providing common ancillary layers (with the help of RSAC’s Geospatial data clearinghouse; IMC will help maintain them in the long run…)

Providing a glossary of terms (need RSB contact for this)

partial list …

MODIS

Landfire

Stratification

Criteria for choosing a method

Region-to-region consistency

Maintaining flexibility between regions and over time

Change management for stratification – documenting/tracking what we do

What regions currently use for stratification

What RSB will provide the IMC Band

If we can put all the error in a ‘mixed’ class that has a small weight…

Geospatial

Initial discussions within RSB

Selecting GIS datasets to trust as the standard

GSTC can help…

Attributing plots by data layers for folks outside FIA

Data layers for the Analysts

Should we consider a Geospatial Band?

Analysts using ArcView

Full datasets beneficial

Who’s going to be the data manager?

Meeting with IMC

Info learned after

NRI and FIA integration

Description

What could we get from the NRI photos?

Field measurements of tree crowns

Initial discussion within RSB

Meeting with DAB

Info learned later

360o (IPIX) ground photos

Initial discussions within RSB

Meeting with DAB

Info learned later

Links provided by Winterberger and Befort

Increasing accuracy of GPS’d coordinates

Recommendation to DAB to upgrade GPS

Stat Band meeting—we need the most accurate coordinates

Inaccessible plots

Initial discussions within RSB

In discussion with Stat Band

Expansion factors for user-defined areas

Initial discussions within RSB

see meeting with the IMC band

Meeting with the Stat band

How do we use DOQQ’s to help in the Phase II process

RSB-IMC meeting

What we give the IMC Band

RSB-AB-DAB meeting

Acquiring distance-to-water info

Acquiring other distance-to-… info

Measuring crown dimension on plot

Gradually updating GPS units

Nationwide datasets for Analysts

Ground photos

Request – ‘please tell us what we can take away’

RSB-Stat meeting

Plot location inaccuracy

Definition of forest and other image-plot differences

Stratification input-output formulas

Precision standard

Stratification differences between regions and over time

Using FIA plots to help create these classified maps

--including their use as a seed…

Getting information on inaccessible plots

Calculating stratification weights on the fly

Space Imaging – IRS, WIFS and IKONOS

Jule’s group

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April 3

1:00-3:00

Topic: MRLC2000

FIA-MRLC Pilot study area issues: -- pilot prep

– making plots relatively homogenous

• how are we determining this? -- Tymcio is doing this on the ground… (?)

• PILOT prep: should we be pre-screening or pre-attributing plots for extracting homogeneity info etc. that we might be interested in.

– GPS’d plots only (there will be 89 of these in the Wasatch pilot area)

• PILOT prep: what use are the non-GPS’d plots? -- for accuracy assessment plots? --via visual transfer from photo to DOQQs… MRLC/TM.

• PILOT prep: don’t forget that the nonforest plots are useful too

– collecting %crown cover on the plots

– can we use FIA plots for training

• given that the classification decision rules are based on lots of things, this may not be a problem…

• still a concern in using it as a seed plot… (discussed with Stat band…)

-- Problem of getting %forest cover below 20%

• %Forest regression

• --NAPP + IKONOS ~~TM

• we can easily get that info from NAPP or IKONOS

• there’s lots of noise with low %canopy closures

• perhaps in the %cover map, just include all areas from 0-100%, and if the areas of 50% forest;

NE will be doing it for WV next year just because they need it now…

How do we use DOQQs to help in the Phase II process?

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April 4, 2001

9:00-12:00

Stratification

Change management for stratification --

• How are we going to document what we do -- internal tracking of procedures use

• The stratification layer we provide IMC with will have to include a date (presumably of imagery/data used) and date of completion (or version number) as well as full metadata as to its components and sources, which they will need to be able to cite/reference when they’re calculating any particular report. Because the next report may use a newer version of the stratification layer its calculation… (newer by image data or newer because of improved classification).

The actual stratification tool used in any region will be flexible

• The for/non map will probably not alone be sufficient for stratification -- to get to the 3% per million acres…

• Use the information we have, with the flexibility to change what we use for stratification if it improves the results

Criteria for choosing a method -- is the lowest standard error going to be it?

• Does the stat band or the analysis band care or have an opinion on what we use for stratification based on the analyses they want to do. How much difference does it make to, e.g., stratify on forest cover and road density or population, and you want to summarize counties by species, etc… What repercussions does it have on the standard tables produced? We’re guessing not that much, given that’s always been sort of a problem we’ve just lived with…

Currently:

• RM uses, for/non, owner, reserved/non-reserved,

• PNW uses ownership, for/non,

• NC uses for/non,

• NE uses for/non, volume,

What about region-to-region consistency? (Finco)

-do different stratification layers make a difference

What we give to the IM Band

--how many strata are there

--what are the weights per county

--which plots are in each county

--other geospatial layers just to have in the presentation database

If we can put all the error in a ‘mixed’ class that has a small weight (covers a small proportion of the total area), we’re doing good...

Geospatial topics

As a group we’re responsible for maintaining common ancillary layers

Some of which are used for stratification, and some aren’t (depending on the region/state), and which are also available for the Analysis folks to use. (GEOSPATIAL)

If we put together the list, Mark Finco will present that as a task for the Geospatial data clearinghouse run by RSAC. He’s supporting getting GSTC better linked up with broadband, etc.

E.g. Census pop, census water, DEM’s, counties, -- maintained by RSAC

Also additional info for analysts -- NHD, watersheds…

Still important to keep a focus on RS (Befort) -- and new ways of getting data about the plots

Should we split into an RS band and a Geospatial band? ( [info from later in the week: the IMC band has taken on some of this issue, and will probably (GEOSPATIAL)

Benefits to the analysis band of keeping the full geospatial datasets (GEOSPATIAL)

Who’s going to manage the data? -- IMC band is initially just working on the scalar database

They’re going to need training in Oracle and SDE… -- or pretty much hire a GIS/spatial-database person full time to handle this…

Attributing plots with the data values would do a lot, *with* the assistance of a GIS person to run spatial analyses when the need comes. Increasing the GIS capability of the analysts will come over time too…

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NRI and FIA integration -- Roni Lessard--

– --Dave Heinzen, Chuck/Jeff Gabel (NRCS), Ray Czap, Andy Gillespie, Colin Homer

– How can we put these datasets together? Minnesota is being used as a testbed.

– Meeting in Madison

– NRI is looking at becoming a major partner in MRLC -- offering data as well

– NRI data was traditionally flown every 5 years -- 1982, 1987, 1992, 1997 etc.

– 1:8000 PSU’s -- 300,000 of them across the US, 9x9 photos, non-stereo, normal-color transparency; it gets scanned at 600 dpi; (an 80 Mb file compressed with MrSid down to an 8Mb file per photo);

– Have just gone annual in 2000

– So now, 70,000 are flown each year -- 40,000 of which will be flown every year, and 30,000 of those are flown in areas that are rapidly changing -- urban, wetlands,

– (in 2000, only the core 40,000 were flown)

– There is some field work

– There are 3 points in the PSU, and data is collected at those points, the majority of it from the 9x9 photograph

– Polygons are put around the points.

– Will detail a little more the forest side of it -- maybe we can get the 3 strata that NLCD uses (conifer, hardwood, mixed), and if there is more that they can get for FIA, they might be able to

– In addition to the 3 polygons, they’re looking at utilizing this more -- esp rare things

– The polygons are being given to EDC. It’s under discussion whether the imagery would be available to EDC too… There is a security issue just like FIA.

– NRI is looking to the NLCD product to estimate things for them too.

– Want a lot of information attached to each pixel so that they can build the classifications that they are interested in (because the final product might not do that).

– NRI’s threshold for forest is: 1 acre minimum, 20% crown cover, 100 feet width,

– Could NRI’s photointerpreters draw out some Anderson I polygons for the EDC folks to use.

– This will be a *major* photo library for anyone doing image classification.

– The NRI PSU is a 160 acre square, following the public land surveys. It doesn’t cover public land.

– They delineate hydrography, urban/developed areas, transporation centers, but the photointerpretation is largely limited to the 3 points in the PSU.

– They’ve underutilized their photography for years (Befort), but they’re taking much better photography now.

– The 3 points within a PSU are sometimes used as ground lots. The field work is not done every year -- in fact is was last done in 1992.

– Slope etc. for erosion equations are collected on the ground.

– The expansion factors are based on those photos. And it’s based on the 3 plots only -- i.e. the 3 points describe/define what’s there for stratification (2 corn plots and 1 forest = 100 acres corn and 50 acres forest)

– They used to just use available photography, and now they’re taking their own. --plot-specific, very high quality photography.

– 5% of the photos have FIA plots on them; that translates into a pretty small percentage of plots that show up on photos. (~15,000 plots nationwide).

What could we get from NRI density of photos about summarizing landscape characteristics? Are there enough photos?

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List of RSB’s responsibilities (?)

Phase I

Inaccessible plots

Navigational aids

Phase II elements measurable by RS

Continuous improvement of all the above methods

What is the RSB’s role?

A lot of FIA analysts etc. are already using ArcView, and they want data (Bill Cooke)

They don’t understand error propagation, projections, … (GEOSPATIAL)

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Crowns discussion

Field measurement to aid in classification stratification?

--tree crown measurements on P3 plots

Bill chatted with Mike Schumacher who’s the expert on it, and he’s…

Alaska collects: Crown radius, crown length (vertical), and crown class, for all the tally trees on all plots -- and finds it easy to do.

Ken’s found crown radius to be good for mapping

Calculating a ‘crown reflectance proportion’ for each subplot

--problems: crowns that intrude into the plot

--possible solution: shrink the plot; back-calculate from prism factor

Can’t drop azimuth and distance to trees

Trying to develop a relationship between imagery and forest/trees that’s more continuous (e.g. density).

Effect of stand density on crown size is

Densiometer etc. tools for measuring crown density vary widely in reliability and accuracy

There are references in the Manual of Remote Sensing for crown, dbh, stand density relationships. Not always strong relationships among all species

Comparing the proportion of forested pixels in a 5x5 window with the proportion of forested crown cover on the subplots.

It gives you a better handle on the components of mis-registration vs. mis-classification error

The prediction of diameter from crown diameter is typically .8 -- results are in Bill’s Albuquerque paper

Not drawing crowns on trees < 5” (saplings) may be a big problem/factor

Intrusion and extrusion may be a problem

Bill’s research has been on a limited number of species.

On forested plots, what is the average %crown cover in the NE (??)

Crown closure can be measured a number of different ways that come up with different numbers (e.g. crowns as solid objects, or as partially transparent…)

RSB -- might think of ways to get this info from large scale imagery --

Take the photo and photointerpret…

Approach to DAB -- “If you wanted us to get X and X from RS, we would need… and it would involve…”

We can’t yet get this from the likes of digital imagery currently available.

Need to get a handle on the relationship between %stocking and %crown cover

In the back of Mike’s book is some info…

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IPIX (links on the RSB web page)

Do a 360 degree pictures from plot center exactly, at a fixed height (Quicktime, VR-works, IPIX-fisheye lens and stitching software) photo of all P3 plots. -- photographically documenting, repeatably, every plot. It’s repeatable because it’s always the same focal length, etc. Put plot number on it.

Alaska uses the fisheye.

RM takes 4 digital pictures in the cardinal directions.

PNW’s experience

--its invaluable for QA (Alaska has found errors with it)

--its invaluable for understanding change

--impact is low / it’s easy to do

--cameras are small and under $1000

--software is easy to use -- a done by who?

Increasing accuracy of GPS coordinates…

Transition that the DAB move to a GPS unit that records and stores the coordinates electronically and is differentially correctable. --gives us a measure of precision too

Requires differentially correcting in the office.

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Inaccesible plots

-- are huge problems in the south and Alaska

South -- is currently matching plots based on the closest thing they can find -- based on…

? about quick assessment of large scale damage -- e.g. large-scale aerial video

NTM is available on federal land, and for FEMA-type incidents

Alaska -- is looking at NTM

There is a study in progress that will be completed in June -- ‘What data can be collected for FIA plots’

--e..g tree spp, tree size, crown dimensions,

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RSB-IMC meeting

• change management ( is studying how any change affects the other bands / processes

• Geospatial is an important function for FIA that has fallen through the cracks to date.

• who’s managing the GIS database? -- IM band is just working on the scalar database

• GSTC is already working with Oracle and SDE…

• Separating/identifying short-term vs. long-term solutions to the integration of the scalar and spatial databases, to answering those spatial questions that come up.

• Lumping areas that are too small…--would be one reason for wanting them linked.

• Andy Lister is the RSB-IMB liaison -- they’re conference calls are Tuesdays at 1:00 Eastern.

• Dynamic area expanders are a long-term goal

• TABGEN--needs a standard format ---searching for a basic spatial unit -- something like the intersection of all the strata (county/ownership/for/non,volume)

• IMB will put together a list of what they need for stratification info

• RSB will almost certainly need to provide stratification information with a DATE…

• IMB needs stratification info even for the 1st year -- since some regions will be doing annual reports

• Any changes to codes must be accompanied by a mechanism for cross-walking to the previous versions -- to enable change and trend analysis

• What about the hex as a BSU (basic spatial unit) for expansion factors? (McRoberts)

• I don’t think we can sum to the hex now (Carol Alerich), we need counties -- because they don’t fit neatly in the counties which are the unit we make summaries by.

• User-defined areas should be a product.

• But, what we need for the first build is that we need the area expanders for the units we’re going to summarize the data by. And that unit is the county.

• Need a pilot study for calculating area expansion factors ‘on-the-fly’.

• Additional note for IMC –if they don’t already have it:

o Add the toponame that the plot falls on

o Add the photo number that the plot falls on

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3:00-5:00

RSB-AB-DAB meeting

Variables that AB and DAB would like to get:

Distance to water -- all permanent water (

• is what’s on a 1:24,000 topo sufficient? Probably, …but Ray Sheffield didn’t think so

• the NHD dataset will be available… When? (the NWI may be a part of this) check with WRD folks about the accuracy, limits, attributes associated with this

• does it need to be the closest distance downhill?

• the NHD comes with other attributes (like streamsize etc. and other USGS WRD info…)

Uses: streamside management zones, buffer strips, --hence the demand for accuracy around +/- 10 feet (i.e. subplot accuracy)

Question: realistically, this level of detail sounds below the level of information that can really be provided by FIA plots…

One thought: have crews measure it if its less than 200” feet around plot center (that’s the area that they normally traverse for plot measurements anyway)

Possible sources for water beyond that: DLG, DOQ, Aerial photos, NHD

Distance to road, ag, urban… -- better from satellite imagery or aerial photography?

• % context around the plot (of X size area around the plot)

• landscape pattern around the plots

• level of fragmentation of the forested area, patchiness, homogeneity…

uses: --because it affects how that plot functions

Dan Wendt -- summarized context information from MRLC map… did a study of differences? (check)

NE has a pilot going?… -- study plan this…

Are we interested in putting together a more thorough each-region test of this?

Request for crown dimensions on P3 plots -- may be coming in the future. Use the existing data for the other 25 FHM states where it was collected, to see if the relationship holds, and then maybe suggest adding it to the P3. RM has some old data that could also be used.

GPS -- not much positive response from the DAB here.

RSAC will check what nationwide datasets, at some level of quality are available.

Work with Mark Finco to specify what accuracy we need…

On-the-ground camera --Kevin did a pilot test in CA (estimates $40 per plot). Ken has been doing a pilot in Alaska. RM is doing a pilot too. Suggest a pilot study in each region. How do we get a pilot study going?

Heinzen -- “Please tell us what we can take away” (comment for the RSB)

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April 5th

RS-Stat meeting

Issue: plot location inaccuracy

--plots split by counties -- they can’t be mapped by the field crews on the ground

--could use digital county boundaries -- but these aren’t of the accuracy required -- even the 40’ accuracy of the 1:24,000 data isn’t good enough.

We could use states where we have accurate section lines as a test of how accurate they are.

Our biggest single problem is locational error:

• Get the most accurate GPS’d coordinates --we need to get the most accurate digital coordinates!!!! -- let’s take this to the management team…

• check the projection that MRLC2000 will come out with

• ensure the best rectification of the MRLC data

o even to the point of re-rectifying the MRLC data with the most accurate road data you’ve got, etc.

o they’re using the national DEM dataset this time, which they didn’t have last time, which should make it better this time

• IS the plot in such-and-such a stratum

• Can we identify which plots would change strata with a one-pixel shift. -- NE did that and learned that there are several sources of error.

• Additional problem: a plot covers several pixels

And getting RS-compatible info from ground plot info…

Sources of error are multiple:

--definition of forest -- is a continuous thing

NOTE: Bill Cooke’s procedure goes to the tree-level and doesn’t depend on the F/NF call

We can handle that error in part by trying to capture/limit those highly variable error-prone areas to certain strata (‘mixed’, etc.)

There are multiple uses for this map, stratification is one of them

Stratification input-output formulas ARE different between the units -- Stat Band will straighten this out.

Issue: precision standard

Issue: what if we come up with a different stratification method for two different states, two different time periods,

Stat: in theory it should still be an unbiased estimate, and it should only affect the precision of the estimate.

--you’re always using a CURRENT stratification at that time of compilation

--changes over time will only use the current stratification, or no stratification.

RSB: what if we have a stratification that’s only 5% SE, when do we stop improving it

--if we can improve it regionally, we’re going to do that

Stat: you can keep improving your classification as long as you’re not using the plots to improve the classification

--if you only have 3.5%SE, it’s okay

--they’re not even sure we’re all computing it the same way

--we’re just going to do the best we can do

RSB: What if we accept the MRLC classif, test the accuracy and it’s not so good in a particular county, or state…

Stat: Well…, the for/non map would need more help from other sources to define the stratification layers… even to the point of not being used at all? Sure, I guess why not…

Issue: using our plots to help create these classified maps

Stat: if we’re only using FIA plots, then that’s bad

– if we’re doing it to *just* create FIA stratification layers, then that’s bad

– if we’re using other variables too, then that’s okay -- we’re guessing that the proportion of the total are the FIA plots contributing to the classification decisions

– Ron and Bill will send back the initial proposals of data that they’re using -- just to make sure that the FIA data isn’t driving the entire process.

RSB: what if we only used 10% of the plots to make the model.

Stat: that would make it even more comfortable…

– get the proportion of FIA plots that are contributing

– someone from the Stat band will go to the 1st FIA-EDC work plan meeting

RSB: --if we use the FIA plots for accuracy assessment, and then change the model as a result, is that the same as using it for the model?

Stat: yes

– but, when you go back and use it to raise some flags that make you rework the model, then that’s okay.

Issue: what if plots are used as the seed

Stat: that’s bad

RSB: what if we use plots from an adjacent counties as the seeds

Stat: sure, that’s okay in concept. Will it really be useful for you guys?

RSB: we’re going to try this in WV and VA

Gretchen: we’re trying to figure out how to squeeze this too. (using lots of other data to reduce the precision--slope, elevation, etc…

Request that we put this in a special session on this topic in the next FIA Symposium

Issue: Trying to get information on inaccessible plots:

– In NE, we’ve got 2-4% inaccessible plots

– There have been a couple tests with different replacement strategies. (strata mean, etc)

– Ken is looking at the spy satellite to get info.

– Also, we can take a large-scale low altitude imagery and measure it.

– NTM. -- they’re currently trying to duplicate some plot measurements in Montana.

– Things like species, size class…

– Steve Reutebeuch’s project has been put on the back burner.

– What variables can be collected and at what level of accuracy? -- RSB will do a list And at what cost… (image scale/resolution required, etc.)

Issue: calculating stratification weights on the fly

– Ron’s doing a ‘what-do-we-need’ issue paper

– IMB will be doing a ‘how do we do it’ paper -- RSB need to supply them with the necessary info…

Reporting units are the 1st step for stratification layer.

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10:00-12:00

RSB alone…

Topic: what Ron, Bill and Andy and Dan bring to the FIA-EDC meeting, do, and take home…

What plot/tree data do we take out there? -- only GPS’d plot locations… (do we want to correct)

--plotid

--state

--county

--pltnum

--XY coordinates (lat/lon, decimal degrees, 6 decimal places) --NAD 83

--%forest

--%hardwood

--%softwood

--%crown cover

--stand size class

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A subplot-condition class file:

– Subplot, CC, area, reserved status, ownership, forest type, stand size class, regeneration status, tree density

A tree file:

– Tree, subplot, CC, dbh, height, crown,

What variables at condition-level:

– quadratic mean diameter

– ba by forest type

– ba by crown class

What variables at the tree-level:

– dbh/ba

– crown class (open-grown, dominant, co-dominant, intermediate, overtopped)

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Have to put together a briefing paper of what we need to bring.

– this may translate into a request for info from the IM Band…

– how we’re going to protect the plots integrity -- we’ll probably need an MOU; will try the one week first and recommend why we need one if it doesn’t work

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Questions: (also inserted into question list above)

Are we doing the whole ecozone or just a couple scenes in the ecozone? ( check with Colin

What format should we bring the data in ( Excel files, Oracle, Access,

On site or over the network?

All data or some info summarized to the plot-level ahead of time.

--interest in the 5 year product --

--threshold product

--what is the order of zones (states) being processed and released? Can we influence this.

--what projection are they using?

--what projection are they using when they do the image processing?

--what’s the projection the interim data will be in….

--what’s the final projection

--make sure they know the projection and datum of the plots they’re carrying out

--census land areas that we clip out don’t always match census figures.

RM uses the national albers -- we need to make sure the IM band has this straight --

IMB issue: they’ve got it in lat/lon and datum.

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Miscellaneous

Taking some folks out on an FIA plot -- on a state forest in SE Minnesota for example…

Who’s paying for per diem for the folks going?

RSB needs to do a glossary of terms…

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Other questions:

QA/QC topics/problems/questions/goals

Web page…

Pilot projects -- who’s working on what to address the issues that we’ve got

e.g.

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--put Mark Finco’s .ppt on the web…; link to UMD Global Landcover Facility web page; link to NASA’s MODIS webpage; Andy’s .ppt; geospatial data clearinghouse; link to Albuquerque RS2000 proceedings;

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Space Imaging --

Archive online in Oracle

Tonal mosaic vs. indiv scenes (takes time)

Colorized (using TM) vs. panchromatic

Format and projection -- will do a variety

Product mode (vs. just access to the data) or Hybrid

--i.e. browse and cut out the area you want and it gets mailed to you

Do we want it to be archived?

Typically the data will be no more than 3 years old

Pricing -- $/sq km

Payment method?

Currently have IRS data (Alaska’s covered)

Access to the IKONOS data (not very complete coverage in the archive yet)

WIFS data -- 180m

90-m posting DEMS that’s available seamless across the US

can search by lots of things

runs by its own internet browser

IKONOS -- 11 x 11 km

IRS -- 70 x 70 km

IRS: 5m panchromatic (may go into the near IR)

– Approximately 2.50 per sq. km ( the price would be significantly less for us… :-)

– Radiometric resolution: 6 bit (1-128)

– Revisit frequency -- 2 every 8 days (there are 2 satellites up there.

– Orthorectified to the 90m DEM’s, along with supplemental ground control that they’ve collected throughout the US.

– Maybe they can use the 30m DEMs for this… (supposed to be a seamless mosaic) -- when will this be available?

– PSLG (state and local gov’t pricing program)

If one state/fed/local gov’t buys it, it’s available to all public (they’re working this out).

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Jule

Interp of low level GPS-controlled large scale aerial photos for FIA

--can see objects down to an 1” in size.

--interested in a digital version of it (7.5 micron digitizing)

--identifying FIA ground variables

will be hiring some folks to do this…

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Things learned in later discussions

Field measurements of crowns

• There are some FHM intensive plots (‘P4’ plots) that are perfect for any of the pilot studies that require additional data to be collected on FIA-like plots (contact: Ken Stolte)

• Bill Cooke spoke with Bill Bechtold and got lots of info on crown/diam relationships etc…

Geospatial Band

• The IMC Band is taking this seriously, and may one day be contacting some of us to help them with geospatial issues

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