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Higher Education Issue:Racism in Greek LifeE. ForneyUniversity of PittsburghRacism in Greek LifeIn my paper, I am exploreing how racism in Greek letter organizations has evolved throughout time in the US. First, I will define some terminology about Greek life, drawing mostly from my own experience as a sister of Alpha Chi Omega. In this section, I hope to make clear some of the nuances in how college Greek letter organizations are run, locally and nationally. I will then first talk about discuss history, starting with the formation of Greek organizations, moving tofirst with overt racism from the colonial times up into the 1900s, then to with covert and institutionalized racism throughout the last century. Then I wi’ll discuss modern day Greek letter organizations, explaining some key terms before breaking downexploring different perspectives based on geographical location: The South(east), The North(east), and The West Coast. These perspectives shall be considered as the various stakeholders in the Greek system are recognized., After By discussing the various views stakeholders have, I hope to offer some potential steps toward alleviating the problem of Greek life racism. Greek TerminologyThere are many different types of Greek letter organizations and levels of governance. Laying out the nuances in how groups differ will be useful throughout the paper, but specifically in the section regarding stakeholders. For example, the first Greek organization (which I discuss in the next section) eventually became an honors. There are also professional-, academic-, and service-oriented organizations, but for the purposes of this paper, I will be discussing social fraternities, both predominantly white, and those created for a specific diverse population. These organizations primarily promote socializing and bettering members in some way (typically academically and personally). They also typically have a certain philanthropic goal or cause, meaning that members participate in volunteer service.I will also be discussing social sororities, although I may not always make the distinction. ‘Fraternities’ typically refers to a men’s groups, but it can refer to women’s or mixed-gender groups as well. Some sororities have officially adopted the term ‘sorority’ into their branding, but some still choose to use the term ‘women’s fraternity.’If a fraternity has multiple chapters across various schools, it likely has a national (or at least state) headquarters overseeing the various chapters. Some of these national chapters may fall in to a larger, pan-Greek organization based on their primary membership: Primarily white sororities: National Panhellenic Conference (NPC), 26 organizationsPrimarily black sororities: National Pan-hellenic Council (NPHC), 9 organizationsPrimarily white fraternities: North-American Interfraternity Council (NIC), 75 organizationsThese pan-Greek organizations typically serve their organizations by standardizing what makes a certain group and processes such as recruitment and new member initiation. Greek organizations without national headquarters will not be a part of these national pan-Greek organizations. Many Greek organizations do not have multiple chapters, so they need to be governed from a local level. College chapters have governing boards of students and often also post-baccalaureate advisors from their alumni. They are also governed by campus administrators, some Greek advisors or student affairs practitioners, and various governing bodies. There are often campus-wide pan-Greek councils with representatives from each ‘house’ (this refers to the organization, not necessarily a physical house, something that not every organization has). There may lso be pan-Greek councils for specifically diverse Greek houses. The campus may also have sub-councils for specific national groups: an NPC, NPHC, or IFC (NIC’s campus-level governing group is called an Interfraternity Council) chapter is not uncommon. All of these councils tend to involve both student and administrator involvement.HistoryThe first Greek letter organization was Phi Beta Kappa. Founded in 1776 at the College of William and Mary, the purpose of the organization was to escape the rigorous schedules and overbearing demands of professors (Syrett, 2009) and to provide a group where discussion, debate, and free speech amongst peers was encouraged (Sanua, 2000; Vincent, 1997). “For most of the students college was their first sojourn away from home, and as they bonded with their peers, they formed groups devoted to sports and activities through which they could share experiences.” (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 74). This was in stark contrast to the highly restricted atmosphere of colleges due to political tensions with Great Britain during the dawn of The American Revolution (Stoeckel, 1970). Word of this inclusive secret society spread to other campuses where other chapters of Phi Beta Kappa were established, or new Greek letter organizations were founded (Vincent, 1997). This trend of forming social and academic Greek letter organizations in America has persisted since just after the end of the colonial period, and with it, the presence of racism in the Greek system.Overt RacismAs discussed previously, the founding of Greek letter organizations was not to exclude minorities, but to bring together students who sought camaraderie and who happened to be white men. Exclusion was not an explicit goal of the organizations, but rather an accepted societal norm which happened to be echoed by white fraternities. goal of the first Greek letter organizations. Since many were founded in a time when slavery was legal and white men were seen as superior to everyone else, the organizations catered only to white men, essentially the only college attendees at the time. While tThere were very few Native American men in attendance at colonial colleges, and they certainly did not feel welcomed enough to even attempt to socialize much with their white peers (Wright, 1998) let alone attempt to join their honor societies. However, when met with the opportunity to integrate, fraternities did not take the opportunity to challenge societal norms at the time. Around the end of the 1800s, In very small numbers, African Americans and Asian Americans were also being sent to college. Fraternity men responded to these shifts in college student populations by excluding their more recently arrived classmates… They did this to safeguard their prestige as well as to emphasize a definition of masculinity that was bound up in whiteness and Christianity (Syrett, 2009, 129).The racism prevalent on college campuses and really in all of once-European society was As Syrett (2009) explains, white fraternities evolved with the times and adopted the explicit goal of keeping their organizations white-males-only. Although it was never on the minds of men founding organizations, exclusion based on race and gender became engrained within Greek organizations. In the mid-to-late-1800s, sororities began to be founded, disrupting the model of male-only, but unfortunately keeping in line with the white-only model which was exclusionary to minorities still.thus adopted by the Greek system, and This white-only paradigm persisted for a long time with no alternatives before students began to form groups which were blacks-only, Asians-only, Jews-only, etc. With the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling in 1986, the idea of “separate but equal” began to gain traction in American culture, and especially on college campuses. since tradition is such a strong value in so many fraternities and sororities, this racism has continued throughout time.As more racial minorities began to attend colleges, they wanted a place and to come together just as their white male counterparts had come together previously. Lim (2006) describes in her work the founding of Chi Alpha Delta in the late 1920s, a sorority for Japanese-American women. The Chis hoped that forming their own organization would grant them access to privileges only extended to white Greek students, such as scholarships and better housing. Sanua (2000) similarly explains the founding of many Jewish Greek-letter organizations after members complained that it was hard to be anyone on campus if you were not Greek. Around theWell into the 1960s, “previously marginalized groups, led by African Americans and women, created their own clubs and organizations at predominantly white-serving colleges and universities that directly challenged the legitimacy of the white, patriarchal status quo” (Loss, 2012, p. 48). In this way, marginalized groups began to form their own organizations since they explicitly could not gain admission to historically white fraternities and sororities who were reaping benefits such as scholarships and social connections which minorities could not (Lim, 2006; Loss, 2012), hoping for the separate-but-equal ideals of the earlier half of the twentieth century. At the time, the existing Greek-dominated extracurricular system provided blacks with the only officially sanctioned administrative structure in which to [form groups for minorities]… the extracurricular club culture served up more than fun and games for politically engaged students in the 1960s (Loss, 2012, p. 187).Loss (2012) continues to describe the political and civil rights activism which black students began to push for on Cornell’s campus through black organizations. Minority-serving Greek organizations were an empowering option for minorities, and continue to be to this day. The white perspective of these kinds of organizations, at best, was that it was a great place for them: away from white-only organizations. But as the concept of organizations being explicitly one-race-only became illegal, this thinking necessarily had to shift or face legal ramifications.This moment in history is echoed through various U.S. college campuses at the dawn of the Civil Rights Movement.Shift to Covert RacismCovert RacismAfter groundbreaking legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX were enacted, the landscape of racism began to reallyto change. It was no longer legally acceptable toBecause organizations were legally barred from discriminating on the basis of race, religion, or gendere in many places such as admissions, employment, and sports, which in turn began to make racism socially unacceptable as well, fraternities and sororities had a harder time justifying white-only membership. However, many were not about to change the opinions on race they had been cultivating their whole livesThough policies changed fairly quickly, opinions which whites held regarding minorities (and vice versa) would take a longer time to evolve. “[O]ne cannot so easily change social characteristics just by removing a clause from a charter” (Sanua, 2000, p. 29). Society did not become less racist quickly, so those who still espoused racist views learned to act on them in ways which conformed to the law.Fraternities and sororities, instead of “specifying that prospective members had to be ‘Caucasian,’ ‘white Christian,’ ‘a child of two Christian parents,’ or ‘of full Aryan blood’” (Sanua, 2000, p. 9) in their constitutions, now had to find new reasons do avoid admitting students they saw as threats to the organization’s prestige. This “playing by the rules” is referred to as institutionalized racism, “a basic feature of the entire society, being structured into its political, social, and economic institutions” (Spears, 1978, p.129). Such institutions area type of racism founded on age-old decisions and are not always critically reevaluated for modern day values; “an individual need never have willfully done anything that directly and clearly oppresses minorities, she/he need only have gone about business as usual without attempting to change procedures and structures in order to be an accomplice in racism” (Spears, 1978, p.129-130). . In Jenseson (2005), the author claims that institutionalized racism is not often understood fully in practice. He says that individuals understand that institutionalized racism is part of “the structure or procedures that an institution uses” (Jensen, 2005, p. 18) even if those using the structure do not hold particularly racist views. “But when asked to identify those structures and procedures, and explain how they replicate racism, people often stumble” (Jensen, 2005, p. 18). He then cites unintended segregation of Greek organizations on campuses as a particularly salient problem.Persistence into Modern DayThe symptoms of practices which no longer exist are still the reality of today. Although many Greek organizations do not explicitly discriminate based on race, they find other ways to justify denying students of color. In a 1994 study by Schmitz and Forbes, the authors found that white sorority members were likely to blame minority students for not getting recruited. White women claimed that the recruitment system was open to all students and that those minority students who chose not to rush or to join minority-serving groups instead were to blame for homogenous houses. It never occurred to these women that there is something about the recruitment process or predominantly-white sororities which is seen as unwelcoming to students of color. Another divider is the high costs of joining a Greek letter organization. “Students divide themselves into groups based on wealth, ethnicity, and social status” (Horowitz, 1987, heading “The New Outsiders”p. 275). If a brother or sister cannot pay dues, it is difficult to keep them as a memberthey are unworthy of membership; it is not the fault of the Greek organization that most individuals who cannot afford suche lofty dues happen to be people of color. T, and there is no system of affirmative action present in the minds of undergraduates who are picking their brothers and sisters during recruitment; they consider goodness of fit at face value, ignoring potentially great members..However, thereThere are still many examples of Greek organizations in recent decades and even the past ten years who explicitly disregardskirt campus regulations (or the lack thereof) in order to discriminate against students of color:At the University of Texas, the Panhellenic sororities moved off campus rather than sign a nondiscrimination agreement. In 1984 three remained all-Jewish. In the Interfraternity Council fraternities at Texas, only one black was a member, and he was forced on his brothers because he brought his membership to Austin when he transferred from another school. Harvard’s Porcellian Club only selected its first black member in 1983, after 192 all-white years. Even in the 1980s the national fraternity Kappa Alpha continues its Old South Week. In 1985 at the University of North Carolina, the Confederate flag adorned the KA house throughout the week; its racist imagery was not lost on black students on campus (Horowitz, 1987, heading “The New Outsiders”p. 275).Horowitz (1987) does a good job of offering various locations and types of groups in this quote, which indicates points to the fact that the problem is not centralized in any way, shape, or form, but rather spread across the U.S. and affected by various perspectives. In the next section, I will discuss three major regions of the United States, and their relation to race, university climates, and Greek life.PerspectivesThe SouthGreek life in the South is typically considered more difficult to get into. ‘Rushing’ (joining) a Greek organization is more of a badge of honor and a signifier of social superiority than at schools outside of the South. In the above quote from Horowitz (1987, )p. 275), as she enumerates examples of minority-avoiding organizations, there is a noticeable presence of southern universities such as the University of Texas at Austin and the University of North Carolina. This presence of southern universities dealing with overt and covert racism on their campuses and specifically in their Greek systems echoes throughout news media (Whaley, 2013; Person, 2013; Green, 2014) and is echoed in other works as well. scholarly works (Brown, Parks, & Phillips, 2012; Jensen, 2005).Williams and Johnson (2011) cite acts of overt racism, saying that public visits by the KKK and shouts of “The South will rise again!” at football games are not uncommon at the University of Mississippi and give African and African American students a hostile impression of campus Some individuals cited in these news articles still espouse overtly racist views, although they do not publicize them in the way that one might before the 1960s. Schmitz and Forbes (1994) found that southern white sorority women were covertly racist in their recruitment, saying that minority women would not be a “good fit” for ther predominantly-white houses, or even blaming minority women for continuing to segregate themselves since they tend to join minority-serving sororities when they feel unwelcomed by white sororitiesThe. One woman who was interviewed even explicitly said, “I can guarantee you that my sorority would never take another colored girl” (Schmitz & Forbes, 1994, p. 106). numerous incidents and problems these pieces highlight are the reason why the face of racism in the Greek system is often the South. ThisAlthough incidents such as these may seem idiosyncratic to the South, based on their history of defenders of slavery and their stereotype of being slow to adopt social change, region is easy target outside or Greek-specific incidents, as the previous defenders of slavery in the Civil War and generally considered slow to adopt change in modern times. However, other regions are not entirely innocent of racist practices and incidents. “With ‘Blackface’ party incidents and ‘noose’ hangings making news at numerous universities all over the country,” it’s difficult to say that the South is better or worse than any other region (Beamon, 2014, p.121).The NorthIn the North, Greek life is not always seen as necessarily a social superiority signifier. However, with older colleges, it can be associated with prestige, which is a similar concept. “Though the color line in the South took a different turn, racial proscriptions in the North, where blacks were far less numerous, were equally severe.” (Brown, Parks, & Phillips, 2012, p. 142). While there are instances of overt racism in the North, much of the literature explores more underlying, covert forms of racism in Northern universities. In her quote from p. 275, Horowitz (1987) mentioned Harvard in her previous quote,mentions Harvard, but it is certainsurely not the only instance of a lack of equality on college campuses in the North. In Hughey’s (2010) qualitative work with minority members of primarily white Greek letter organizations at east coast universities, he finds that most members (of all races) take unhelpful stereotypes to heart; black members are seen as more prepared for and passionate about community service in impoverished areas, Asians are grouped with whites as the “model minority,” and white organizations are viewed as better than minority-serving fraternities and sororities which “are too small, [and have] no alumni, so they can’t help you” (Hughey, 2010, p. 666). Outside of the older colonial and near-colonial colleges and Ivy League, there are still plenty of Northern schools who are far from being racially sensitive and inclusiveWorks such as these help to break down stereotypes that the Northern liberators of the Civil War are inherently less racist than their Southern counterparts. (Jenson, 2005; Kane, 2014). West CoastUnlike the North and the South, Without a long history of prestige or slavery, the West Coast was not famously involved in a war over slavery. Historical texts often glaze over the racial history of the newer parts of America on the West Coast, such as the annexation of Mexico and the encampment of Japanese Americans (Takaki, 2008) which can lead casual students of history to the conclusion that race relations are less heated on the West Coast. seems the most likely candidate to be free from racist tendencies in Greek life. However, Lim (2006) easily debunks this conception which I formed about the West Coast. In her book, she cites difficulties of being a Japanese American woman on a predominantly white campus where white sororities are exclusionary to non-whites. Although these women “spoke English at home and with each other, permanently waved their hair, [and] wore poodle skirts with saddle shoes” like white Americans in the mid-1900s, they were obviously seen as others when white women did not even consider them for recruitment and campus did not offer them the same benefits, such as scholarships and housing. In modern day, the tribulations whict h Chi Alpha Delta women faced are mirrored by manysimilar to those experienced by many Asian American and Latino/a students on the West Coast, making up a large chunk of the population in these areas, as well as other racial minority students. Chen (1998) finds that many Asian Americans are whitewashed or held to “model minority” standards. Olivas (1996) found similar results; Latina/o children are often assimilated into white culture in public school, resulting “in a loss of ethnic and cultural identity (p. 8) which continues into higher education. The sorority women Olivas (1996) interviewed explained that this racial expectation was part of why some many Latina women seek out Latina sororities. Accounts such at these show that racial concerns are very real on the West Coast as in most areas of the United States. Because there are overarching themes of racism in all regions of the country, it is perhaps easier to point out differences of opinion between various stakeholders rather than between regions.StakeholdersThe various perspectives on Greek life vary across geographical regions, but there are also differences in opinion among various stakeholders, including students, campus staff, and employees of organizations which govern Greek chapters on college campuses.White GreeksWhite Greeks have various perspectives views on racism in Greek life, as was explored in the perspectives section. For those Greeks who believe that minorities would not mesh well with their white brothers and sisters, there does notn’t seem to be a good reason to integrate (Schmitz & Forbes, 1994). Others are concerned about the loss of prestige (Syrett, 2009). An external influence (campus or national interference) is almost certainly necessary to convince organizations where a majority of the members would rather not associateion with minorities that racial diversity is a benefit to both them and their potential non-white brothers and sisters.White Greeks who would like (or at least wouldn’t would not mind) more diversity in their organizations are probably (and perhaps unconsciously) part of a system that feels racially unwelcoming to minorities given the nature of institutionalized racism (Jenson, 2005; Spears, 1978). Their stake in the racism in Greek life problemin the problem regarding Greek racism would be for critical change, but it is likely that they could not identify how to make that change. Again, external influences about micro-aggressions or creating welcoming environments for minorities could aid these groups in their goals of becoming more diverse. I will discuss some suggestions as laid out by various researchers in the Potential Resolutions section.Greeks of ColorThe studentspeople of color who wish to be Greek usually have two options. The first is that : they can join a predominantly white organization (assuming they are extended a bidadmitted, which is not always the case as we hav’ve seen in the various articles regarding racism in t recruitmenting methods) or. The second is that they can join a minority organization, which is becoming a more popular decision for students of color (Kimbrough, 2003). Greeks of color, just like white Greeks, will have various views on what is best for them personally, but it is easy to say that at least these individuals should at least have the option of rushing either kind of Greek organization. For those who wish to join predominantly white organizations or those who would prefer a minority group, the stakes they hold are similar: they want the perks of being Greek such as (social networkinga safe and welcoming group of peers (Olivas, 1996; Lim, 2006; Park, 2008), a network of alumni/ae (Hughey, 2010; Park, 2008), and academic/graduation graduation accountability (Severtis & Christie-Mizell, 2007; Beamon, 2014) , service opportunitiesjust to name a few. , etc.)Minorities will go where they feel their goals for Greek life are being met. For many, especially those seeking refuse from the general campus population, this ends up being a house of brothers/sisters from a similar racial background. just like anyone else who is rushing.UniversitiesIf all of this strife with racial tension is only worsened by the presence of Greek systems, then why have them at all?If racial tensions are only exacerbated on college campus by the presence of a Greek system, one might ask why having a Greek system on campus is useful to the administration. There are many benefits the university can reap from having a Greek system. Members of And the answer may not surprise you: money. This is of course not the only reason a Greek letter organization has merit: Greek organizations typically have higher graduation rates than non-affiliated students, and the likelihood for graduation increases even more drastically for some at-risk populations such as African American males especially for people of color (Severtis & Christie-Mizell, 2007; Dancy, 2011), and many). Many successful alumni politicians are and other high-profile figures counted among their rankswere Greek in their undergraduate careers which can bring the notion of prestige to the university. In additionIn the eyes of the university, a happy, successful, well-connected, and nostalgic student means a more likely alumni donor (Harrison, Mitchell, & Peterson, 1995), so stirring up a system that is working to produce such donors can seem unappealing from a university’s standpoint. Convincing universities that diverse alumsni can also be valuable assets could help to encourage otherwise inactive universities to take action in diversifying their Greek life programs.National Headquarters and Pan-Greek OrganizationsThe individuals employed at national headquarters are usually alumni and alumnae of their fraternity or sorority. In this way, they have personal investment and nostalgia for their organizations and their time as a collegiate Greek. This can be enough to cause an individual to overlook issues such as a lack of diversity in the organization or racist undertones during recruitment, but it is paired with other influences such as employment. The staff at national headquarters and pan-Greek councils are paid to be there, and presumably do not want to lose their jobs, so they have stake in the success of their specific Greek organization or in Greek life as a whole, whether on their alma mater’s campus or in general. Potential ResolutionsIt is clear that the problem of racism in Greek life is deeply rooted in history, continues through institutionalized procedures and practices, and simply put, will noon’t be easy to fix. I will offer a few ideas of measures which could be taken on college campuses to alleviate or eliminate the problem of racism in Greek life.Eliminate Greek SystemsIn the past, universities have tried to eliminate Greek letter organizations, predominantly white or minority-serving, usually citing drinking, hazing, and general misconduct as the main complaints (Kimbrough, 1993; Loss, 2012).. Some cited social issue amongst the students, although few specifically call out a racial divide. “A few college presidents sought to abolish the Greek system, or its ‘secret society’ equivalent, agreeing with the professoriate that fraternities and sororities fractured the student body and encouraged drinking, cheating and general slothfulness” (Loss, 2012, p p. 47). Many of the universities which attempted to root out secret societies ended up bringing them back later in the 1900s, although some continue to be non-Greek. There are also more recent instances of universities ending or suspending Greek programs during debates regarding sexual assault and dangerous debauchery such as University of Virginia (Ellis, 2014) and The University of Mary Washington (Toppo, 2014). However, this sometimes means that Greek organizations simply exist outside of campus control, sometimes still recognized by national headquarters. This can mean that organizations go unchecked without local governance, committing the same if not worse offenses.Nondiscrimination Policies and ProgrammingUniversities have the power to choose whether or not they will recognize a Greek letter organization. The Greek organization may exist without the support of their campus, but this is at a huge detriment to the organization who cannot receive campus housing, meeting spaces, or other resources. In this way, universities can force Greek organizations to play by their rules. However, policies are typically not enough to make change happen, as Greek students bristle at mandates to improve by outsiders like administrators.. Enforcements can still allow covert racism to occur when quotas or quantifiable methods are not in place to measure diversity (as they shouldn’t be, in my opinion, legal or not). Having educational programming on race paired with inclusion and nondiscrimination policies is a more holistic approach to solving the problem.One suggestion posed by Earley (1998) is for Greek letter organizations to connect “their choices to the organization’s cornerstone principles” (p. 44). All organizations typically have core values relating to personal development, commitment to service, strong academics, etc. as well as mottoes. Situating matters of racial inclusion using the organization’s own language can help members internalize these issues as related to them and their chapter personally. Additionally, administrators and Greek life advisors could remind students before recruitment that they recruit based on the criteria set by their house values, not by physical appearance or by amount of similarities to their current brothers and sisters.Adult or Authority PresenceGreek housing is different from other on-campus apartments, houses, and dormitories in multiple ways. One stark difference is that dormitories and other on-campus residences typically have student residence advisors and adult staff of some kind, either residential directors or community organizers. While some Greek organizations still have “house mothers,” this trend has become largely outdated, and those who are still employed are typically more concerned with the upkeep of the facility than the upkeep of morality. Establishing live-in advisors or staff who attend events such as recruitment and parties could potentially help the Greek system. However, such advisors could been seen as “watchdogs” or adults sent to offer slaps on the wrists for bad behavior. Willimon and Naylor (1995) suggest a paradigm which situates administrators in an authoritative position without coming off as overbearing or demanding. They refer to this paradigm as in loco amicis or literally “in place of a friend”, named after the outdated style of university-student supervision, in loco parentis or “in place of a parent” In this paradigm, the administration builds community and facilitates sincere discourse with Greek leaders and members on a more equal footing than simply telling students what to do. Boschini and Thompson (1998) also made a suggestion like this in which Greek student leaders should be a part of key decisions in the overall community, not just administrators. With a live-in advisor or administrators acting in loco amicis, more insidious practices such as hazing would likely decrease, and the members of the Greek organization could be held accountable forpotentially be checked on any racist practices they may use in recruitment or other procedures of the organization.ConclusionThroughout this paper I have discussed the historical background to this problem: racism nationally, regionally, and in higher education widely all play a part in Greek life racism. The discussion of overt, covert, and institutionalized racism helps to understand how the problem has persisted into modern times. After explaining some nuances in terminology of Greek systems, I then laid out various perspectives, points of view, and stakeholders in the Greek life system and the racism surrounding it. Perspectives were drawn largely from geographic region of the United States, and stakeholders were typically Greek students, staff, or campus administrators who deal with Greek life. Finally, I have presented a few possible solutions (or beginnings of solutions) to ameliorating the issue of Greek racism. In general, I believe the issue is one with multiple facets which will be difficult to solve completely, but continued efforts to eliminate racism in the Greek life system are certainly of merit. The Greek system can be a place of key adolescent and young adult development. To eliminate a Greek system, a popular suggestion among Greek critics, could rob students of all colors of a potentially wonderful aspect of college experience. Extending the benefits a Greek experience can bring to a student’s life to all students, especially underrepresented students, can enhance Greek life and its members, so continued efforts to eliminate racism are going to be important as the nature of civil rights and Greek life evolve in the future.ReferencesBeamon, K. (2014). Racism and stereotyping on campus: Experiences of African American male student-athletes. The Journal of Negro Education, 83(2), 121-134.Boschini, V. & Thompson, C. (1998). The future of the Greek experience: Greeks and diversity. New Directions for Student Services, 81, 19-27.Brown, T. L., Parks, G. S., & Phillips, C. M. (Eds.). (2012). African American fraternities and sororities: The legacy and vision. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky.Chen, E. (1998). The continuing significance of race: A case study of Asian American women in White, Asian American, and African American sororities. Ph.D. Dissertation. 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Distinctive characteristics of fraternity members. Journal of College Student Personnel, 14, 126–128.Olivas, M. R. (1996). Latina sororities and higher education: The ties that bind. Paper presented at The Annual Convention of the American Educational Studies Association, Montreal, Canada.Park, J. (2008). Race and the Greek system in the 21st century: Centering the voices of Asian American women. NASPA Journal 45(1), 103-132.Person, D. (2013). End racial bias in fraternities, sororities: University of Alabama case highlights problem of segregated Greek organizations. USA Today. Retrieved from .Sanua, M. R. (2000). Jewish college fraternities in the United States, 1895-1968: An overview. Journal of American Ethnic History, 19(2), 3-42.Schmitz, S., & Forbes, S. A. (1994). Choices in a no-choice system: Motives and biases in sorority segregation. Journal of College Student Development, 35, 103–108.Severtis, R. E. Jr., & Christie-Mizell, C. A. (2007). Greek-letter membership and college graduation: does race matter? Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 34(3), 95-117.. Retrieved from , A. K. (1978). Institutionalized racism and the education of blacks. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 9(2), 127-136.Stoeckel, A. L. (1970). Presidents, professors and politics: The colonial colleges and the American Revolution. History Lecture Series. Lecture conducted from Ball State University, Muncie, IN.Syrett, N. L. (2009). The company he keeps: A history of white college fraternities. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press.Takaki, R. (2008). A different mirror: A history of multicultural America (revised edition). New York, NY: Back Bay Books/Little, Brown and po, Greg. (2014). U.Va not the only university with a Greek problem. USA Today. Retrieved from , F. (1997). The history of college fraternities. (n.d.) Retrieved from , N. (2013). University of Alabama sororities allegedly block black pledges. BET National News. Retrieved from .Williams, C. T., & Johnson, L. R. (2011). Why can’t we be friends?: Multicultural attitudes and friendships with international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 35, 41-48.Willimon, W. H., & Naylor, T. H. (1995). The abandoned generation: Rethinking higher education. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.Wright, B. (1991). The ‘untameable savage spirit’: American Indians in colonial colleges. The Review of Higher Education, 14(4), 429-452. ................
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