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Creative
Study,
Interpretation,
&Teaching
Of The Bible
2: Table of Contents
3-50: Unit 1: Bible Study: Motivations & Methods
❖ 51-70: Unit 2: The Art and Science of Biblical Interpretation: Hermeneutics
❖ 71-147:Unit 3: Educational Philosophies and Creative Methods of Bible Teaching
Dr. John David Geib
Table of Contents
Unit 1: Motivations and Methods for Bible Study
□ Introduction 3
□ From God to Us 4
□ Revelation: Four Ways God Communicates with us 5
□ Why Should I Study the Bible? 6
□ Special Revelation: Major Views 7
□ Historical Evidence for the Inspiration of the Bible 8
□ The Christian Biblical Writings: Are They Reliable? 9-10
□ The Transmission of the Bible 11-12
□ Canonization 13
□ English Translations of The Bible 14
□ 3 Keys to understanding the Bible 15
□ 7 Levels of Interaction with the Bible 16
□ Hermeneutics: Principles of interpreting the bible 17-19
□ Book Study Method 20-23
□ Chapter-Literary Division Study Method 24-31
□ Theological Study Method 32-34
□ Biographical Study Method 35-37
□ Doctrinal-Topical Study Method 38-41
□ Word Study Method 42-46
□ Chronological Methods 47-48
□ Christological Methods 49
Unit 2: The Art and Science of Biblical Interpretation: Hermeneutics
❖ Introduction 50
❖ 3 Keys 51
❖ Hermeneutics and Research: Bibliography 52-57
❖ Historical Schools of Hermeneutics 58-66
❖ Special Hermeneutics: Prophecy, Parables and Typology 67-69
Unit 3: Spiritual Gifts, Creative Methods of Bible Teaching and Educational Philosophies
➢ Introduction To Spiritual Gifts 70-75
➢ The Gift of the holy spirit 76-79
➢ understanding, discovering and realizing The gifts of the holy spirit 80-90
➢ Message or Speaking Gifts: "To deliver a message" 91-114
➢ ministry or service gifts: "to deliver a ministry" 115-124
➢ miraculous or spectaular gifts: "to deliver miracles" 125-135
➢ Biblical Instruction 136
➢ Lesson Plan 137
➢ Methods of Instruction 138-141
➢ Educational Philosophies and Methodologies 142-146
Unit 1
Bible Study: Motivations & Methods
The focus of this unit is on the essential role of proper Bible study methods
as the foundation for the creative teaching of the Bible.
All the creativity in the world is in vain if what one teaches
is not rooted in correct study methods of Scripture.
And beginning from Moses and from all the Prophets,
He explained to them in The Scriptures the things concerning Himself . . .
And they said to one another, "Were not our hearts burning within us
while He spoke with us on the road and opened to us The Scriptures?"
He said to them,
"This is what I told you while I was still with you:
Everything must be fulfilled that is written about Me
in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms."
Then He opened their minds so they could understand The Scriptures.
Luke 24
Ezra Enterprises Dr. John David Geib
2004 Version
FROM GOD TO US
INSPIRATION
The process by which the Holy Spirit moved and “carried” (phero, ((((, 2 Peter 1:19-21)
the human authors in such a way that they wrote down words that were
“breathed out by God” (theopneustos, ((((((((((() 2 Timothy 3:14-17).
The result of this process is the "sacred scriptures" which are able to make us wise
for salvation, sanctification and service (Cf. p. 6).
TRANSMISSION
The process by which the inspired writings were copied and transmitted in written form
(Cf. p. 11-12 and Evidence That Demands A Verdict by Josh McDowell, 25-28; 39-74).
CANONIZATION
The process by which the inspired writings were recognized, collected, and relied upon
as the criteria for faith (Orthodoxy) and practice (Orthopraxis)
(Cf. p. 13 and McDowell, 29-38).
TRANSLATION
The process by which the original Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek inspired scriptures
were translated into the thousands of translated versions that exist today (Cf. p. 14).
OBSERVATION
The processes by which Bible study methods are used
to determine the content of the message;
that is, what does the text actually contain and affirm (Cf. pp. 22-49).
INTERPRETATION
The process of using Hermeneutics (the art and science of Biblical interpretation)
to determine the original meaning and intent of the text;
that is what does the text actually MEAN (Cf. pp. 15-19, 50-69)
APPLICATION
The process by which one puts into everyday life the message and meaning
of the inspired scriptures; that is, actually becoming a
“ . . . doer of the word, and not just a hearer" (James 1:21-23).
REVELATION: FOUR MAIN WAYS GOD COMMUNICATES WITH US
| | | | |
|CREATION |CONSCIENCE |CANON (THE BIBLE) |CHRIST |
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|Romans 1:18-32 |Romans 2:1-16 |Romans 2:17--3:20 |Romans 3:21-27 |
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| | |Psalm 19:7-11 | |
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| | | |John 1:1-18 |
|Genesis 1--2 | | | |
| | |Psalm 119 | |
| |Psalm 19:12-14 | | |
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| | |Luke 24 | |
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| | | |Hebrews 1 |
|Psalm 19:1-11 | | | |
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| | |2 Timothy 3:14--4:4 | |
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| | |2 Peter 1:19-21 | |
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Why Should I "Study" the Bible?
"Where" did the Scriptures originate? (2 Timothy 3:16)
"How" are the Scriptures described? (2 Timothy 3:15 & 3:16)
"What" are the purposes of the Scriptures? (below)
| | |
| |Salvation |
| | |
|1) 2 Timothy 3:15 | |
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| | |
| |Sanctification |
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|2) 2 Timothy 3:16 | |
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| |Service |
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|3) 2 Timothy 3:17 | |
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SOME OTHER DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES THAT REVEAL ITS PURPOSES
SEED, to give life (Matt 13:23, James 1:18); WATER, to cleanse (Titus 3:5) MILK, to nourish (I Peter 2:2);
MEAT, to strengthen (Hebrews 5:14) HONEY, to sweeten (Psalm 19:9-10);
LAMP, to guide (Psalm 119:105) MIRROR, to reveal (James 1:23-25); SCALPEL, to heal (Hebrews 4:12) FIRE, to burn (Jeremiah 23:29); HAMMER, to break (Jeremiah 23:29) SWORD, to fight (Ephesians 6:17);
THE WORD OF GOD, to reveal God's Message (Heb. 4:12)
SPECIAL REVELATION:
Major Viewpoints of How God Inspired the Bible
1) God can be known as Savior through revealed words.
❖ The Bible is the written Word of God telling sinners about God and his grace.
❖ It is a love letter from heaven.
2) God can be known as Savior through miraculous deeds.
❖ God does not write a letter about his love for sinners, God demonstrates it!
❖ God's mighty acts more vividly reveal God's purpose to save Than any report of them.
3) God is known as Savior through personal experience of God himself.
❖ The personalpresence of the lover is more significant than a love letter or a past demonstration of love. God reveals God's redemptive love by loving us.
❖ Sinners know God saves when they have a divine-human encounter.
❖ The Bible is human testimony to this person-to-person experience.
God cannot be known with face to face directness but is known as Savior only through the one true church established to interpret the Scriptures authoritatively.
4) God is known as Savior, not exclusively through any one of the above emphases, but through a combination which includes:
❖ revealed words interpreting miraculous deeds and asserting truth concerning the God who speaks and acts, and
❖ Personal experience of God the Holy Spirit, Who "witnesses with our spirits," indwells, teaches, and leads" every believer.
❖ Although the church is not a third form of revelation, the Body of Christ can enable believer s to check their understanding of God's redemption with other Spirit-illumined students of the Holy Scripture.
Notes
Historical Evidence for the Viewing the Bible as Inspired by God
1) The New Testament is the best-attested and most accurate historical document of all historical documents used in academic scholarship. [1](See pp. 9-10 in this document).
2) That historical document (the New Testament) presents Jesus as:
a) Proclaiming Himself to be God in human form (incarnate) (John 5:17-47, 8:12-59, 10:22-39, etc.).
b) Predicting His resurrection as evidence for His claim to be God incarnate
(Matthew 12:38-42, 16:21-28, 20:17-29; Mark 8:31-38, 10:32-34, 14:28; Luke 11:29-32; John2: 12-25.)
c) Proving Himself to be alive following His resurrection by many infallible proofs to many Eyewitnesses
(as many as 500 at one time), thus vindicating His claim to be God incarnate.
(Matthew 28; Mark 16; Luke 24; John 20; Acts 1; Acts 9; I Corinthians 15).
3) Since Jesus proved Himself to be the God-man by virtue of His resurrection,
then what He taught about the Bible is true and authoritative.
Jesus taught the following about:
The Jewish Bible
❖ Its Contents: The Tanak (Luke 24:27, 24:44)
❖ Its Authority [God's Inspiration of] (Matthew 5:17-20; John 10:34-36)
❖ Its Main Theme: Himself (John 5:39-47; Luke 24:27-44)
His Own Teaching
❖ Inspired by God (John 14:21-24)
❖ Eternal (Matthew 24:34-35; Luke 21:33)
❖ Authoritative (Matthew 7:24-29)
The Apostle's (then future) teaching
❖ Complete Remembrance (John 14:25-26)
❖ Divine Inspiration (John 16:12-15)
Conclusion: Jesus taught and vindicated the doctrine of the Divine Inspiration of the Bible.
"From childhood you have known the sacred writings which are able to make you wise unto
salvation by means of faith in Christ Jesus. All Scripture is inspired [2]by God
and is profitable for doctrine, reproof, correction and instruction in righteousness,
so that the servant of God may be adequate,
thoroughly prepared for every good work" (2 Timothy 3:15-17)
"But know this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture ever came about from personal origination.
For it was not by the will of men that the prophecy came to be, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God" (2 Peter 1:20-21).
The Christian Biblical Writings:
Are They Reliable as Historical Documents?
1) The Literary Test
"The benefit of the doubt is to be given to the document itself,
not arrogated (unjustly assumed) by the critic himself."
A paraphrase of Aristotle's The Art of Poetry, 1460-1461, by John Warwick Montgomery, History & Christianity)
2) The Legal Test
"Under Federal Rules of Evidence, a document is admissible (as legal evidence) if
□ it is in such condition as to create no suspicion as to its authenticity,
□ was in a place where it, if authentic, would likely be,
□ and has been in existence 20 years or more at the time it is offered."
(Black's Law Dictionary, "Ancient Writings," on Fed. Evid. R. 901(b) (8), page 78)
3) The Bibliographic Test [3]
| | | | | |
|Author |Date Written |Earliest Copy |Number of Copies |Accuracy of Copies |
| | | | | |
|Caesar |1st Cent BC/E |900 AD/CE |10 |? |
|Livy |1st Cent BC/E |? |20 |? |
|Tacitus |100 AD/CE |1100 AD/CE |20 |? |
|Thucydides |5th Cent BC/E |900 AD/CE |8 |? |
|Herodutus |5th Cent BC/E |900 AD/CE |8 |? |
|Demosthenes |4th Cent BC/E |1100 AD/CE |200 |All from one copy? |
|Mahabharata |? |? |? |90% |
|Homer |9th Cent BC/E |400 BC/CE |643 |95% |
| | | | | |
|New Testament |1st Cent AD/CE |200 AD/CE |6,000 plus copies of the Greek|99%+ |
| |ca. 40-100 AD/CE | |NT are extant (Exist) | |
| | |Rylands, 130 AD | | |
| | |Bodmer, 150-200 AD | | |
| | |Beatty, 200 AD | | |
| | |Vaticanus, 325-350 AD | | |
| | |Sinaiticus, 350 AD | | |
“ . . . to be skeptical of the resultant text of the New Testament books is to allow all of classical antiquity to slip into obscurity, for no documents of the ancient period are as well attested bibliographically as the New Testament."
(J. W. Montgomery, History and Christianity, 29)
4) The Historical Test
Eyewitnesses to the events portrayed in its pages wrote the vast majority of the Christian Bible.
□ The rest of the New Testament was written based on the testimony of eyewitnesses.
□ The historicity of Jesus and the early apostles and church have been referred to and corroborated by
Tacitus, Pliny, Josephus, Lucian, Suetonius, the Church Fathers, among others.[4]Accordingly,
"These independent accounts prove that in ancient times even the opponents of Christianity never doubted the historicity of Jesus, which was disputed for the first time and on inadequate grounds by several authors at the end of the 18th, during the 19th, and at the beginning of the 20th centuries." [5]
5) The Archaeological Test
Archaeological finds do not prove the inspiration of the Bible.
However, they do provide historical confirmation of the historicity of many events recorded in the Bible.
"It may be stated categorically that no archaeological discovery has ever controverted a biblical reference."
(Nelson Glueck, Rivers in The Desert: History of Negev, 31).
5) A Consensual Conclusion
on the Historical Reliability of the New Testament Documents
"The interval then between the dates of the original composition and the earliest extant evidence
becomes so small as to be in fact negligible, and the last foundation for any doubt
that the Scriptures have come down to us substantially as they were written has now been removed.
Both the authenticity and the general integrity of the books of the New Testament
may be regarded as finally established
(Sir Frederick Kenyon, The Bible and Archaeology, 288 ff.)
The Transmission of the Bible:
(The Stages of Inspiration, Collection & Translation of the Bible)
Notes
1) The Age of Inspiration
a) The Old Testament
(Inspired & Written from 1450 to 400 bc/e, over 1000 years).
1. Moses & The Law, 1450 bc/e
(Deut 31:24-26).
2. The Writings, 1300-900 bc/e
(Psm 45:1).
3. The Prophets, 800-400 bc/e
(Jer 36:2).
b) The New Testament
(Inspired & Written from c 45-95 ad/ce).
4. Letters, 45-70 ad/ce
5. Acts, ca. 65 ad/ce (Acts 1:1-4).
6. Gospels, ca. 45-69 ad/ce (Luke 1:1-4).
2) The Age of Collection and Transmission
a) The Old Testament
1. The Schools of Priests & Prophets
(I Kings 18:4, etc.).
2. Septuagint (LXX) 250 bc/e,,
McDowell, 58-59).
3. Talmudists (100-500 ad/ce,
McDowell, 53-54).
4. Massoretes (500-900 ad/ce,
McDowell, 54-55).
5. Dead Sea Scrolls,
McDowell, 56-57).
b) The New Testament
1. Early Church (es) 50-100 ad/ce
(Col 4:16; Eusibius, History of Church, III, 24-25).
2. Church "Fathers," 125-400 ad/ce
3. Church "Councils;"
Tenney, New Testament Survey, 430-431).
4. Church "Copyists"
c) The Entire Bible
1. Gutenberg's Printing Press (1436-56 AD/CE).
3) The Age of Translation
(From Hebrew (OT) & Greek (NT)
Into other languages)
a) The Old Testament
b) Septuagint (LXX) 250 BC/BCE.
c) Latin "Vulgate" (Jerome, 382-405 AD/CE).
d) English Bible
(See Chart of the English Bible, p. 13)
The Transmission of the Bible
(The Stages of Inspiration, Collection & Translation of the Bible)
1) The Age of Inspiration
a) The Old Testament (Inspired & Written from 1450 to 400 bc/e, over 1000 years).
1. Moses & The Law, 1450 bc/e (Deut 31:24-26).
2. The Writings, 1300-900 bc/e (Psm 45:1).
3. The Prophets, 800-400 bc/e(Jer 36:2).
b) The New Testament (Inspired & Written from c 45-95 ad/ce).
4) Letters, 45-70 ad/ce
5) Acts, ca. 65 ad/ce (Acts 1:1-4).
6) Gospels, ca. 45-69 ad/ce (Luke 1:1-4).
2) The Age of Collection and Transmission
a) The Old Testament
1. The Schools of Priests & Prophets (I Kings 18:4, etc.).
2. Septuagint (LXX) 250 bc/e,, McDowell, 58-59).
3. Talmudists (100-500 ad/ce, McDowell, 53-54).
4. Massoretes (500-900 ad/ce, McDowell, 54-55).
5. Dead Sea Scrolls, McDowell, 56-57).
b) The New Testament
6. Early Church (es) 50-100 ad/ce (Col 4:16; Eusibius, History of Church, III, 24-25).
7. Church "Fathers," 125-400 ad/ce
8. Church "Councils;" Tenney, New Testament Survey, 430-431).
9. Church "Copyists"
c) The Entire Bible
10. Gutenberg's Printing Press (1436-56 ad/ce).
3) The Age of Translation (From Hebrew (OT) & Greek (NT) into other languages)
a) The Old Testament
b) Septuagint (LXX) 250 bc/e.
c) Latin "Vulgate" (Jerome, 382-405 ad/ce).
d) English Bible (See Chart of the English Bible, p. 13)
Canonization: An Introduction [6]
Illustration
Definition
1) The Canon of the Tanak (Old Testament): Jesus’ View
2) The Canon of The Christian Bible (New Testament): The Historical Process
a) The Need:
b) The Criteria:
c) The Process:
3) One Conclusion to the Question of the Canon
A CHART OF ENGLISH TRANSLATION STYLESOF THE ORIGINAL HEBREW & GREEK BIBLE
| | | |
|Loose |Reliable & Readable |Literal |
|"thought for thought" | |"word for word" |
|Living | | ASV |
| | | |
| | |NASB |
|Phillips | | |
| | |RSV |
| | | |
|Berkley | |KJV |
| | |(New KJV) |
| | | |
|Amplified | |Jerusalem |
| | | |
|Today's English |New International Version |New English |
|(Good News) | | |
Two suggestions in light of the above facts regarding translational styles of the Bible.
1)
2)
Three Keys to Understanding the Bible
1) THE PERSON OF THE HOLY SPIRIT: OUR DIVINE TEACHER
Jesus said, "But the Helper, the Holy Spirit, whom the father will send in my name, He will teach you (John 14:26). Also, "But when the Spirit of Truth comes, He will guide you into all the truth (John 16:13).
Paul wrote, “ . . . no one knows the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God. Now we have received, not the spirit of the world, but the Spirit Who is from God that we might Know the things freely given to us by God." (1 Cor. 2)
The Holy Spirit is longing to teach us the meaning of the Bible, and especially to reveal to us Jesus Christ, the "Living Word" in the pages of the "Written Word," the Bible. Before you read and study the Bible, ask the Holy Spirit to teach you, and He will according to the sacred promise of Jesus!
2) THE PRINCIPLES OF COMMON SENSE INTERPRETATION
(or, How to Avoid 2 Peter 3:15-16)
a) COMMON SENSE:
□ When the plain sense of Scriptures makes common sense, seek no other sense.
□ Take every word at its primary, usual, normal meaning unless the Facts of the Context indicate otherwise (e.g., obvious symbolism, figures of speech, etc.)
b) CONTEXT:
□ Interpret the verse you are looking at by the surrounding verses!
□ Interpret the passage you are looking at by the book you are studying.
□ Interpret the Book you are reading by the whole Bible!
c) CONTENT:
□ Look carefully at the Content of the passage, verse, book, etc!
□ The writer had one meaning to communicate.
□ Therefore, there is only one correct interpretation, but many possible applications.
d) COMPARISON:
□ The Scriptures are in harmony with each other and they do not contradict each other!
□ Therefore, interpret difficult passages by passages that are clear and easy to Understand
e) CHECKING:
□ Check your interpretation(s) with those who are proven lovers and careful students of the Bible.
□ It is very doubtful that you alone have "grasped the true interpretation." God is very generous with truth, and the Holy Spirit can teach and correct us through other lovers and students of Scripture!
3) THE PERSISTENT PRACTICE OF BIBLE STUDY "METHODS"
□ Bible Study Methods were not designed to take the place of the Teaching Ministry of the Holy Spirit.
Rather, they are means and tools the Holy Spirit uses to enhance one’s understanding of the Bible.
□ Use the Methods of Bible Study that are Described in this booklet
in Dependence on the Teaching Ministry of the Holy Spirit and with the prayerful attitude of the Psalmist, Make Your Face shine on your servant, and Teach me Your Word." (Psalm 119:135)
Ezra and The Word of God
The "Life Goals" of Ezra (Ezra 7:10)
1)
2)
3)
The "Life Influence" of Ezra (Nehemiah 8--9)
7) TEACHING (Matthew 5:19)
“. . . and teaches them to others will be great in the Kingdom
6) DOING (Matthew 5:19)
“. . . but whoever does the Scripture”
5) Meditating (Psalm 1:2)
“. . . and in His Law they meditate day and night.
4) Memorizing (Deut. 6:6)
“And these words, which I am commanding you
today, shall be upon your heart . . ."
3) STUDYING (Acts 17:11)
"Now these people were noble minded . . . for they studied the Scriptures daily.
2) Reading
(I Timothy 4:13) “. . . devote yourself to the reading [of scripture]. . .
1) Hearing (Nehemiah 8:2-3)
"And he read from [the Law] . . . from early morning until midday . . . and all the people were attentive to the Book of the Law."
7 LEVELS OF INTERACTION WITH THE WORD OF GOD
HERMENEUTICS
1) Introduction to Hermeneutics[7]
a) Hermeneutics comes from the Greek word hermeneuo (((((((((, "to explain, interpret").
The Greek "god" for speech was named Hermes (Cf. Acts14:11-12 for an ironic illustration).
b) Example: Luke 24:27
c) Definition:
2) Types of Hermeneutics
a) General (see in this document, 14; 16-18)
b) Special: Parables, Typology, Prophecy
1. On Prophecy, consider Payne, Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy, 143-44 as authoritative.
2. On Prophecy: Consider Ramm (Chpt. 10) as reliable.
3) Literary Genre of the Bible
a) Literary Types (Major)
1. Poetry (Epic, e.g. Job; Hymns, e.g. Psalms; Epigrams, e.g. Proverbs; Romance, e.g. Song of Songs)
2. Poetry-Prose (Philosophy, e.g. Ecclesiastes; Prophecy, e.g. Isaiah)
3. Prose (Narrative, e.g. Gospels; Epistolary, e.g. NT Letters; Apocalyptic-Prophecy, e.g. Daniel, Revelation)
b) Literary Expressions (These are only a few among many others) [8]
1. Apocalyptic: Viewing the future via familiar, past images (Revelation, Daniel)
2. Parables: Comparison by continued resemblance (Matt. 25, "Virgins")
3. Allegories: Extended metaphors, comparison by representation (Rev. 12)
4. Types: A figure for something future, called the "anti-type" (Ex. 12, Rev. 5, "Lamb")
5. Enigma: Dark, obscure saying requiring thought for understanding (Rev. 13:18, "666")
6. Metaphor: Comparison by representation (Rev. 5, "Lion", "Lamb")
7. Simile: Comparison by resemblance, "like", "as" (Rev. 1:14, 1:16)
8. Personification: Things representing persons (Rev. 12, "woman"; Rev. 17, "whore")
9. Symbols: A material object substituted for a spiritual truth (Rev. 17-20, Bride, whore)
10. Refrain Regular repetition used for effect (Rev. 2-3)
11. Gnome (Modified): partial quotation adapted for effect (Rev. 1:7, Zech. 12:10-14)
12. Blessing: An expression of happiness for comfort (Revelation contains a 7-fold blessing with various conditions
(see Revelation 1:3, 14:13, 16:15, 19:9, 20:6, 22:7, 22:14).
Hermeneutical Consequences of Inspired Scripture
The Claim of Scripture
The Consequences of This Claim (See Below)
1) Common Sense (or, the Clarity of Scripture)
➢ Example: Gal. 1:6-9
➢ Definition:
2) Conditioned (or, the Accommodation of Scripture)
➢ Example: Gal. 4:15
➢ Definition:
3) Climax (or, the Progression of Scripture)
➢ Example: Gal. 3:16-25, esp. 3:23-25
➢ Definition:
4) Coherence (or, the Analogy of Faith)
➢ Example: Ga. 3:6-9
➢ Definition:
5) Comparison (or, Scripture interprets Scripture)
➢ Example: Gal. 3:10-14
➢ Definition:
6) Content (or, the Unity of Meaning)
➢ Example: Gal. 4:16
➢ Definition:
➢ Sensus Literalis
➢ Sensus Plenior
7) Control (or, Interpretation & Application(s) of Scripture)
➢ Example: Gal. 5:13-15
➢ Definition:
➢ Exegesis
➢ Eisogesis
The Historical-Grammatical School of Hermeneutics
THE GOAL: EDIFICATION
Ephesians 4:11-16
Salvation, Sanctification, Service
3) THEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Christological: or, Christocentric Theology
Chronological: or, Dispensational Theology
❖ Comparative: or, Systematic (Doctrinal) Theology
2) RHETORICAL (Historical-Grammatical) CONSIDERATIONS
Words: The Units of Thought
❖ Grammar: The Construction of Thought
❖ Genre: The Style of Thought
Historical-Cultural: The Background of Thought
❖ Bible Study Methods: The Understanding of Thought
1) INSPIRATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
❖ Common Sense: The Clarity of Scripture
❖ Conditioned: The Accommodation of Scripture
❖ Climax: The Progression of Scripture
❖ Coherence: The Analogy of Scripture
❖ Comparison: Scripture interprets Scripture
❖ Content: The Intent of Scripture
❖ Control: The Application of Scripture
THE FOUNDATION: GOD INSPIRED SCRIPTURE
2 Timothy 3:14-17; 1 Corinthians 2:6-16; 2 Peter 1:16
Book Survey Bible Study
□ Purpose
To obtain a broad overview of the book as a whole unit,
in order to discover the Main Message and Literary Structure of the Bible Book one is studying
□ Tools
Bible(s), paper, pencil, a Bible book chart.
□ Method
Book survey Bible studies involve three easy stages.
Each stage involves reading the book through in one sitting as if one would read a newspaper article.
Average readers can read many New Testament letters in 20 minutes.
When reading longer Bible books, do only one stage at a time over the course of three consecutive days.
□ Stage 1
Read the book through in one sitting with easy translation-paraphrases like the Good News or Living Bible.
Then, Write down initial Impressions, Feelings, Responses, Questions, etc.
that came to you while reading the book. Use short phrases to do this.
Stage 2
Read the book through again using a study version like the New International or New American Standard. Then, Write down in 4 or 5 words a Chapter Title for each chapter.1
□ Stage 3
Read the entire book a third time, again using an accurate study Bible.
Then, Write down in 4 or 5 words a Paragraph for each paragraph.
Many Bibles have already broken the books down by paragraphs.
If you disagree with the paragraph divisions in your version, create your own.
The Biblical authors did not make the paragraph divisions.[9]
Record on the Bible book chart your personal title for each chapter.
Wait until you do a more detailed study in Chapter or Division Study to record your paragraph titles.
Finally, give the book a short title in your own words that you feel describes its Main Message.
Record this title in the Main Message box on your Bible book chart.
You now obtained a Survey of the Main Message of the Bible Book you are studying!
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|Name of Book Galatians Main Message |
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|2nd John Main Message WALKING & WARNING |
|Chapter Titles |The Letter of WALKING (in Christ's Truth & Love) and WARNING (about the anti-christs) |
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|Literary Division |GREETING |WALKING |WARNING & WATCHING |CLOSING |
|Or |in Truth & Love |in the Commandments |against the |with the Hope of |
|Paragraph Titles | |of Truth & Love |Anti-christ's Deception |Fellowship |
| |2 John 1-3 |2 John 4-6 |2 John 7-11 |2 John 12-13 |
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|Key Discoveries |God is the Father of Christians |God commands Christians |Jesus became a human (in the flesh, Cf. The | |
|About God: |Jesus is The Son of The Father |to Walk in Truth & Love |Gospel of John, 1:1-18) | |
|Theological Studies |God gives Christians | |God & Jesus are known only by those who | |
| |grace, mercy, peace, love & truth | |"remain" | |
| | | |in the doctrine of Christ | |
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|Key Discoveries |The "Elder" |"Children" |Jesus, "The Christ" |The "Sister" |
|About Persons: |The "Chosen Lady" |"Lady" |The Deceivers |The "Children" of the Sister |
|Biographical Studies |The "Children" of the Chosen Lady |"Father" |The "anti-christs" | |
| |The Father & The Son | |Those who "do" & those who "don't" | |
| | | |remain in the doctrine of Christ | |
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|Key Discoveries about |The Truth |The Truth |The Doctrine of Christ | |
|Doctrinal – Topical |The Sonship of Jesus Christ |Love |The doctrine(s) of the anti-christs | |
|Studies | |Loving God means to obey |The Doctrine of Rewards | |
| | |God's commands | | |
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|Key Words: |Truth (4 times) |Command(s) (4 times) |Doctrine-Teaching (3 times) |Joy |
|Word Studies |Love (2 times) |Walk (3 times) |Remain (2 times) | |
| |Grace, Mercy, Peace |Love (2 times) | | |
| | |Truth & Joy | | |
iterary Division or Chapter Study
Purposes
To Observe what the chapter/literary division Contains,
to Interpret what the chapter/division Means,
and to Apply the chapter/literary division to one's life.
Tools
Bible(s), pencil, Observation, Interpretation and Applications Worksheets
and your Bible Survey Book Chart.
Method
There are 3 stages in chapter/literary division (or any) study of the Bible:
1) Observation, 2) Interpretation & 3) Application(s)
Observation, Interpretation and Application are the Foundations of all studies of the Bible
Stage 1: Observation (What does the chapter/division Contain: its literary contents?)
a) Ask and Answer from the chapter/division the 6 Observational; Questions,
Who, What, Where, When, How, Why
and record your answers on the Observation Worksheet (p. 24).
b) In light of your observations, reevaluate your Paragraph Titles you did in the Bible book study.
Then, record your refined paragraph titles on the Bible book chart in the box Main Division Titles.
Stage 2: Interpretation (What does the chapter/division Mean?)
a) Ask and Answer from the chapter/division 6 Interpretive Questions (Cited below)
and record your answers on your Interpretation Worksheet (p. 25-26).
1) What is the Literary Style or Genre of the book?
2) What was the author's Purpose(s) for writing the book?
Is the purpose specifically stated?
(E.g., John 20:30-31, 2 Cor. 13:10, I Tim. 3:14, Colossians 2:1-5, Hebrews 13:22, I John 1:3, 2:1, 2:12-14, 2:21-26, Jude vs. 3, etc.).
Alternatively, must you infer the purpose of the author based on the content of the book and chapter?
3) What is the Main Message or Point of the chapter/division?
Look for repeated Themes, Words, Phrases, etc. to answer this question.
4) What would the chapter/division mean to the Original Readers?
Try to imagine yourself in their historical position and what these words may have meant to them.
5) Are there any passages or sections from other places in the bible that you can Cross Reference
to the chapter/division you are studying that will help you interpret the chapter/division?
6) What does the chapter/division mean to you in your life and situation?
Advanced Interpretation Method: Personal paraphrasing of the chapter/division.
Rewrite the chapter/division in your own words so that a child of 10 could read your paraphrase and still understand the intended meaning of the author!
|Chapter/Literary Division Study, Stage 1: "Observation Worksheet" |
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In light of above observations, reevaluate your paragraph titles
and record your refined paragraph titles in the Main Division Boxes on your Book Chart.
Chapter or Literary Division Study, Stage 2:
Interpretation Questions 1-3 Worksheet
1) Literary Style or Genre of the Chapter?
Is it History, Biography, Law, Poetry, Wisdom Literature, Prophecy, Parable, Letter?
2) Author’s Purpose in Writing?
Stated or Inferred from Content?
3) Main Message or Point of Chapter-Division?
Look for Repeated Themes, Words, Phrases
Chapter or Literary Division Study, Stage 2:
Interpretation Questions 4-6 Worksheet
4) Meaning to Original Readers?
5) Cross References and Discoveries from those passages
that may help Interpret the Chapter-Division?
6) Personal Meaning and Interpretation?
Remember, if you choose you can now do the Advanced Interpretation Method:
Rewrite the chapter/division in words that a ten-year-old could grasp
and still be able to understand the writer's Intended Meaning
Stage 3: How Does the Chapter-Division Apply to My Life?
The following Three “Application’’ study methods are designed to help us Apply
what we have Observed and Interpreted in the chapter/division, in fulfillment of James 1:22:
"Become Doers of the word, not just Hearers who deceive themselves."
All three of these methods can be used on the same chapter/division.
Application Method 1: THE “S. P. E. C. S." Method of Application
"SPECS" enable us to "see" more clearly.
By asking and answering from the chapter/division being studied the following topical questions,
we will begin to "see more clearly" how we can Apply the truth of the chapter or division to our lives.
S ins to confess
P romises to claim
E xamples to follow
C ommands to obey
S ervice(s) to perform
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|APPLICATION METHOD 2: |
|The "CO-WORKER" or “Imperative” METHOD OF APPLICATION |
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|The purpose is to discover what God has done or will do for us, |
|what God wants us to do, and the results of our "working together" with God: |
|"For we are co-workers with God . . ." (I Cor. 3:9). |
|Under the 3 headings below, record your findings from the chapter/division you are studying. |
|Chapter |God’s Work(s)s |My Works(S): |The Results |
|& Verse | |What does God “command” us to do | |
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Application Method 3: The P.R.A.Y "Scripture Prayer” Method of Application
God’s people often used Scripture (or God's Revelations that became written) as a Basis for Prayer.
❖ Moses quoted Genesis to God as a Basis for prayer in Exodus 32:11-14.
❖ Daniel used Jeremiah 25:11-12 as a Basis for prayer in Daniel 9, esp. vs. 9:2-3.
❖ Israel used the entire Bible for a prayer of repentance and rededication in Nehemiah 9.
These are just three examples among many of using Scripture as a Basis for prayer!
Any verse or chapter/division can be used as a "springboard" or basis of communication with God
by using the Following "P.R.A.Y." method.
P raise for truth that was learned in the verse, chapter or division.
R equest for God's help in obeying the truth that was learned in verse, chapter.
A cknowledgement of sin(s) and shortcomings revealed by verse or chapter/division
Y our promises in verse/chapter/division that I claim for my life
Theological Method: ( (Studies about God) (
Purpose
To discover what the Bible book you are studying teaches about the Character and Actions
of the Triune God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
Tools
Study Bible, pencil, Theological worksheet, an exhaustive Concordance.
Method
1) Discover the various references to the Triune God in the Book or chapter/division you are studying, Record your findings in the appropriate boxes on your theological worksheet.
2) Then, write up a personal statement in an organized manner (or create a Theological Chart, see p.32) about the Character and Actions of God, according to the Book you are studying. This method enables one to learn what any particular Book of the Bible teaches about God!
|Practice Theological Worksheet |
| |Who God Is: God’s Character & Nature |What God Did/Does? God’s Actions |
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|THEOLOGICAL WORKSHEET |
| |WHO GOD IS: |WHAT GOD DID/DOES? |
| |GOD'S CHARACTER & NATURE |GOD'S ACTIONS |
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|THEOLOGY OF THE APOCALYPSE |
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|RETRIBUTION |REDEMPTION |REVELATION |
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|Retribution of The Seals |Lord of The Church(es): Prophet |Revealer of The Risen Christ |
|(Rev. 6—8) |(Rev. 1--3) |(Rev. 1:10; Rev. 1--3) |
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|Retribution of The Trumpets |Lamb Who was Slain: Priest |Revealer of The Living God |
|(Rev. 8—14) |(Rev. 4--18) |(Rev. 4:1-2; Rev. 4--5) |
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|Retribution of The Bowls of Wrath |Lord Who will Reign: King |Revealer of The Great Prostitute |
|(Rev. 15—19) |(Rev. 19--20) |(Rev. 17:1-3; Rev. 17--18) |
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|Retribution of Eternal Damnation |Lover Who will Marry: Groom |Revealer of The Glorious Bride |
|(Rev. 20) |(Rev. 21--22) |(Rev. 21:9-10; Rev. 21--22) |
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| | |©John David Geib-EzraEnterprises |
Biographical Study Method
Purpose
The goal of this study is to obtain an accurate overview of Biblical personalities, and thus learn practical truths (both positive and negative) from their experience with God that we can apply to our present day lives. The Biblical writers often use the life examples of other people in the Bible to show us how we should live our lives in the present day! For example, James used the example of Elijah to teach us about prayer (James 5:13-18). Paul based the doctrine of Justification by Faith alone on the life example and experience of Abraham in Genesis 15 (Romans 4; Galatians 3). The writer of Hebrews cited many personal examples of faith (Hebrews 11). Even negative and disobedient examples of people can teach us how not to live! Peter cited the examples of Baalam as one to be avoided (2 Peter 2:15-16).
Tools
Bible, Biographical Worksheet, Strong's (or any exhaustive) Concordance, scholarly Bible Dictionaries.
Method: four stages listed below
1) Use an exhaustive Concordance or a scholarly Bible Dictionary to discover and record every passage in the Bible where the person being studied is mentioned.
2) Pretend you are a reporter and obtain answers from verses you discovered to the following Biographical Worksheet questions. (Below). Record the verses and the essence of your answers in the appropriate boxes on your Biographical Worksheet (see next page).
BIRTH/EARLY LIFE
❖ What are the facts of the person's birth?
❖ What were major influences and training of the person?
RELATIONSHIPS
❖ Who were the parents and relatives of the person. What was their character (godly or ungodly)?
❖ Who were the friends or contemporaries of the person? What was their opinion of the person?
❖ What was the persons' family life? Married? Children? Positive, or negative?
SPIRITUAL LIFE
❖ Persons' attitude/relationship with God? (Prayer, experiences, etc.).
❖ Persons' attitude/relationship with God's Word?
❖ Persons' motives?
❖ Is person a "type" or "symbol" of Christ? If so, how?
CHARACTER
❖ Main traits of person (strengths and weaknesses)?
❖ Was there a "crisis" in the persons' life? If so, what were their responses and its overall effect?
WORK/MINISTRY
❖ What were the major phases of work and ministry?
❖ What was the persons' main achievement?
DEATH
❖ What was the cause and manner of persons' death?
CONTINUING CONTRIBUTION (S)
❖ How did person influence Biblical history?
❖ How does/can these people influence us today?
3) After you record your findings, check your findings by reading about the person in a good Bible dictionary. Revise your discoveries accordingly.
4) Finally, write down the major principles or lessons from the person that you could begin to apply to your present day life.
|Biographical Worksheet |
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JOHN: SON OF THUNDER, APOSTLE OF LOVE
❖ JOHN'S INTRODUCTION TO JESUS: THE "DISCIPLE" OF JOHN THE BAPTIZER
1) John 1:35-51
❖ JOHN'S PREPARATION BY JESUS: THE "SON OF THUNDER"
2) Called to follow and fish for humans by Jesus (Mk. 1:16-31, Mt. 1:18-22, Lk. 5:1-11)
3) Appointed by Jesus as Apostle, nicknamed "son of Thunder" (Mk. 3:13-19, Lk 6:12-16)
4) Sent by Christ to Proclaim with Power (Mk. 6:6-13, Mt. 9:35-11:1, Lk. 9:1-6)
5) Inner Circle witness to Transfiguration (Mk. 9:2-13, Mt. 17:1-13, Lk. 9:28-36)
6) Rebuked by Jesus for "party spirit" (Mk. 9:38-50, Lk. 9:46-50)
7) Rebuked by Jesus for "judgmental spirit" (Lk. 9:51-56, cf. Acts 8:1-25, 8:14-15, #20 below)
8) Rebuked by Jesus for "ambitious spirit" (Mk. 10:32-45, Mt. 20:17-28)
9) Requested further teaching on 2nd Coming (Mk. 13:1-4, cf. Book of Revelation)
JOHN'S PASSION FOR JESUS: THE "FAITHFUL WITNESS"
10) Sent by Jesus to prepare Last Supper (Mk. 14:12-16, Mt. 26:17-19, Lk. 22:7-13)
11) Ate Last Supper leaning on Jesus' breast (Jn. 13:21-30)
12) Went to pray with Jesus in Garden (Mk. 14:32-42, Mt. 26:36-46, Lk. 22:39-46)
13) Eyewitness to Jesus' Trial (Jn. 18:12-18)
14) Eyewitness to Jesus' crucifixion, and entrusted to care for Mary (Jn. 19:18-27)
15) Eyewitness to Jesus' death on the cross (Jn. 19:31-42)
JOHN & THE RESURRECTION OF JESUS: THE "BELIEVER"
16) 1st of male disciples to "believe" (Jn. 20:1-10)
17) Eventually he Wrote Gospel so all would "believe" (Jn. 21; see #23, below))
JOHN'S PROCLAMATION OF JESUS: THE "PILLAR"
18) Baptized with Holy Spirit on Pentecost (Acts 1-2, esp. Acts 1:13, John 7:37-39)
19) Boldly proclaimed Christ in Jerusalem (Acts 3-4, esp. Acts 4:13, 4:19-20)
20) Missionary to Samaria with Peter (Acts 8; Cp. Acts 8:14-15 & Luke 9:51-56)
21) Brother James killed by Herod (Acts 12:1-2)
22) Called a "pillar" of Jerusalem Church by the Apostle Paul (Galatians 2:1-10)
23) Wrote The Gospel of John and The Letters (1,2,3) of John, probably between 70-90 AD (Cf. John's Gospel and Letters)
JOHN'S REVELATION OF JESUS: THE "PROPHET"
24) Received The Revelation of Jesus Christ while exiled in the Isle of Patmos for "the message and testimony of Jesus Christ"; was commanded by Jesus to "write the things which you have seen, the things which are, and the things which will happen after these things", i.e., The Book of Revelation (Cf. The Book of Revelation)
❖ Extra-biblical Information on John: See Eusebius, The History of the Church (New York: Penguin, 1984), 3. 23-24; 4.14; 5. 5. 20; 3. 39; 3. 28-29. Eusebius recorded these stories from the writings of the Church Fathers.
DOCTRINAL OR TOPICAL STUDIES
Purposes of this type of bible study are
1) To discover what the writer of the book you are studying has written on the doctrine or topic you are interested in studying.
2) To discover what the entire Bible has said on that doctrine/topic.
3) To accurately understand and define that doctrine/topic.
4) To apply the lessons and truths that you learn about the doctrine or topic to you’re every day life and experience with God.
Tools
Bible, pencil, Doctrinal-Topical worksheet, Strong's Concordance, Naves' Topical Bible, a scloraly Bible Dictionary such as Unger's Bible Dictionary, New Bible Dictionary, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (5 volumes) among many other fine scholarly Biblical and Theological Dictionaries and Encyclopedias.
Method
Stage 1: Biblical Research
a) Use the information you discovered in your Chapter-Literary Division Observation study to determine the Key Doctrines or Topics in the book you are studying. Alternatively, you may simply choose a doctrine or topic that you are interested in studying.
b) Look up the Doctrine-Topic in Strong's Concordance or Naves' Topical Bible and Record on your Doctrinal-Topical Worksheet the passages that refer to your doctrine/topic in 1) The book you are studying and 2) the Bible as a whole.
c) Study those passages and
d) Write down the essence of your discoveries on the Doctrinal-Topical Worksheet (See next page).
Stage 2: Extra-Biblical Research
e) Look up the Doctrine-Topic in some Bible Dictionaries & Encyclopedias and cite the sources, page number and the essence of your discoveries on your Worksheet. You may discover some passages that you have missed in Stage 1. If so, record them in the Biblical Research section of your worksheet, and after reading these new passages, record the essence of what you discover and learn.
Stage 3: Personal Definition and Reflection
f) Take the information you learned from the Bible book being studied, the entire Bible and the Bible dictionary, and write out a personal definition of the Doctrine/Topic. This Definition can be as concise or in depth as time and interest allows. In effect, you are writing a personal “mini” disctionary article.
g) Reflect on and explain how the doctrine/topic you are studying relates to the Bible book you are studying. Record this on your worksheet.
Stage 4: Personal Application of the Doctrine-Topic
h) Pray, think, meditate, etc. on how what you have learned about the doctrine/topic that you have studied could affect your life.
i) You could do a "S.P.E.C.S." study on the subject. Write down on your worksheet some basic applications to your life, and then ask God to help you put into practice what you have learned.
DOCTRINAL – TOPICAL WORKSHEETS
Doctrine/Topic Bible Book Being Studied
1) BIBLICAL RESEARCH
a) References and Discoveries in Book being studied.
b) References and Discoveries in Whole Bible
2) EXTRA-BIBLICAL RESEARCH
c) Dictionary (ies) name, page, and discoveries about the Doctrine/Topic
3) Personal Definition and Reflections
d) My personal definition on the Doctrine/Topic of
e) How I think the doctrine/topic of relates to the Book of
4) Personal Applications
f) I could apply what I learned in the following ways:
WORD STUDIES
Purposes of this type of study
❑ Words are the building blocks of thought. A Word Study aims at discovering the meaning of key words in the book/chapter/division being studied in order to obtain a better understanding the main message of the book and its application to our lives.
Types
One can do Word Studies in Basis (in English) or Advanced style (the Hebrew and Greek words of the Bible).
Tools
Bible, pencil, Word Study Worksheet, same books as Doctrinal-Topical Method.
Basic Word Study Method
❑ Stage 1: Biblical Research
a) Choose the Key Word (s) in the Book/chapter/division you are studying. Key Words are usually words that are Repeated, Show actions we are to do or that God has Done or will do (Verbs), Describe Qualities we are to embrace or avoid (adjectives) and what you observed to be the main subject of the author’s message. Use the information you discovered in your Observation study to determine the key wordsin the book you are studying. Alternatively, you may simply choose a Word that you are interested in studying. Then, follow the same steps as in Doctrinal-Topical Studies (repeated below).
b) Look up the Key Word (s) Strong’s (or any exhaustive Concordance) or Naves' Topical Bible and Record on your Doctrinal-Topical Worksheet the passages that refer to your doctrine/topic in 1) The book you are studying and 2) the Bible as a whole. Many software programs can perform this step also.
c) Study those passages and
d) Write down the essence of your discoveries on the Doctrinal-Topical Worksheet (See next page).
❑ Stage 2: Extra-Biblical Research
e) Look up the Key Word in some Bible Dictionaries & Encyclopedias. Cite the sources, page number and the essence of your discoveries on your Worksheet. You may discover some passages that you have missed in Stage 1. If so, record them in the Biblical Research section of your worksheet. After reading these new passages, record the essence of what you discover and learn.
❑ Stage 3: Personal Definition and Reflection
f) Take the information you learned from the Bible book being studied, the entire Bible and the Bible dictionary, and write out a personal definition of the Key Word. This Definition can be as concise or in depth as time and interest allows. In effect, you are writing a personal “mini” disctionary article on that word.
g) Reflect on and explain how the Key Word you are studying relates to the Bible book you are studying. Record this on your worksheet.
❑ Stage 4: Personal Application of the Doctrine-Topic
h) Pray, think, meditate, etc. on how what you have learned about the Key Word that you have studied could affect your life.
i) You could do a "S.P.E.C.S." study on the word. Write down on your worksheet some basic applications to your life, and then ask God to help you put into practice what you have learned.
Basic Word Study Worksheet
Word-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) BIBLICAL RESEARCH
a) References and Discoveries in Book being studied.
b) References and Discoveries in Whole Bible
(Optional, because for this step to be truly valid you must do the Advanced Method,
which is based on the original Hebrew and Greek words).
2) EXTRA-BIBLICAL RESEARCH
c) Dictionary name, page, and Discoveries about the word being studied.
3) PERSONAL DEFINITION AND REFLECTION
4) PERSONAL APPLICATION
The Word Agape (((((() In The First Letter of John
1) I John 2:3-11
2) I John 2:15-17
3) I John 3:10-18
4) I John 4:7-21
A Comprehensive Synthesis of Biblical Chronologies
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|Eras of |Creation |Patriarchs |Exodus |Possession |Judges |Kings |Exile |Return |
|Biblical | | |Redemption |(Conquest) | |Prophets | | |
|History | | |Revelation Rebellion | | | | | |
| | | |1445-1405 | | | | | |
| |Pre-history |2165-1805 BC/E |BC/E |1405-1380 |1380-1050 |1050-586 |605-537 |537-432- |
| | | | |BC/E |BC/E |BC/E |BC/E |6bc/e |
| | | | | | | | | |
| |6-4 BC/E |26 AD/CE |7 Days in |Spring, 31 AD/CE |Spring 31 AD/CE |31-35 AD/CE |35 AD/CE |35 AD-62AD |
| |through |through |30 AD/CE | | | | | |
|Dates & |26 AD/CE |30 AD/CE | | | | | |9) Herod Agrippa I |
|Historical Figures | | | | | | | |(died in 44 AD; Acts |
| |1) King Herod the |4) Caesar Tiberius’ | | | | | |12; 10) Gallio, |
|All dates listed as |Great |15th year , 26 AD | | | | | |Procounsel of Achaia|
|BC are BC/BCE. |(37 –4 BC, Lk. 1:5) |(began co-regency in| | | | | |(51-52 AD, |
|All dates listed as |2) Caesar Augustus |11 AD ruled alone | | | | | |Acts 18:12) |
|AD are AD/CE |(31BC-14 AD, Lk. 2:1)|14-37 AD, Lk. 3:1) | | | | | |11) Ananias, High |
| |3) Quirinius, Gov. of|5) Pontius Pilate, | | | | | |Priest |
| |Syria (6-4 BC, Lk. |Gov. of Judea | | | | | |(47-59AD, Acts 23:2) |
| |2:2) |(26-36 AD, Lk. 3:1) | | | | | |12) Felix, Gov. of |
| | |6) Teterarchs Herod | | | | | |Judea |
| | |(4 BC-39 AD & | | | | | |(52-59/60 AD, |
| | |7) Teterarch Philip, | | | | | |Acts 23-24) |
| | |(4 BC-34AD) | | | | | |13) Festus, Gov. of |
| | |8) High Priests | | | | | |Judea |
| | |Annas & Caiaphas | | | | | |(59-61 AD?; Acts |
| | | | | | | | |24-25) |
| | | | | | | | |14) King Agrippa II |
| | | | | | | | |(52-? AD, Acts 25-26)|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|NT Letters | |
| | |
|Galatians 3:10-13 |Law |
|John 5:39-40 |for Messiah |
|Romans 10:1-13 | |
|Luke 24:44-45 | |
|Prophet Priest | |
|King | |
| | |
|Isaiah 53 |Prophets |
|Daniel 7:13 |of Messiah |
| | |
|Psm.22 - |Psalms |
|Matt 27:46 |of Messiah |
|Psm 16 - | |
|Acts 2:24-32 | |
|Psalm 110 - | |
|Mt. 27:44 | |
| | |
|Matthew |Gospels |
|Mark |of Messiah |
|Luke | |
|John | |
| | |
|Acts 1:1-8 |Acts |
| |of Messiah |
| | |
|Acts 2:42 |Letters |
|I Peter 2:1-2 |of Messiah |
| | |
| | |
|1:7 |Apocalypse |
|22:7 |of Messiah |
Unit Two:
Hermeneutics: Interpreting The Bible
The Focus of this section is on the essential role of proper interpretation
in the creative teaching of the Bible.
All the creativity in the world is in vain if what one teaches
is an incorrect interpretation of Scripture.
"You are in error, not understanding The Scriptures nor the power of God."
Jesus, Matthew 22:29
"Be diligent to present yourself approved to God as a worker who does not need to be ashamed, one who handles accurately the Word of Truth."
Paul to Timothy, 2 Timothy 2:15
Three Keys to Understanding the Bible
1) THE PERSON OF THE HOLY SPIRIT: OUR DIVINE TEACHER
Jesus said, "But the Helper, the Holy Spirit,, whom the father will send in my name, He will Teach you (John 14:26). Also, "But when the Spirit of Truth comes, He will Guide you into all the truth (John 16:13).
Paul wrote, “ . . . no one knows the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God. Now we have received, not the spirit of the world, but the Spirit Who is from God that we might Know the things freely given to us by God." (1 Cor. 2)
The Holy Spirit is longing to Teach us the meaning of the Bible, and especially to Reveal to us Jesus Christ (the "Living Word") in the pages of the "Written Word", the Bible. Before you read and study the Bible, ask the Holy Spirit to Teach you, and He will according to the sacred promise of Jesus!
2) THE PRINCIPLES OF COMMON SENSE INTERPRETATION
(or, How to Avoid 2 Peter 3:15-16)
a) COMMON SENSE:
□ When the Plain Sense of Scriptures makes Common Sense, seek no Other Sense.
□ Take every word at its primary, usual, normal meaning Unless the Facts of the Context indicate otherwise (e.g., obvious symbolism, etc.)
b) CONTEXT:
□ Interpret the verse you are looking at by the surrounding verses!
□ Interpret the passage you are looking at by the Book you are studying.
□ Interpret the Book you are reading by the Whole Bible!
c) CONTENT:
□ Look carefully at the Content of the passage, verse, book, etc!
□ The writer had One Meaning to communicate.
□ Therefore, there is only One Correct Interpretation, but many possible Applications.
d) COMPARISON:
□ The Scriptures are in Harmony with each other and they do not contradict each other!
□ Therefore, interpret Difficult passages by passages that are Clear and Easy to Understand
e) CHECKING:
□ Check your interpretation(s) with those who are Proven Lovers and Careful Students of the Bible.
□ It is very doubtful that you alone have "grasped the true interpretation." God is very generous with truth, and the Holy Spirit can teach and correct us through other lovers and students of Scripture!
3) THE PERSISTENT PRACTICE OF BIBLE STUDY "METHODS"
Bible Study Methods were not designed to take the place of the Teaching Ministry of the Holy Spirit.
Rather, they are Means and Tools the Holy Spirit uses to enhance one’s understanding of the Bible.
Use the Methods of Bible Study that are Described in this booklet
in Dependence on the Teaching Ministry of the Holy Spirit,
and with the prayerful attitude of the Psalmist,
“Make Your Face shine on your servant, and Teach me Your Word" (Psalm 119:135) .
Hermeneutics and Research
By Dr. John David Geib
The central purpose of this abstract is to discuss hermeneutics in its most comprehensive sense, i.e., a discipline that governs the interpretation of reality in a holistic manner. The paper begins with a very brief historical review of hermeneutics. The definition of hermeneutics provided above is then be applied to the formal research process with particular attention paid to three disciplines concerned with hermeneutical issues: communication, theology and philosophy. The paper concludes with some tentative solutions to hermeneutical problem areas faced in these disciplines with a view toward advancing the formal research process.
A Brief History of Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics (the art and science of interpretation) derives its name from Hermes, mythic Greek herald and messenger of the gods. In its largest sense, Hermeneutics can be viewed as a hybrid of philosophical and rhetorical concerns regarding a comprehensive interpretation and understanding of reality. By the end of the nineteenth century, hermeneutics was established as a central methodological concern in all academic areas (Dunnett 1984, 82; Levey and Greenhill 1983, 376).
While each academic discipline has a history and unique style of hermeneutics, Biblical scholarship is perhaps most responsible for recognizing the critical importance of the interpretive enterprise. Early Christian scholars eventually joined Jewish Rabbis in an attempt to systemize the science (letter) and art (spirit) of correct interpretation of the Bible. The Protestant Reformation era formalized the historical-grammatical school of interpretation, a style that has been precisely articulated in its convictions and methodologies (Dunnett 1984; Ramm 1970; Tenney 1989). Schleirmacher and Dilthey have been recognized for their work in extending hermeneutical concerns to other academic disciplines.
Since World War II, Hermeneutics has been given a decidedly philosophical bent under the influence of Heidegger and Bultmann. Their existential emphasis sought to replace the traditional historico-grammatical model of interpretation. The structuralist (also known as the deconstructuralist) school is the most recent extension of the existentialist approach to hermeneutics. The deconstructuralist method "frees" the interpreter from all concerns regarding the author's original intent; instead, the interpreter focuses on their own experience and interpretation(s) while they interact with the text (Bruce 1986, 568; Dunnett 78).
Hermeneutics and Communication: Discursive and Presentational Language
Langer has broadly defined communication as occurring in two basic modes: " . . . the sciences, which we call the 'discursive' mode and the arts, which we call the 'presentational' mode" (Wellek and Warren 1956, 25). Davis notes that Langer's " . . . discursive mode of language is . . . governed by the rules of logic" as opposed to presentational language, which is: . . . the ordering of the flux of sensation with concrete images or symbols which speak to us of realities . . . to be conceived through some symbolic scheme other than discursive (Davis 1978, 72-73).
While it may be helpful for purposes of definition to separate communication into these two basic modes, Davis points our that modern extremism along these lines has created, rather than solved, communicational problems:
The problem we face is not science itself. It is rather that we have allowed the one true and valid side of existence probed by science and reason to assume an all-sidedness, which devours the other side of life. . . . we have repudiated our multi-faceted nature . . . which by virtue of its denial of reality can never be fully human (Davis 54).
A categorical reductionism that dehumanizes and robs speech of its multi-faceted dimensions can cause more problems than it solves. One possible solution to this communicational problem may be obtained by a return to a hermeneutic that is holistic and which refuses the monolithic approach:
. . . holism, the assumption that the work in front of me is a unity, with all of its parts fitting together and relevant to that unity, is the practical working assumption that every criticism must begin with (Frye 1992, 101).
Just as the master carpenter uses the tools which are most appropriate to the nature of the job being done, it appears that researchers are best served in their work when they employ both discursive and presentational skills as appropriate for the particular type of research in which they are engaged.
Hermeneutics and Philosophy: Mythos and Logos
Discursive and presentational language take on philosophical overtones when humans begin to speak of matters of ultimate concern. Consider the following paradoxical insight:
At the beginning of the second century Aelius Theon, in his Progymnasmata, showed the difference between myth and narration: the myth is a "false account portraying truth" whereas the narrative is "an account descriptive of events which took place or might have taken place [emphasis mine] (Eliade 1963, 165).
Mythos and logos are philosophical counterparts to the communicational terms discursive and presentational:
[Myths] . . . antonym and counterpoint is logos. The myth is narrative, story, as against dialectical discourse, exposition . . . the intuitive as against the systematically philosophical (Wellek and Warren 195).
As a scholar of myths, an extended citation from Eliade illustrates the structure and function of myth:
Myth, as experienced by archaic societies, 1) constitutes the History of the acts of the Supernatural; 2) that this history is considered to be absolutely true (because it is concerned with realities) and sacred (because it is the work of the Supernatural); 3) that myth is always related to a "creation" [and consequently] this is why myths constitute the paradigms for all significant human acts; 4) that by knowing the myth one knows the "origin" of all things and hence can control and manipulate them at will 5) that in one way or another one "lives" the myth, in the sense that one is seized by the sacred, exalting power of the events recollected or re-enacted (Eliade 18).
The mythos v. logos has become especially problematic in the modern era when the debate has included God and the supernatural. Hayward discerns that modern rejection of Eliade's definition of myth may simply be the replacing of religious myth with scientific myth. He rejects radical atheistic existentialism because this "new myth" illogically believes in ". . . a brain transcending and knowing itself" (Hayward 1970, 71). Humanism is another mythological worldview disguised as "logos:"
Of all the transcendence models of our time, one of the least logical, least empirical, least credible is that of autonomous, scientific man providing successfully, over the passage of time, for his well being (Hayward 71).
Dewalt critiques monolithic adherence to logos from another angle: “. . . every conceptualization of the Christian belief in the 'new life' must be relative to a prior conceptualization of the 'old'" (Dewalt 1969, 149). While speaking primarily to Christians, Dewalt's point is applicable to the human condition regardless of worldview adherence: human finitude can never escape the use of mythic language by exclusive devotion to logos.
Whenever one attempts to do so, one simply replaces one myth with another. Macquarrie illustrates the true worldview source of the mythos - logos debate:
. . . our modern scheme of thought affords no place for another being, however exalted, in addition to the beings we encounter within the world (Macquarrie 1969, 47).
Otto attempted to resolve the tension between mythic and logical thinking by positing that there is an a priori cognitive ability latent within humanity which must be recognized and embraced if holiness (mythic reality) is to be experience along with logical cognition (Otto 1967, 164). Eliade likewise recognizes the fundamental world view nature that determines whether or not one recognizes mythic reality: "For homo religiosus the essential precedes existence" (Eliade 92).
This writer is content to accept the mythos - logos problem as a philosophical worldview problem that no hermeneutical approach can ultimately resolve. Hermeneutics is a tool, and will be wielded differently by different worldview thinkers. For those whose world view joyfully makes place for both mythic and logical thinking and who follow Jesus Christ, Schweizer has adapted and advanced traditional historico-grammatical hermeneutics into a holistic model that includes Scripture, The Holy Spirit, Church Tradition and sensitivity to modern thinking and concerns as a viable solution for uniting mythos and logos in the hermeneutical process (Schweizer 1967, 44-59).
Hermeneutics and Theology: Transcendence and Immanence
Macquarrie's question, "How can we think of God?" is a critical hermeneutical concern. While seemingly not problematic for the Biblical authors, modern interpreters have struggled with the nature of God's relationship to the created order. Otto identifies the pre- cognitive nature of this modern struggle:
It is this positive feeling-content that the concepts of the transcendent and supernatural become forthwith designations, a unique "wholly other" reality and quality, something whose special character we can feel, without being able to give it clear conceptual expression (Otto 30).
Perhaps the polar opposite of Otto's famous "numenous" experience is Macquarrie's analysis of a trend in modern thinking:
" . . . our modern scheme of thought affords no place for another being, however exalted, in addition to the beings we encounter within the world (Macquarrie 47).
When the transcendence - immanence world view perspectives collide, hermeneutical students are forced into what Fairwheather calls a ". . . false dilemma . . . between the simpleassertion of the of the antinatural and the idolatry of the natural" (Fairwheather 1967, 240-41). Otto even asserts that Christians have promoted rather than healed this false dilemma by an over-emphasis of the rational aspect of God:
It is rather that Orthodoxy found in the construction of dogma and doctrine no way to do justice to the non-rational aspect of its subject. So far from keeping the non-rational element in religion alive in the heart of the religious experience, orthodox Christianity manifestly failed to recognize its \value, and by this failure gave to the idea of God a one-sidely intellectualistic and rationalistic interpretation (Otto 3).
This writer notes that Otto's critique cannot be applied to the Biblical authors, especially Paul. Paul placed great emphasis on the "mystery" and "mysteries" of the Christian and claimed that humans could truly know God and truth while also noting that our knowledge could never be complete (1 Cor. 13:9-12).
Modern hermeneutical thinkers have not been content with Paul's answer to the transcendence and immanence question and have accordingly proffered two main solutions of their own: the solution of "being" and the solution of "analogy." Macquarrie settles on Heidegger's model of "being" as one which is” . . . neither deistic nor pantheistic, and is perhaps better able than traditional views of God to show how he can be at one and the same time transcendent and immanent" (Macquarrie 51). This writer considers Heidegger's view of God to be so far removed from the Biblical presentation of God that I simply fail to see how Heidegger's "unknown" and "unknowable" God resolves this central question of hermeneutics. It appears similar to an architect informing a carpenter that the conception of the house in the architect's head is so perfect that the carpenter's tools will not be needed, since the house cannot be constructed anyway!
Fairwheather departs from Heidegger's radical existentialism toward the hermeneutical solution of analogy:
Analogy is of particular value in the exposition of Theism because it presupposes both sides of the experience of the divine presence, immanence and transcendence . . . analogy joins both in a dynamic unity (244).
There is a measure of truth in Fairwheather's claim. Certainly, the Biblical writers use analogies to build bridges of understanding between the infinite God and this finite world. However, to trust that these analogies accurately represent reality is a worldview rather than a hermeneutical question. Revelation is by definition superior knowledge from beyond human experience. Methodologies (i.e., hermeneutics) are tools developed and used from within the human experience. Consequently, methodologies like hermeneutics, which are developed from within human experience, are inadequate to research the source and nature of revelation. Hermeneutics is an abstracted system (a limited set of relationships selected by an observer which are then studied by means of conceptual systems). Technically, an analogy is a conceptual system. Technically, God is a concrete system. Using analogy to speak about God is the creation of a non-transformable abstracted system, i.e., it is the comparing of elements from a concrete system (God) with elements from a conceptual system (Hermeneutics). Technically, the process of substituting a conceptual element with a concrete element in order to relate the two systems is termed Surrogation (Swanson and Green 1991). Since the resulting comparison of God and the analogy via Surrogation depends entirely on the validity of the Surrogation, analogy can only be a potentially true and partial solution to the problem of how God and the world relate. Both the concepts of "Being, dasein" and "analogy" appear to be insufficiently remote premises to comprehensively explain ultimate reality. Neither is successful in resolving the problems inherent in the transcendence-immanence debate.
Dewalt urges a return to classical Christian assertions to find a way home from these apparently unresolvable problems. He points us to the incarnation of God in the person of Jesus as the ultimate solution: ". . . the God of the Gospel has come into the world in His true and utter reality . . ." (Dewalt 1969, 155). In a prescient anticipation of modern concerns, the Apostle John explicates the hermeneutical ramifications of the incarnation:
No one has ever seen God. The only begotten God [or Son] who was in the bosom [inner being] of the Father, that One has explained [exegeted or interpreted, God (John 1:18).
Rather than joyfully embrace this central assertion of the Christian worldview as the means both to eternal and hermeneutical salvation, people within and without the church have subjected this event to a slanted hermeneutical methodology:
From the second century on, Christian theologians had to defend the historicity of Jesus against the Doecetists and the Gnostics as well as against the pagan philosophers.The second problem is in some measure bound up with the first. It does not impugn the historicity of Jesus but questions the validity of the literary documents that illustrate it. This methodological position assumes the Gospels and other primitive documents are full of mythological elements (taking myth, of course, to mean "what cannot exist"). These scholars have postulated a "myth" that was imperfectly "historicised" by the earliest generations of Christians. But none of these nonhistorical hypotheses has been accepted by the specialists (Eliade 162).
The non-historical theory regarding the Gospel accounts has been largely rejected because of the factual data that supports a historical Jesus. In addition, it has come to be realized that the meaning of those facts is primarily a worldview issue, and only secondarily a hermeneutical question. Davis attempts to rescue us from the tragedy of "scientific" myth when he writes:
Biblical criticism must surrender its long cherished dichotomy of the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith. The Jesus of the New Testament is both. We must allow the Bible to create its own center (Davis 299).
Conclusion
Hermeneutics is a tool of scholarship that will be used in accordance with the worldview premises of the scholar who is attempting the work of interpretation. Researchers who have embraced the incarnation of Jesus as veridical receive along with Jesus a holistic healing that unites discursive and presentational language, mythic and logical thought and the transcendence and immanence of God. Such researchers live content with partial knowledge and partial interpretive understanding until they see God face to face (1Cor. 13:9-12). Until they experience the Beatific Vision, these scholars employ this holistic view of hermeneutics as a tool to further research and knowledge, without confusing their tools with the Ultimate toolmaker.
Bibliography
Bernstein, R. J. 1983. Beyond objectivism and relativism: Science, hermeneutics and praxis. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
An attempt to address and overcome the perennial hermeneutical problem of the division between "subject and object." Bernstein follows Heidegger's "dasein" model (the human as being in the world) as the starting point of interpretation. To this model Bernstein argues basically for a "community dialogical" model of hermeneutics that avoids the delusion that anyone can be "objective" and the horror of solipsism. In dialogue with the members of all disciplines, we may grow in a corporate hermeneutical understanding.
Davis III, C. T. 1978. Speaking of Jesus. Lakemont, Ga: GSA Press.
Davis argues that modern biblical criticism has become one sided and one dimensional, primarily by neglecting the reality of the twin necessity of viewing language as both "discursive and presentational." After a discussion of Langer's, Wellek's and Warren's emphasis on these forms of language, Davis embarks on a presentational tour de force of the New Testament portrait of Jesus, concluding that these presentations were grounded in true religious experience. Davis wishes to fuse both criticism and confession so that the reality of the risen Christ may be truly experienced by the reader(s) of the Bible.
Dewalt, L. 1969. God and the supernatural. New Theology, Vol. 5: 142-155.
A splendid article that argues that exclusive adherence to discursive language (i.e. "logos" language) is fallacious because human finitude can never escape the use of mythic (presentational) language when referring to God and the supernatural. When we attempt to rely exclusively on discursive language, we simply replace the supernatural "myths" with the myth of naturalistic omnicompetence.
Dunnett, W. M. 1984. The interpretation of holy scripture. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.
An introduction to the "historico-grammatical" school of hermeneutics based on
the belief that the Bible is the inspired word of God, which presentation forms the first part of this work. Dunnett then surveys the hermeneutical model of the apostles and the early church fathers, concluding this history of hermeneutics with the post-reformation era. Dunnett then wrestles with modern trends in hermeneutics (language, genre, historical and cultural context) before concluding with a section in which he demonstrates in a series of models the principles he believes are hermeneutically correct.
Eliade, M. 1963. Myth and reality. New York: Harper.
A tour de force analysis and discussion of the origin, function and continuing legitimacy of mythic forms and function. In archaic societies, myth provided a history of the acts of the supernatural realm which were considered "reality," usually explained the origin and existence of the cosmos, and provided a paradigm for those who believed it for everyday life, i.e., myths functioned as pre-scientific worldviews. Eliade surveys the great societies and their myths (India, Greece, Israel, etc.) and traces the rise of thought (fueled largely by historiography and science) that enabled Aelius Theon (Progymnasmata) to write that myth in the second century was considered ". . . false account portraying truth. . ." where descriptions of events (i.e., history) were considered accounts ". . . of what might have taken place."
Elwell, W. A., Ed. 1986. Evangelical dictionary of theology. S.v. "Interpretation of the bible," by F. F. Bruce.
A cogent survey of the history and principles of hermeneutics. A masterful introduction to the topic.
Fairweather, E. 1967. Christianity and the supernatural. New Theology, Vol. 1: 235-254.
A rejection of Heidegger's radical existentialism and emphasis on the unknowable transcendence in favor of a synthetic balance of both transcendence and immanence by the use of "analogy" as the bridge between these two valid sources of knowledge. To fail to find this balance leads to the idolatry of the natural.
Frye, N. 1992. Words with power: Being a short study of the bible as literature. San Diego: Harvest/HBJ.
Frye argues that mythic language is the language of "primary concern(s)" and is the most appropriate mode of language (among perception-description, conceptual-dialectical and ideological-rhetorical) to speak of primary concerns such as God, the supernatural and the meaning of life (which is the burden of the Bible). Since all language is (when ultimately reduced and stripped of its scientific pretensions) symbolic, Frye concludes that rather than demythologizing the Bible, we ought to embrace its mythic language with a holistic hermeneutical model that enables us to pass beyond the mythic structure of the Bible to its focus on the primary concerns it addresses.
Hayward, J. F. 1970. The use of myth in an age of science. New Theology, Vol. 7: 59-77.
Since the modern notion of naturalistic science is self-refuting (or at least very problematic) because it is based on the notion of ". . . a brain transcending and knowing itself. . .", Hayward believes that we are in danger of replacing "religious myths" with "scientific myths." Humanism is simply another mythological worldview disguised as discursive or "logos" language.
Levey, J. S. and A. Greenhill, Eds. et. al. 1983. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. S.v. "hermeneutics."
A short survey of philosophical hermeneutics from its origin with Schleirmacher to Heidegger. "Understanding" is viewed as a circular process, whereby one can understand the whole only in terms of the parts but the parts only from the whole."
Macquarrie, J. 1969. How can we think of God? New Theology, Vol 3: 40-52.
A slavish following of Heidegger's hermeneutical model of being as being able to explain God as neither deistic nor pantheistic and thus able to resolve the transcendence- immanence controversy, since " . . . our modern scheme of thought affords no place for another being, however exalted, in addition to the beings we encounter in this world."
Otto, R. 1967. The idea of the holy. London: Oxford.
A seminal and magisterial analysis of the psychological effects of encountering the "holy," or the wholly other. Beyond the introduction of the latinisms numenous, fascinans, augustum to describe the human encounter with the holy, Otto brilliantly ties the non-rational and rational experiences of God together thus: "This permeation of the rational with the non-rational is to lead, then to the deepening of rational conception of God; it must not be the means of blurring or diminishing it" (Otto 113). Thus, as germane to the hermeneutical issues, one must not lose the balance between "transcendence and immanence" and "discursive and presentational:" both are true, and both have their proper place.
Ramm, B. 1990. Protestant biblical interpretation, 3d Ed. Grand Rapids: Baker.
A classic treatment of the reformational "historico-grammatical school" of hermeneutics. Ramm provides specific principles and examples of this school in the context of historic and modern schools of thought that differ from his methodology.
Schweizer, E. 1967. The relation of scripture, church tradition and modern interpretation. New Theology, Vol. 1: 44-59.
A marvelous compendium of the "holistic" school of hermeneutics. Schweizer argues that all three loci named in his title are to be holistically consulted and employed so that the meaning of the Christ event, which is the true "word" of God, may be correctly understood in the modern age.
Swanson, G. A. and H. L. Green. 1991. Understanding scientific research. Dayton, TN: Oxford/ACRSS.
Consulted for its cogent explanation of the distinctive roles of "revelation" and "science," this placed the "discursive-presentational" discussion in perfect balance.
Tenney, M. C. 1989. Galatians: The charter of christian liberty. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
A union of grammatical-historico hermeneutics and synthetic and analytic Bible study methodologies. This model along with Schweizer's would (in my estimation) be the perfect blend of "conservative and modern" methodologies that could significantly resolve many of the hermeneutical controversies.
Wellek, R. and A. Warren. 1956. Theory of literature. New York: Harcourt Brace World.
A survey of the theories and their theory of literature against the backdrop of issues such as the nature of literature, its function, historical and textual criticism, the "psychologizing" of literature (they would have little time for modern deconstructualism) and the role of the Geistegeschichte (" . . . premature and frequently immature.") as an interpretive tool. A rather close following of Langer is displayed throughout the book.
HISTORICAL SCHOOLS OF HERMENEUTICS
| |MAJOR STRENGTHS/ |MAJOR WEAKNESSES/ |
|SCHOOLS |ATTRACTIONS |DEFICITS |
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|LIBERAL | | |
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|NEO-ORTHODOX | | |
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|HISTORY | | |
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|NEW HERMENEUTIC | | |
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HISTORICAL SCHOOLS OF HERMENEUTICS
MAJOR STRENGTHS/ATTRACTIONS and MAJOR WEAKNESSES/DEFICITS
ALLEGORICAL
LITERAL
DEVOTIONAL
LIBERAL
NEO-ORTHODOX
SALVATION-HISTORY
NEW HERMENEUTIC
Allegorical Schools of Hermeneutics
Allegorical interpretation believes that beneath the obvious (phanera) is the real meaning (hyponoia) of the passage.
Greek Allegorism
The Greeks had two strong traditions, 1) Religious heritage (Homer and Hesiod) and 2) Philosophical and Historical tradition (Thales, Thucidides, Herodotus) However, the religion had some absurd parts, which the philosophical and historical traditions could not accept. To solve the problem, they allegorized the religious heritage. The stories of the gods were not to be taken literally but to hold a secret or real meaning underneath. This system spread to Alexandria where many Jews and Christians lived. Some Jews and Christians adopted the Greek allegorical method for biblical interpretation.
Jewish Allegorism
As Jews began to interact with the Greek culture, they became exposed to Greek literature and philosophy. Many of the Jews soon became impressed with Greek teachings. However, these teachings had to be reconciled with the scriptures. The solution to the problem was to use allegory.
Aristobulus was the first to use the Jewish tradition of allegories. He believed that Greek philosophy used some of the Old Testament and by using allegories, the teachings of the Greek philosophers could be found in the scripture. Another Jewish allegorist was Philo. He believed that mature readers of the scripture must use the allegorical interpretation. A passage is to be interpreted allegorically if it says anything incorrect about God, or if it contained an apparent contradiction. However, care must be taken, because if the passage is not allegorical the reader may get an incorrect meaning.
Christian and Patristic Allegorism
The early fathers used the allegorical method of interpretation. It was believed that the New Testament is a fulfillment of the Old Testament (which was deemed also a Christian document), and thus the truth of the gospel was also emphasized in the Older Testament There were many difficulties in allegorical interpretation such as ignoring the historical connections of a passage of the scripture, dealing with the concept of progressive revelation, the difficulties of the parables, and confusing the legitimate and the improper interpretations. In addition, because the fathers, Christ and the apostles had the Old Testament in Greek, they had to deal with the insertions of Greek philosophy in it.
The four main scholars who explained the patristic hermeneutical theory were Clement, Origen, Jerome and Augustine.
1) Clement: he considered history as actual events, the obvious moral teachings, predictive prophecies, and the spiritual meaning in the scripture symbolized by persons.
2) Origen: To him literal meanings were not the only objectives of the scripture but also the spiritual as well, the spirit of Christ is essential, and the Old Testament is a preparation for the New Testament.
3) Jerome: He emphasized the literal and the historical interpretations, and that the literal does not contradict the Allegorical.
4) Augustine: He indicated that the Theory of signs is essential for interpretation. An example is that a piece of wood is not a sign but a tree is a sign of a forest.
Augustine said that Faith is measured by understanding scripture and is essential for understanding it. He emphasized the historical and the literal interpretations, the centrality of Christ, the accuracy of interpretation, the use of the context and other related material, the knowledge of languages, the use of the clear to explain the obscure, and the awareness of progressive revelation.
Strong points:
1. Knowledge of History and languages.
2. Progressive revelation.
3. Common sense (clearly explains the obscure).
4. The necessity of the spirit of Christ for understanding.
Weak points:
1. Considering all events as true historical events.
2. Considering all historical events to contain a “hidden mystical” meaning.
Catholic Christian Allegorist
The Catholic Church considers itself as the official interpreter of scripture. The Catholic interpreter obediently accepts whatever the Catholic Church has specifically said about matters of Bible introduction and authorship of the books of the Bible. The Catholic interpreter accepts all verses in the sense that the church has officially interpreted them.
The Church Fathers are to be a guide in interpretation according to three principles:
1) Interpretation must be solely about faith and morals.
2) The Father must be bearing witness to the Catholic tradition.
3) The Father must have a unanimous witness to the given interpretation.
4) Obscure and partial teaching of the scripture is to be explained by the fuller teaching in the unwritten tradition of the church.
5) The literal and historical interpretation of scripture is the foundation of the study of the Bible.
6) The scriptures do possess a spiritual or mystical meaning, which is beyond the literal.
7) The bible is to be understood in terms of the principles of development.
8) Catholic scholars accept the Latin Vulgate as the authentic version for public lectures, disputations, sermons and exposition. This puts the Catholic Church in an odd position because the Hebrews wrote their Bible in Hebrew and Aramaic and the apostles in Greek.
THE LITERAL SCHOOL OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION
1) Accepts the historical and grammatical meanings of the verses of the Bible unless the nature of the verse makes it impossible.
2) We should be satisfied with the literal meaning unless we have substantial reasons to go beyond it.
3) Ezra is the founder of literal Biblical interpretation.
4) Words and sentences must be understood in context.
5) Scripture should be compared with Scripture.
6) A clear passage is to be preferred over an obscure one when they both deal with the same subject matter.
7) Spelling, grammar, figures of speech, and the times, conditions, and circumstances of the biblical writer are to be given close attention.
8) Logic and deduction may be used to apply Scripture to problems of life that are not specifically treated in Scripture.
9) God gave Scripture in such a way that we could clearly understand.
10) Nothing within Scripture is unimportant or superfluous.
11) Accepts historical reality of Old Testament events.
12) Clear typology is blended with the historical record of the Old Testament events.
13) The Old Testament and New Testament are in unity and demonstrate progressive relation.
14) Liberal arts, history and geography are basic to exegesis.
15) All allegories must have root in doctrine already established by the literal sense.
16) The authority for theological dogma rests solely on Scripture not on human reason.
17) The use of the original languages is primary for interpretation.
18) Faith and the leading of the Spirit should accompany interpretation.
19) The function of all interpretation is to find Christ.
Strengths
1) Believes that the Bible can be clearly interpreted by believers.
2) High view of Scripture - Bible is placed above human reason.
3) Accepts the inerrancy of the Bible.
4) Links Scripture with Scripture giving clear passages priority.
5) Avoids fanciful and subjective interpretation.
6) Takes history literally and seriously and uses it in interpretation.
7) Scientific in interpretation - uses well defined rules to govern interpretation and guard against error.
8) Seeks to find Christ in the Scriptures.
9) Uses progressive revelation to understand relationship between the Old and New Testaments.
10) See other above in tenets.
Weaknesses
1) May tend toward “letterism” and legalism.
2) May be so concerned with the details of the text that the basic meaning is lost.
3) The incidental may be greatly exaggerated.
4) Some literalists reject allegory altogether.
5) May take a bit more research because of its emphasis upon the original languages, history, and biblical context.
Devotional Interpretation of Scripture
Definition: A method of interpreting scripture which places an emphasis on the edifying aspects of scripture and interpreting with the intention of developing the spiritual life.
Strengths
1) Developed out of a sense as wanting to recover the Bible as spiritual food and nutrition to be read for personal edification.
2) Reaction against dogmatic and fanciful exegesis.
3) Devotional and practical emphasis in Bible searching is necessary.
4) Best for straight life application
Weaknesses
1) Falls prey to allegorization (a literary, dramatic or pictorial representation the apparent or superficial sense of which both parallels and illustrates a deeper sense just as, for example, the story of the search for the actual Holy Grail may illustrate an inner spiritual search).
2) Literal and primary meaning tends to become obscured.
3) Distortions have been made of historical records.
4) Too much emphasis applying to life causes one to miss depth in biblical studies.
Neo-Orthodoxy
Neo in Greek signifies something new and Orthodoxy deals with faith. Neo-Orthodoxy is new faith or a new era in Biblical Interpretation. The hermeneutical principals that characterize the center of this movement are as follows:
1) The Revelation Principle
Infallibility of the Bible is denied
Inerrancy of the Bible denied
Traditional notion of revelation is denied
All historical and orthodox forms of inspiration denied
Doctrine of Neo-Orthodoxy is only god speaks for God
2) The Christological Principle
God’s word to man is Jesus Christ
No doctrine is a Christian doctrine unless it receives a Christological orientation
The rule for understanding all Christian articles is the incarnate word of Jesus Christ
3) The Totality Principle
Interpretation leads to orthodox doctrines
Taking the Bible seriously but not literally
4) The Mythological Principle
Interprets in a middle ground approach
The via media is to interpret methodologically
Myth is a form of theological communication
Myths don’t actually teach literal history but the conditions of all religious existents
Mythological interpretation may sometimes be called psychological interpretation
5) The Existential Principle
One must have their heart in their mouth to read God’s word
Must read the Bible as it were a love letter
The deepest interpretation of Scripture is concerned with “existential” situations: life and death, love and hate, God and the world
6) The Paradoxical Principle
Challenges points by the use of counter examples
Some examples of classical paradoxes are man must use reason to understand God, yet God is beyond human logic, God is one, but yet He is three
The Heilsgeschichtlisches School: Scripture as Salvation History[10]
Heilsgeschichte is a German term meaning the history of salvation. Von Hofmann of Erlangern was a Lutheran theologian and stands out as a developer of this idea. He insisted that interpreters of the Bible must focus on the events of biblical history if correct interpretation is to come forth. The Bible must not only be treated as a textbook in theology or philosophy of religion, but as the story of God’s redeeming acts, especially historical events. Theology is interwoven with history. Together, the Old and New Testaments make this salvation history. Events such as Abraham, the Exile, Exodus from Egypt, virgin birth of Christ, death, resurrection, ascension, and the return of Christ are vital in understanding biblical history.
Von Hofmann attempted to ground religious authority on three aspects:
1) Experience of Regeneration -- to be born again
2) History and Fact of the Church
3) Scripture
The interpreter must look at the entire Bible (every verse) as an account of God’s saving grace in the life of mankind. In addition, the Holy Spirit not only inspired Scripture, but also guides the church. Humanity must be sensitive to the teaching of the Holy Spirit to help prevent formalizing, canonizing, and dogmatizing our own interpretations of Scripture.
The central theses of this school of thought are the following:
1) God revealed himself in particular events in history.
2) These events are historical happenings.
3) The salvation of the whole human history relates to this particular line of history.
4) History is moving to a final day.
The roots of history, the meaning in the present and the hope of our future must rely on three basic concepts.
1) History of Israel: this is because the nation of Israel received a call of God to play its part in salvation history to provide a place for the appearance of Jesus Christ and the beginning of His church.
2) Immediate Historical Context: the whole concept of salvation history leads humanity to a personal relationship with God.
3) Fulfillment Intended: all of biblical history has a purpose and that is to provide humanity with eternal life with Jesus Christ.
Strengths
1) All scripture does point to Christ.
2) It allows the reader to have a subjective understanding of scripture. It allows the reader to make personal applications from Scripture (It allows for faith through belief, not evidence.)
3) Interpretation is dynamic -- it allows the Holy Spirit to help the believer interpret the Bible in a way that is not static.
4) Every verse should be interpreted from its historical setting.
Weaknesses
1) It does not give room for using modern science to buttress Scripture.
2) Too simplistic - could lead to skepticism for a believer.
3) A leader could use the “guidance” of the Holy Spirit to lead people astray (e.g., Jim Jones).
4) People differ in their concepts of revelation in history and time.
5) The question of the relationship between the saving events and the record of these events in the Bible.
6) The New Testament depicts both the Deity and Humanity of Christ as historical actuality. However, many believe since people of faith wrote the only significant documents, they were suspected of enthusiastic imagination: thus, the supernatural is mystical to them.
New Hermeneutic School
In the 1950s, the theological leadership of Germany was taken over by Bultman and scholars that studied under him. The New Hermeneutic School branches off the ideas and beliefs of Bultman. His focus was hermeneutics and there are seven essentials to his theory.
1) The Scientific Principle - This principle states that to ask a person to believe against science or against history is to ask him to sacrifice his intellect. Example: To ask someone to believe that Jesus walked on water is to ask him to believe something that is contrary to science.
2) The Critical Principle - This principle assets that the words, concepts, and expressions used in the New Testament are to be determined by an exhaustive study of the whole historical, literary, sociological, and religious background of the words, concepts, and expressions. Thus, the concept of “Lord” is to be traced out in the religions and philosophies that were part of the environment in which the New Testament was written. The implication of all of this is that the meaning of the New Testament concepts is not given by divine revelation and to be so understood, but not borrowed from contemporary religion or philosophy. The implication of this for Biblical hermeneutics is very great. The historical setting of a concept becomes more important in understanding the text than in a strict exegesis focusing directly on the text alone. The second major critical tool of Bultman is form criticism, which deals with tracing out the history of the literary forms contained in the document. He makes a distinction between what the New Testament says and what it means. Therefore, the real goal of interpreting the Scripture is discovering what is meant, not what is said.
3) The Mythological Principle - Bultman taught that the church of the first century expressed its faith in mythological terms. He points out three criteria for which he calls a concept mythological. (1) If the writer of the New Testament is stating his faith in a worldly way, an external way, an objective way, then he is stating it mythologically. (2) If the writer of the New Testament is asserting something contrary to science, such as mysterious multiplication of bread and fish by Jesus, then it is myth. (3) Bultman nowhere stated the third criterion but the idea comes across loud and clear. Doctrinal teachings of the New Testament that are not acceptable to modern men are myths.
4) The Demythological Principle - In this principle Bultman used the word Entmythologisierung, which means to take away the myth from the Scripture. The duty of the interpreter is to recognize the mythological character of a passage of Scripture, then to find out what the myth rally means and delete the externals.
5) The Dialectical Principle - In this principle Bultman repeatedly states that if something is objective or historical it is not existential; if it is existential, it is not objective or historical.
6) The Revelational Principle - In this principle Bultman belongs to the modern theologian who believe that revelation is not a quality of Scripture but, in older language, an experience within the author.
7) The Law Principle - In this principle Bultman viewed the Old Testament as a book of law, not corresponding to the New Testament.
From Bultman there sprang a radical movement in which Bultman’s skepticism about the New Testament is carried even further, and a positive movement that attempts to push further the break-throughs of Bultman. This positive movement is known as the New Hermeneutic. This goes beyond Bultman in the following ways.
8) The critical principle. It is not only myths that modern man objects to in the New Testament but to any kind of error, historical or factual. The motto her is, “faith elaborates, “ and the interpreter of the New Testament must spot all such elaboration. According to Bultman the only historical event necessary for the kerygma is the cross. However, his followers believe that this historical basis is too small. So they have tried to find a broader historical base and started what is called “The New Quest for the Historical Jesus.” Further, it was felt that Bultman worked with too positivistic idea of history, but history in the twentieth century is not considered so positivistic or scientific.
9) The hermeneutic principle. The New Hermeneutic claims that its new view of hermeneutics is not just for Biblical scholarship, but is really philosophy within itself containing its own theory of knowledge.
10) The language principle. The New Hermeneutic moves away from Bultman’s simple division between decisions that lead to authenticity and self-understanding and decisions that lead to inauthentic existence with no self-understanding. The New Hermeneutic has really developed and existential theory of language. The whole task of preaching from the original study of the text of Scripture to the delivered sermon is to be done within the context of this new theory of existential language. Instead of using the word encounter for man’s response to God, and God’s response in the act of decision or faith, it sues the word speech-event. Although in many ways, the scholars of the New Hermeneutic will do exegesis in the traditional Protestant manner of the past one hundred years, in other ways they will make radical departures in view of their existential theory of language.
Hermeneutics of Prophetic Literature
PROBLEMS
1) Scope: J. Barton Payne, Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy, p. 681.
2) Style:
Poetry
Telescoping (I Peter 1:10-12)
PRINCIPLES (and questions to ask before reaching interpretive conclusions)
1) Content:
Do I understand the factual data within the prophecy?
(Names, places, cultural terms, historical references, and figures of speech employed).
2) Context:
Have I analyzed the literary structure of the entire book and the immediate verses that surround the prophecy?
3) Chronology:
Do I understand the historical background of the prophecy?
Does the prophecy contain local or temporal elements that can be identified as fulfilled in the short-term context?
Does the prophecy contain assertions or intimations of long-term, unfulfilled applications?
4) Comprehensiveness:
Have I studied all Biblical references that relate to the content of the prophecy?
5) Climax:
How do the writers of the NT (led the Holy Spirit) interpret prophecy in general or the specific prophecy under consideration?
6) Christological:
How does the prophecy relate to the Lord Jesus Christ? (1st Advent? Second Advent?)
Explicitly (sensus literalis)?
Implicitly (Sensus plenior)?
PERENNIAL ISSUES OF PROPHECY
1) The Second Coming of Jesus (Circumstances, signification, time)
2) The Millennium (Premillennial, Amillennial (realized), Postmillennial)
3) Israel
Hermeneutics of Parables
1) Etymology: para = , ballo = parable thus =
2) Elements: Parables always have 3 elements, & most often have the fourth (below):
• Earthly
• Spiritual
• Analogical
• Centrality
3) Definition:
4) Purposes:"Why do you speak to them in parables?" (Matthew 12:22-13:17)
• Cultural:
• Intellectual:
• Spiritual:
5) Hermeneutical Guidelines
Cultural
Interpretational (exegetical)
• Discover
• Determine
• Doctrinal (applicational):
The Hermeneutics of Typology
1) Etymology & Definition(s): tupos, ((((( (Bauer, Arndt and Gingrich, 837):
2) Elements & Guidelines of Typological Hermeneutics
• Authority:
• Analogy:
• Specificity:
• WARNING:
3) Kinds of Typology: Old Testament Type/New Testament Anti-type
a) Institutions Lev. 23
b) Persons: Gen. 1-3 & Romans 5:12-21
c) Relationships: Gen. 2:23-24 & Eph. 5:31-32
d) Actions: Numbers 21:4-9 & John 3:14-16
e) Things: Ex. 25:8, 40:33-35& John 1:14
f) Offices: Gen. 14:17-20, Psalm 110:4 & Heb. 7:1-17
g) Events: Exodus-Numbers & I Cor. 10:1-13
Unit Three:
Creatively Teaching The Bible
This section examines the role of The Holy Spirit
and Spiritual Gifts in the creative teaching of The Bible.
Educational philosophy and methodologies are also discussed,
but with the understanding that without the Holy Spirit
and the spiritual gift of teaching all the creativity in the world is in vain.
"Then He opened their minds to understand The Scriptures."
Luke 24:45, speaking of Jesus
"For our good news did not come to you in word only,
but with power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction . . ."
Paul, 1 Thessalonians 1:5
Spiritual Gifts
(Ezra Enterprises - Dr. John David Geib
Table of Contents
Unit One: Introduction To The Course
Spiritual Gifts: Goals of The Study 73
Spiritual Gifts Discovery Record 74
Personal Discovery List of Available Spiritual Gifts 75
Unit Two: The Gift of the holy spirit
The Ministry of The Holy Spirit in The Book of Acts 76
The Gift of The Holy Spirit 77
The Ministry and Baptism of the Holy Spirit: Historical Emphasis 78
The Baptism and Ministry of The Holy Spirit: Words 79
Unit three: understanding , discovering and realizing The gifts of the holy spirit
Spiritual Gifts: Definition of Terms 80
A Classification of Types of Spiritual Gifts 81
Spiritual Gifts: 15 Preliminary Observations from 1 Corinthians 12 82
The Purposes of Spiritual Gifts 83
The Purposes of Spiritual Gifts: Ephesians 4 84
Consecration 85
The Ultimate Will of God 86
Realizing The Will of God 87
Title Deed To My Life 88
Biblical Steps in Discovering Spiritual Gifts 89
The Use of Spiritual Gifts: Motivations and Obstacles 90
Unit four: the specific spiritual gifts of the holy spirit
Message or Speaking Gifts: "To deliver a message"
Apostle (Apostolos, ((((((((() 91-93
Prophet (Prophetes, (((((((() 92-96
Teacher (Didaskalos, (((((((((() 97-99
Pastor-Teacher (Poimenos, (((((((() 100-101
Evangelist (Euaggelistes, (((((((((((() 102-103
Exhortation (Parakaleo, ((((((((() 104-106
Wisdom (Sophia, ((((() 107-108
Knowledge (Gnoseos, ((((((() 109-110
Tongues (Glossa, (((((() 111-113
Interpretation of Tongues (Hermeneia, (((((((() 114
ministry or service gifts: "to deliver a ministry"
Service (Diakonia, (((((((() 115-116
Helps (Antilemphis, (((((((((() 117
Mercy (Eleos, ((((() 118
Leadership (Proistemi, ((((((((() 119-120
Administration (Kubernetes, (((((((((() 121
Giving (Metadidomi, (((((((((() 122-123
Celibacy (Agamos, ((((((; Parthenos, (((((((() 124
miraculous or spectaular gifts: "to deliver miracles"
Faith (Pistis, (((((() 125-126
Miracles (Dunamis, ((((((() 127-129
Healing (Iama, (((() 130-131
Discernment of Spirits (Diakrisis, ((((((((() 132-134
The Feast of Pentecost 135
SPIRITUAL GIFTS: GOALS OF THE STUDY
KNOWLEDGE (OBJECTIVE)
1) Know the definition of "spiritual gifts."
2) Know the purposes of the spiritual gifts.
3) Know the types of available spiritual gifts.
4) Know the location of passages that deal with spiritual gifts.
KNOWLEDGE (SUBJECTIVE)
5) Discover and know the gift(s) God has given to you.
6) Discover and know how God wants you to use your gift(s).
APPLICATION
7) Pray for yourself and others in the group that the above goals will be met on a regular basis.
8) Complete the assignments that accompany each lesson.
9) Begin to use your spiritual gift(s) for God's purposes.
SPIRITUAL GIFTS: ASSIGNMENT 1
Complete these steps in the order given, please.
1) Pray that God will guide you and the others to fulfill our goals.
2) Read 1Corinthians 12--14, Ephesians 4:1-16, Romans 12:1-8, 1 Peter 4:10-11 and 2 Timothy 1:3-14
and
a) make a list of all the available gifts you discover.
b) write down any questions you have regarding the gifts.
3) Complete the Wagner-Modified Houts Questionnaire and record your preliminary findings.
4) Read the definitions in Wagner-Houts on pages 14-17 as preliminary findings.
5) Bring your booklet to the next session and be prepared to share with the others your preliminary findings.
SPIRITUAL GIFT DISCOVERY RECORD
1) Begin to pray regularly that God would reveal your gift(s) to you. Determine that you will use your gifts for the good of other believers; Ask God to show you your place of service in the Body of Christ.
2) Study the list of gifts with definitions and examples. Examine other New Testament characters with a view to discerning the gifts that God had given to them; ask yourself what characteristics were evidence of that gift.
3) Talk with others: seek out the opinion and assistance of others for whom you have spiritual respect. Ask them what characteristics are evident in your own life. Ask them what gifts they believe you to possess.
4) Map out a program of discovery. Lend assistance in various areas of ministry. Do not be afraid to fail. View the entire process of discovery as a healthy opportunity that God has provided for your maturation.
Evident qualities in my life at the present
Characteristics of Spiritual Gifts in my life
5) Ask yourself how each spiritual gift on the lift might be used in the ministry of the church.
6) Pay close attention to the gifts that frequently occur in "clusters." See the relationship between the gifts within those clusters, and notice how they enhance the value of the rest of the gifts.
7) APPLY THIS PRINCIPLE AS A CHECK FOR YOUR OBSERVATIONS.
Remember that spiritual gifts function all of the time within the Body of Christ. One need not hold a specific office/position (e.g. teacher, elder, etc.) in order to practice their gift (e.g. gift of teaching, administering, etc.). You may believe you have a certain gift, but if it is not functioning regularly for the good of the Body, you probably do not possess it.
PERSONAL DISCOVERY LIST OF AVAILABLE SPIRITUAL GIFTS
The passages below contain the essential New Testament data on spiritual gifts.
Study them carefully, and list below the specific spiritual gifts you discover in these passages.
ROMANS 12:1-8 (especially 12:6-8)
I CORINTHIANS 12 (especially 12:8-10, 12:28-30)
EPHESIANS 4:1-16 (especially 4:11)
I PETER 4:10-11
THE MINISTRY OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
IN THE BOOK OF ACTS
John 16:7-15, Acts 1:8
((((((( - dunamis - dynamite - "POWER"
Discover and record below your findings about the Holy Spirit in the Book of Acts
1:5-8
2:1-4
2:17-18
2:33-39
4:8
4:25
4:31
5:3-32
6:3-5
7:51-55
8:15-39
9:17
9:31
10:19
10:38-47
11:12-28
13:2-4
13:52
15:8
15:28
16:6-7
18:18--19:6
20:22-28
21:4-11
28:25
The Nature of Gifts
The Gift of The Holy Spirit
Acts 2:38
Luke 11:9-13
Discover in the passages cited below what happens to people whom
receive and open their personalities to the "gift" of the Person of the Holy Spirit.
Acts 1:8
2 Corinthians 3:17-18
Acts 2:1-13, esp. 2:13
Ephesians 5:18
Acts 13:52
Galatians 5:22-23
Acts 7:51-55
1 Thessalonians 5:19
Personal Summary
The Ministry and Baptism of The Holy Spirit
(Historical Emphasis)
HISTORICAL PROMISES REGARDING THE HOLY SPIRIT
1) Joel 2:28-29 (either c. 840 BC/BCE or c. 500 BC/BCE)
2) John The Baptizer
Matt. 3:11-12
Mark 1:8
Luke 3:16-17
John 1:33-34
3) Jesus
John 7:37-39
Luke 24:49
Acts 1:5-8
HISTORICAL EXPERIENCES WITH THE HOLY SPIRIT
1) The Jews: Acts 2 (c. 33 AD/CE)
2) The Samaritans: Acts 8 (c. 35 AD/CE)
3) The Gentiles: Acts 10--11 (c. 40-41 AD/CE)
4) The Disciples of Apollos: Acts 18:18--19:7 (c. 52 AD/CE)
HISTORICAL EXPLANATIONS OF THE MINISTRY OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
1) Eph. 1:11-13
2) Gal. 3:1-5
3) Gal. 3:26--4:7
4) Rom. 5:5-8
5) Titus 3:4-7
6) 1 Cor. 12:13
HISTORICAL EVIDENCES OF THE BAPTISM OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
1) 1 Cor. 2:9-16
2) 1 Cor. 12:1-3
3) Romans 8:15-17
4) Gal. 5:22-26
5) 1 Thess. 4:1-8
6) Acts 1:5-8
7) 1 Cor. 12:4-11
THE BAPTISM & MINISTRY OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
WORDS USED TO DESCRIBE THE MINISTRY & BAPTISM OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
The word Baptism is derived from the Greek word baptizo ((((((((), which is defined as
“ . . . dip, immerse, plunge, sink, drench . . ."1, ". . . to dip in or under, to dye, dyed material, to immerse, to go under . . ." 2, ". . . a term used by textile workers referring to dyed materials." 3
Other words used synonymously in the Bible with baptism when describing the work of the Holy Spirit are as follows.
1) Enduo (((((() is used by Jesus at Luke 24:49 to refer to the then near future Pentecost experience of the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Enduo is defined as “. . . dress, clothe, put something on someone." 4
2) Pimplemi ((((((((() means “. . . fill, fulfill . . ." 5 and is used to describe the baptism of the Holy Spirit at Acts 2:4 and Acts 4:31.
3) Shapak ((((), used at Joel 2:28-29 and defined as “ . . . pour, pour out . . . in both physical and metaphorical senses . . . [such as] . . . water, broth, dust, blood . . . [or] . . . wrath, heart, soul, God's Spirit." 6 The translators of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) into the Greek version (The Septuagint) translated the Hebrew word Shapak (((() by the Greek word discussed below in # 4,
4) Ekcheo ((((((), which is defined as “. . . pour out . . ." 7 Ekcheo (((((() is used synonymously with the ministry and baptism of the Holy Spirit in the following passages: Acts 2:17, Acts 2:18, Acts 2:33, Acts 10:45, Titus 3:4 and Romans 5:5.
5) Lambano (((((((() is defined as “. . . receive . . .” 8 and is used interchangeably with the baptism of the Holy Spirit at Acts 2:33, Acts 2:38, Acts 10:47 and Acts 19:1-6.
6) Didomi ((((((() is defined as “. . . give, grant, bestow, impart . . ." 9 and is used synonymously with the word baptism when referring to the work of the Holy Spirit at Acts 5:32 and Acts 11:17.
7) Epipipto ((((((((() means “. . . to fall or come upon . . .” 10 and is used synonymously with baptism to describe the work of the Holy Spirit at Acts 11:15; the prepositional part of this word (epi) is used at Acts 19:6.
8) Pleres ((((((() means “ . . . full . . ." 11 and is a typical word used to describe the work of the Holy Spirit in passages such as Acts 6:3 and 7:55. A cognate of pleres is
9) Pleroo (((((((), which means “. . . fill, make full, complete . . ." 12 and is used to describe the ministry of the Holy Spirit at Acts 13:52 and Ephesians 5:18.
A CONCLUSION ON THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WORDS USED TO DESCRIBE THE BAPTISM OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
Based on the above citations and definitions, it is very clear that Jesus, the Apostles and Biblical authors used the terms baptism, clothe, fill, pour out, receive, give, and fall upon as synonyms to refer to and describe the ministry of the Holy Spirit in the lives of those who believe in the Lord Jesus Christ. There is no evidence that Jesus, the Apostles and Biblical authors viewed these terms as describing different phases or stages of their experiences with the Holy Spirit. Rather, the evidence is overwhelmingly in favor of the view that they used these terms synonymously.
Among Christians who do open themselves to the Person and work of the Holy Spirit, some believe that Christians receive all of the Holy Spirit (actually, all of the Triune God; see John 14:15-24)) at the time of regeneration by faith in Christ (Eph. 1:13-14, John 3:1-21, among others). Other Christians make a distinction between the regeneration and initial reception of the Holy Spirit at the time of salvation and the subsequent Baptism of the Holy Spirit with power at the time of consecration. Despite these differences, what is common to both positions is that the Christian must yield or surrender to the Holy Spirit if the Christian is to experience the fullness and power of the Holy Spirit. One possible resolution of these different understandings of the work of the Holy Spirit is to avoid becoming excessively attached to particular terminology or phrases that describe the work of the Holy Spirit. Instead, we should open ourselves completely in obedience to the supernatural Person and Work of the Holy Spirit for the glory of God and the promotion of the plans and purposes of the Lord Jesus Christ. As we yield to the Holy Spirit, we may experientially realize what appear to be new or unique manifestations of God in our lives. Ultimately, Christians receive all of the fullness of the Deity initially and positionally when they receive Christ, but only realize experientially the fullness they already had of the Holy Spirit as they progressively yield themselves in obedience to God
(Colossians 2:9-10).
1Bauer, Arndt and Gingrich, A Greek-English Dictionary of The New Testament, 131 [cited hereafter as BAG]; 2A. Oepke, Theological Dictionary of The New Testament, V, 529-30; 3Moulton and Milligan, The Vocabulary of The New Testament, 103; 4BAG, 263; 5BAG, 633; 6H. J. Austel, Theological Dictionary of The Old Testament, II, 949-950; 7BAG, 246;
8BAG, 465-66; 9BAG, 191-92; 10BAG, 297; 11BAG, 675; 12BAG, 677.
SPIRITUAL GIFTS: DEFINITION OF TERMS
The New Testament authors used Six Greek words in reference to spiritual gifts.
While these different words give various shades of meaning to the idea of spiritual gifts,
they should generally be regarded as synonyms as they are “. . . simply different descriptions.”1
1) Pneumatikon (((((((((((() found at I Corinthians 12:1 and 14:1 referring to gifts.
English words “pneumatic” and “pneumonia” are derived from the Greek.
Defined as “spiritual things or matters”, “spiritualities” and “. . . used for the totality of the gifts of the Spirit.”2
2) Charismaton ((((((((((() found at I Corinthians. 12:4, 12:9, 12:28, 12:30, 12:31,
Romans 12:6, I Peter 4:10 and Ephesians 4:7 referring to gifts.
English words “charisma”, “charismatic” derived from the Greek.
Defined as “a gift (freely and graciously given)" “a gift involving grace on the part of God as the Donor,"
a “proof of favor, benefit”.3
3) Diakonion ((((((((((), found at I Cor. 12:5, Rom. 12:7, Eph. 4:12, I Peter 4:10-11 referring to gifts.
English word “deacon” derived from the Greek.
Defined as “service, aid, support”, “ministries”, and "discharge of service”. 4
4) Energematon (((((((((((), found at I Cor. 12:6 and 12:10 referring to the gifts.
English words “energy," “energetic” derived from the Greek.
Defined as “activity”, “workings, operations”, “what is effected”.5
5) Phanerosis ((((((((((), found at I Cor. 12:7 referring to the gifts.
English words “phantasm”, “phantom” derived from the Greek.
Defined as “disclosure," “manifestations” and
“. . . the revelation imparted by the Spirit and consisting in the charismata listed in I Cor. 12:8 ff . . .”6
6) Dorea ((((((), found at Eph. 4:7 referring to the gifts, defined as “gift, bounty of God”, “a free gift”.7
SPIRITUAL GIFTS: A CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION
SUPERNATURAL ABILITY OR ABILITIES GIVEN BY THE HOLY SPIRIT
TO EVERY TRUE BELIEVER IN JESUS CHRIST
TO BRING GLORY TO GOD
AND SPIRITUAL GROWTH IN BOTH THE BODY OF CHRIST AND NON-CHRISTIANS.
• They are supernatural. That is, spiritual gifts differ from natural talents and abilities common to humanity by virtue of being human or human talents developed by training, education or experience.
However, discipleship and usage can sharpen spiritual gifts once received.
• They are gifts of God. That is, although spiritual gifts are manifested through Christians,
their ultimate source is from God.
1 Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, v.9, 405. 2A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 685; Vine’s Expository Dictionary of the New Testament, 1087; TDNT, v. 6, 437. 3Lexicon, 887; Vine, 487; TDNT, v. 9, 402. 4Lexicon, 183; Vine, 756; TDNT, v. 2, 87. 5Lexicon, 265; Vine, 1256; TDNT, v. 2, 652. 6Lexicon, 861; Vine, 718; TDNT, v. 9, 6. 7Lexicon, 209; Vine, 486-487; TDNT, v. 2, 166-167
A Taxonomy or Classification of Spiritual Gifts
I) MESSAGE or SPEAKING GIFTS: “TO DELIVER A MESSAGE”
1) APOSTLE (APOSTOLOS,((((((((() 1Cor. 12:28-29; Eph. 4:11
2) PROPHET (PROPHTAS, (((((((() I Cor. 12:28-29; Eph 4:11; Rom.12:6
3) TEACHER (DIDASKALOS,(((((((((() I Cor. 12:28-29; Rom. 12:7
4) PASTOR-TEACHER (POIMENOS,(((((((() Eph. 4:11
5) EVANGELIST (EUAGGELISTES, (((((((((((() Eph. 4:11
6) EXHORTATION (PARAKALEO,((((((((() Rom. 12:8
7) WISDOM (SOPHIA,((((() I Cor. 12:8
8) KNOWLEDGE (GNOSEOS,((((((() I Cor. 12:8
9) TONGUES (GLOSSA,(((((() I Cor. 12:10; 12:28; 12:30
10) INTERPRETATION (of tongues: HERMENEIA,(((((((() I Cor. 12:10; 12:30
II) MINISTRY OR SERVICE GIFTS: “TO DELIVER A MINISTRY”
1) SERVICE (DIAKONIA,(((((((() Rom. 12:7; I Peter 4:11
2) HELPS (ANTILEMPHIS,(((((((((() I Cor. 12:28
3) MERCY (ELEOS,((((() Rom. 12:8
4) LEADERSHIP (PROISTEMI,((((((((() Rom. 12:8
5) ADMINISTRATION (KUBERNETES,(((((((((() I Cor. 12:28
6) GIVING (METADIDIDOMI,(((((((((() Rom. 12:8
7) CELIBACY (AGAMOS, ((((((; PARTHENOS, (((((((() I Cor. 7
III) MIRACULOUS or SPECTACULAR GIFTS: “TO DELIVER MIRACLES”
1) FAITH (PISTIS,(((((() I Cor. 12:9
2) MIRACLES (DUNAMIS,((((((() I Cor. 12:10; 12:28-29; Heb 2:4
3) HEALING (IAMA,(((() I Cor. 12:9; 12:28; 12:30
4) DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS (DIAKRISIS,((((((((() I Cor. 12:10
SPIRITUAL GIFTS:
15 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS FROM I CORINTHIANS 12
VERSES OBSERVATIONS
1) 12:1
2) 12:3
3) 12:4-6
4) 12:7
5) 12:8-10
6) 12:11
7) 12:12-13
8) 12:14-17
9) 12:18-21
10) 12:22-24
11) 12:25-27
12) 12:28
13) 12:29-30
14) 12:31a
15) 12:31b
THE PURPOSES OF THE SPIRITUAL GIFTS: PERSONAL STUDY SHEET
The listing of these verses is designed for personal discovery of the purposes of the spiritual gifts.
The list is a preliminary study guide and not intended to be an exhaustive listing of passages
that comment on the purposes of the spiritual gifts in the New Testament.
Read the passages and write down the essence of your discoveries regarding the purposes of spiritual gifts.
Discover the key word(s) of the passage, write them down, and try and define the word(s) in your own language. Projected time to complete this exercise should be about two to three hours.
1) GLORIFICATION OF THE TRIUNE GOD
a) I Peter 4:11
b) Ephesians 4:7-11
c) I Cor. 12:11; 12:18; Hebrews 2:4
2) EDIFICATION OF THE BODY OF CHRIST
a) Eph. 4:12a
b) Eph. 4:12b,
1 Cor. 14:1-6;
14:12;
14:17;
14:26;
Eph. 4:16
c) Eph. 4:13a
d) Eph. 4:13b
e) Eph. 4:13c
f) Eph. 4:13d
g) Eph. 4:14
h) Eph. 4:15
i) I Cor. 12:7
j) I Cor. 12:14-17
k) I Cor. 12:18-21
l) I Cor. 12:22-24
m) I Cor. 12:25-27
3) SIGNIFICATION TO THE UNBELIEVING WORLD
a) I Cor. 14:20-25
b) Acts 2
THE PURPOSES OF SPIRITUAL GIFTS1
Ephesians 4:1-16
1) FOUNDATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
a) What is “the Body of Christ”? Eph. 2:11-22
b) What do we have in “common”? Eph. 4:4-6
c) How should this commonality affect our treatment of each other? Eph. 4:1-3
d) Who receives spiritual gifts? Eph. 4:7a
e) From whom do we receive them? Eph. 4:7b-8
f) What do spiritual gifts represent? Eph. 4:9-10
II) THE PURPOSES OF SPIRITUAL GIFTS
a) Some “types” of gifts? Eph. 4:11
b) Their purposes?
4:12a
4:12b
4:14 (4) 1
2
3
4
4:14
4:15
1 Please use this inductive Bible study in conjunction with the exhaustive listing of the purposes of the spiritual gifts titled
THE PURPOSES OF THE SPIRITUAL GIFTS: PERSONAL STUDY WORKSHEET.
|CONSECRATION: THE MAJOR KEY TO REALIZING THE WILL AND GIFTS OF GOD |
1) CONSECRATION (Romans 12:1)
(Cp. Leviticus 21:17-24,22:18-25, Deut. 15:19-21 & Malachi 1:6-14 for Sacrifice Standards of God)
a) What should we present?
b) To Whom do we present?
c) Why should we present?
d) How should we present?
e) When should we present?
2) TRANSFORMATION (Romans 12:2a-b)
a) The Enemy:
Rom. 12:2
Cor 4:4
I John 2:15-17
b) The Means:
Rom 1:28
Rom. 12:2b
Eph 4:17-24
2 Cor 3:18
3) REALIZATION (Romans 12:2--15:13)
a) The First Realization: (Romans 12:2b)
b) The Second Realization (Romans 12:3)
c) The Third Realization: The Realization of Spiritual Gifts
1) Romans 12:3b
2) Romans 12:4
3) Romans 12:5
4) Romans 12:6a
5) Romans 12:6b
6) Romans 12:8b
7) Romans 12:8c
8) Romans 12:8d
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|The Ultimate Will Of God: |
|That Which Is Good, Pleasing & Complete |
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|Level 3: Consecration |
|Romans 12:1-2 |
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|Level 2: Sanctification |
|1 Thessalonians 4:3-8 & 5:16-24 |
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|Level 1: Salvation |
|John 5:29-40 |
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|Major Tools & Means By Which The Will Of God Is Realized |
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|2 Timothy 3:15-17 |
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|Ephesians 5:18 |
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|Romans 12:1-2 |
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|Hebrews 13:17 |
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|I Corinthians 12:14-29 |
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|REALIZING THE WILL OF GOD: |
|THE RESULT OF CONSECRATION AND THE SUBSEQUANT RENEWING OF THE MIND |
|(An Overview of Romans 12:3--15:21) |
|1) 12:3-8: God's Will & Self-View |
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|2) 12:9-16: God's Will & Others |
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|3) 12:17-21: God's Will & Evil |
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|4) 13:1-7: God's Will & Government |
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|5) 13:8-10: God's Will & Love |
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|6) 13:11-14: God's Will & The Second Coming of Christ |
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|7) 14:1-15:13: God's Will & Debatable Things |
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|8) 15:14-21: God's Will & Evangelism |
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|Title Deed To My Life |
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|I urge you therefore, brothers & sisters, in view of the mercies of God, |
|to present your bodies as a living, holy & acceptable sacrifice to God, |
|which is your reasonable form of worship. |
|Do not be conformed to this age, |
|but be transformed by the renewing of your minds |
|in order that you may be able to discern |
|the good & pleasing & completely realized Will of God. |
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|Romans 12:1-2 |
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|In View Of The Mercies Of God |
|Revealed To Me In Jesus Christ, |
|Namely, |
|Justification, Sanctification & Glorification, |
|I Hereby On This Day Of |
|Present Once & For All |
|My Entire Life To God |
|As A Living & Holy Sacrifice |
|For The Purpose of Realizing The Will Of God. |
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|Signature _______________________________ |
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Biblical Steps in Discovering Spiritual Gifts
CONSECRATION (Romans 12:1-2)
This involves surrendering your entire being to God for God 's will and purposes.
This is the essential step in finding God’s will and gift(s).
SUPPLICATION (Luke 11:1-13)
Begin to pray persistently that God will lead you by the written word, illumination by the Spirit, the Body of Christ and experiences to discover clues to what gift(s) God has given to you.
EDUCATION (I Cor. 12:1)
This involves learning the following:
the DEFINITION of spiritual gifts, the TYPES of gifts mentioned in the Bible, their PURPOSES, and biblical examples of
PEOPLE WHO PRACTICED their gifts. REMEMBER: it is definitely not God’s will for you to be uniformed on this subject.
EVALUATION (Rom. 12:3; 12:6)
This could involve taking the WAGNER-MODIFIED HOUTS QUESTIONNAIRE [11]and evaluating the results
in light of sober, realistic and honest thinking about your past service to God and your current spiritual desires.
CONSULTATION (Acts 16:1-3; I Tim. 4:14; 2 Tim. 1:3-14)
After personal evaluation, consult with those who know you WELL
(your Pastor, trusted and knowledgeable spiritual guides, and possibly a Bible study group)
to obtain responses, support and further guidance. This step can prevent confusion and self-deception.
INVESTIGATION (I Cor. 12:31; 14:1; 14:12)
Having been prepared by the previous steps, you can now begin to focus on your TENTATIVE gifts.
STUDY again the biblical data regarding the gifts you think you may have in a careful manner.
Try to get to know people who you think may have or profess to have these gifts, and question and learn form them.
Begin to read extra-biblical books on the subject, but always allow the Bible to interpret their conclusions.
Peter Wagner read 49 books on spiritual gifts before writing on the subject. SEEK DILIGENTLY!
MOTIVATION (Rom. 12:3-8; I Pet. 4:10-11; I Pet. 5:1-4)
This involves two considerations. First, WHY do I desire to practice or actually practice a certain gift(s)?
Biblically, the answer should be for GOD'S GLORY and the BENEFIT OF OTHERS.
Second, when do I feel COMFORTABLE, ABLE and MOTIVATED when I serve God?
This is what “the proportion of faith” (Rom. 12:3-6) is concerned with. God’s gift(s) to you should and most often do harmonize with your personality (assuming of course that you are a Christian n and walking in the Spirit).
EXPERIMENTATION (Rom. 12:6)
Now you are ready to take the step of faith and begin to function in the Body of Christ and in the world according to your gift.
Pray for, expect and seize available opportunities to exercise your tentative gift(s). Allow enough time and varieties of experience to get a true “read” of your potential giftedness. DO NOT GET DISCOURAGED PREMATURELY!
Timothy had to be told to “stir up” his gift (II Tim. 1:6).
CONFIRMATION (Eph. 4:12-16; I Cor. 14:4-6; 14:12; 14:17; 14:26; 14:33; 14:40)
If you have a certain gift(s), the exercise of it will eventually bring about consequences that will provide CONFIRMATION of your gift(s). The biblical SIGNS of CONFIRMATION are the GLORIFICATION of GOD and GOD'S WILL
and the EDIFICATION (strengthening or building up) of the BODY OF CHRIST, among others.
The AGENTS of confirmation are God, God's Word, other People (Christians and non-Christians) and circumstances.
If confirmation is repeatedly absent, you most probably do not have the gift(s) you are attempting to exercise.
Start the search process again because
EACH HAS BEEN GIVEN THE MANIFESTATIONOF THE SPIRIT FOR THE COMMON GOOD OF ALL (I Cor. 12:7).
THE USE OF SPIRITUAL GIFTS: MOTIVATIONS AND OBSTACLES
1) A PARABOLIC ILLUSTRATION (Matthew 25:14-30)
a) The source of our gifts (Mt. 25:14-15)
b) The positive examples of using gifts (Mt. 25:16-17)
c) The negative example of using gifts (Mt. 25:18; 24-27)
d) The moral or main idea on using gifts (Mt. 25:28-30
2) A PERSONAL ILLUSTRATION (2 Timothy 1:3-10)
a) Obstacles to Timothy’s use of his spiritual gifts.
1) 1:7
2) 1:8a
3) 1:8b
b) Motivations for Timothy to use his spiritual gifts.
1) 1:5
2) 1:6
3) 1:7
4) 1:9-10
Our calling is based on?
Our calling is given when?
Our calling is realized when?
" . . . STIR INTO FLAME THE GIFT THAT IS WITHIN YOU
. . . FOR GOD DID NOT GIVE US A SPIRIT OF FEAR,
BUT ONE OF POWER, LOVE AND A SOUND MIND.”
(2 TIMOTHY 1:6-7)
GOD BLESS YOU AS YOU SEEK FOR, DISCOVER AND USE YOUR GIFT(S) FOR GOD’S GLORY.
THE GIFT OF APOSTLE (APOSTOLOS, ((((((((()
I Corinthians 12:28-29; Ephesians 4:11
APOSTOLOS means:
“ambassador, delegate, messenger, esp. of God’s messengers.”[12] “. . . lit., one sent forth.”[13]
“. . . a comprehensive term for bearers of the NT message.”[14]
“. . . the name is also applied to the first Christian missionaries.”[15]
DEFINITION
Primarily, the supernatural gift given by God to specially chosen eyewitnesses of Christ's resurrection.
These witnesses were given authority by God to announce the New Testament message of Christ,
supported by miracles as confirmation of the message,
for the purpose of establishing and administering local groups of Christian believers or churches.
Secondarily, anyone sent by the Risen Christ as His representative to establish local groups of believers
via the proclamation of the good news message of Jesus Christ, i.e., modern missionaries.
BIBLICAL USAGE
1) INDIVIDUALS DESIGNATED AS APOSTLES
Jesus, the Supreme Apostle
Hebrews 3:1-6: Cf. the context, Heb. 1-3
The 12 Original Apostles
Matt. 9:35--11:1
Luke 6:12-16
Mark 3:13-19
The Wider Circle of Apostles
Acts 1
Galatians 1--2:10, especially 1:11-17 (Cp. with Acts 9)
I Cor. 15:1-9 (especially 15:7)
2 Cor. 8:23
Phil 2:25-30 (Cp. Phil. 4:10-20)
Romans 16:7
2) PROOF OR EVIDENCE OF THE GIFT OF APOSTLE
(The Primary sense of APOSTLE; Cp. definition above)
I Cor. 9 (especially 9:1-5)
I Cor. 15:1-9
2 Cor. 12 (especially 12:12)
Acts 2:43
Acts 5:12
3) PLACE AND PURPOSE OF THE APOSTLES IN THE BODY OF CHRIST
a) FOUNDATION
I Cor. 12:28
Eph. 2:11-22 (especially 2:19)
Rev. 21 (especially 21:14)
b) REVELATION
Acts 2:42
Eph. 3:1-13 (especially 3:5)
2 Peter 3:1-18
Jude 17-18
Rev. 18:20
c) EDIFICATION
Eph. 4:7-16
d) ADMINISTRATION
Acts 8
Acts 15:1-16:4
2 Cor. 11:28-29
2 Cor. 12:19-13:10
e) EXEMPLIFICATION
1 Cor. 4:6-13 (Cp. the context, I Cor. 1:10-4:21)
4) FALSE APOSTLES
2 Cor. 11 (esp. vs. 5, 13)
Rev. 2:2
THE GIFT OF PROPHECY (PROPHTES, (((((((()
1 Cor. 12:28-29; Eph. 4:11; Rom. 12:6
PROPHTAS means:
“. . . proclaimer and interpreter of the divine revelation . . .[16] a proclaimer of the divine message.[17]
The prophet is essentially a proclaimer of God’s word . . . can have the special sense “to foretell.”[18]
DEFINITION
The classic threefold functions of Older Testament prophets have been described under the heads of
forthtelling (proclaiming God's message), foretelling (predicting God's future)
and forewarning (predicting God's judgements).
In the Newer Testament, prophets are those with the supernatural ability to proclaim God's word and message
in such a manner that the listeners are edified, comforted and motivated to do God's will (1 Cor. 14:3).
Secondarily, Newer Testament prophets predict and announce the future plans, activities and judgements of God.
BIBLICAL USAGE
1) Jesus: The SUPREME PROPHET
a. Mk. 6:1-6
b) John 4:44
c) Acts 3, esp. vs. 17-26 (Cp. with Deuteronomy 18:14-22 to discover that Jesus is the fulfillment of God’s promiseto provide the ministry of a Prophet to reveal God’s will to His people).
2) Prophecy was promised to be active in the Age of the Spirit
a) Acts 2:17-18 (Cp. Joel 2:28-32)
3) The Gift of Prophecy
a) 1 Cor. 12:28-29
b) Eph. 4:7-16 (especially 4:11)
c) Romans 12:6
4) The purposes and operation of the gift of prophecy (1 Corinthians 12--14).
a) Its PLACE:
1 Cor. 12:28
b) Its LIMITATIONS:
1 Cor. 12:29
1 Cor. 13:2
1 Cor. 13:8-9
c) Its PURPOSES:
1 Cor. 14:1-4 (3 in this context).
1.
2.
3.
1 Cor. 14:20-25 (4 in this context).
1.
2.
3.
4.
d) PROPHECY: OPERATION
1 Cor. 14:26
1 Cor. 14:29
1 Cor. 14:30
1 Cor. 14:31
1 Cor. 14:32
e) PROPHECY: DESIRABILITY
1 Cor. 14:1
1 Cor. 14:39
f) PROPHECY: ROLE in the Church:
Eph. 2:11-22 (esp. v. 20)
Eph. 3:1-13 (esp. v. 5)
5) PEOPLE CITED IN THE NEWER TESTAMENT WHO HAD THE GIFT OF PROPHECY
Agabus
Acts 11:27-30
Acts 21:1-16
Antioch leaders: Acts 13:1-3
Philip’s daughters, Acts 21:1-15, esp. v. 9
John, Rev. 22:9 (The Book of Revelation is thus a “prophetic” book.)
6) LAST DAYS PROPHETS
Revelation 11:1-14
7) FALSE PROPHETS
Mark 13 (esp. vs. 21-23)
Matt. 24 (esp. vs. 11-12; 23-28)
Revelation 13 (esp. vs. 11-17)
Revelation 16:12-16
Revelation 19 (esp. vs. 19-21)
Revelation 20 (esp. vs. 7-10)
Revelation 22:18-19
THE GIFT OF TEACHER (DIDASKALOS,(((((((((()
I Cor. 12:28-29; Romans 12:6
DIDASKALOS means “teacher”[19]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to teach and instruct people in God's written revelation, the Bible,
in such a manner that they clearly understand both
Orthodoxy (correct doctrine) and Orthopraxy (correct practices) of the biblically defined Christian faith.
BIBLICAL USAGE
1) Jesus, the SUPREME TEACHER
Acts 1:1
Matt. 23:8
John 13:13-14
Examples of Jesus’ teaching are numerous and can be obtained by a careful study of the Gospels;
Consult especially these passages. Matt. 5-7; 13; 18-25; Luke 11-19; John 3; 6; 8; 10; 13-16.
2) The Last Command of Jesus: Matt. 28:18-20
3) The Gift of Teaching
I Cor. 12:28-29
Eph. 4:11
Romans 12:7
4) Individuals cited in the Newer Testament who had the Gift of Teaching
a) Paul
I Tim. 2:7
2 Tim. 1:11
Acts 11:19-26
Acts 15:35
Act 18:1-11
Acts 20:17-20
Acts 28:16-31
b) Antioch Leaders
Acts 13:1-3
5) The Practice of the Gift of Teaching
THOSE WHO SUSPECT THEY HAVE RECEIVED THE GIFT OF TEACHER CAN EXPECT
THAT THEIR USE OF THIS GIFT WILL CONFORM TO THE FOLLOWING SCRIPTURAL GUIDELINES.
A) The Teacher's Task
2 Tim. 2:2
2 Tim. 4:2
Col. 1:28
Col. 2:7
Col. 3:26
1 Tim. 4:11
Acts 2:42
Eph. 4:11-21
B) The Teacher's Content
Teachers should pay careful attention to the guidelines given in the Pastoral Epistles, 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus.
Acts 2:42
Acts 18:11
Acts 28:31
2 John 9-10
2 Thess. 2:15
1 Tim. 4 (esp. 11)
1 Tim. 6:1-21 (especially 6:2)
Romans 16:17-20
2 Tim. 3:10-4:5
Titus 2:1
C) The Teacher's Warning
James 3, especially 3:1
D) False Teachers
2 Tim. 4:1-5
2 Peter 2-3
Col. 2:16-23
1 Tim. 4:1-4
1 Tim. 1:1-11
1 Cor. 15 (especially 15:12)
Eph. 4:14-15
1 Tim. 6:1-10
Hebrews 13:9
1, 2 and 3 John are full of references to false and apostate teachers.
Listen to the Apostle John’s advice! (2 John 8-9)
“WATCH OUT THAT YOU DO NOT LOSE WHAT YOU HAVE WORKED FOR,
BUT THAT YOU MAY BE REWARDED FULLY.
ANYONE WHO RUNS AHEAD AND DOES NOT CONTINUE IN THE TEACHING OF CHRIST
DOES NOT HAVE GOD; WHOEVER CONTINUES IN THE TEACHING HAS BOTH THE FATHER AND THE SON.”
THE GIFT OF PASTOR (POIMENOS,(((((((()
Ephesians 4:11[20]
POIMENOS means:
“. . . Shepherd . . . those who lead the Christian Churches . . ."[21]
“Pastors guide as well as feed the flock . . . this involves tender care and vigilant superintendence.”[22]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to assume long-term responsibility for the spiritual care
of a corporate Christian church and its individual members. This long-term care involves
living an exemplary lifestyle, teaching the Bible, guidance , counseling and disciplining erring Christians.
1) JESUS’ EXAMPLE AS THE CHIEF “SHEPHERD”
John 10 (especially)
10:4
10:11-17
10:27-30
1 Peter 2:18-25
Hebrews 13:20
Psalm 23
THE GIFT OF PASTOR
Ephesians 4:7-16 (This passage provides essential instructions on the task of Pastoring).
3) THE GUIDEBOOKS FOR PASTORS AND SHEPHERDS
Those who suspect they have been given the gift of PASTOR-TEACHER should base their ministry on 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus.
These books provide the biblical and spiritual paradigm for pastoral ministry. Through knowledge and obedience to Paul’s teachings (inspired by the Holy Spirit) in these books will yield pastoral success in the eyes of God and prevent pastoral failure.
THE BIBLICAL RESPONSIBILITIES AND REWARDS OF THE GIFT OF PASTOR
John 21:1-23: Discover the motivation and tasks of Pastoring especially mentioned in
21:15
21:16
21:17
Acts 20:13-38
20:28a: The Task
20:28b: The Task
20:29: The Warning
20:30: The Temptation
20:31: The Task
1 Peter 5:1-4
5:2a: The Task
5:2b: The Motivation
5:4: The Reward
1 Cor. 9, especially 9:7
5) FALSE SHEPHERDS AND PASTORS
Jude, especially v. 12
Acts 20:30
THE GIFT OF EVANGELIST (EUAGGELISTES, (((((((((((()
Ephesians 4:11
EUAGGELISTES means
“. . . preacher of the gospel . . .”[23]
“For Paul the heart of the good news is the story of Jesus and His suffering, death and resurrection.”[24]
DEFINITION: THE SUPERNATURAL ABILITY TO
1) Proclaim to people the historical facts of Jesus Christ's death and resurrection and
2) explain the meaning of those historical facts in such a persuasive manner that
3) the listeners place their faith in the death and resurrection of Christ as payment for their sins,
and thus they personally receive Jesus as Savior and with Him the gift of eternal life.
BIBLICAL USAGE
1) Prediction of the gift of Evangelism by Jesus
Mark 13:10
Matt. 24:14
2) The Gift of Evangelism
Eph. 4:7-16
3) People who had the gift of Evangelist
Philip
Acts 21:8
Acts 8, especially
8:5
8:12
8:35
8:40
4) ESSENTIAL PASSAGES CONTAINING BIBLICAL PRINCIPLES OF EVANGELISM
Luke 15
Acts 2
Acts 10 (Cp. with Acts 15:35)
Romans 1--5 (contains the content essential to evangelism)
Romans 10
I Cor. 9
I Cor. 15 (contains the essence of the Good News)
Galatians 1-3 (contains content essential to evangelism)
2 Cor. 4--5 (contains the task of the evangelist)
I Thess. 1--2 (describes the process of evangelism)
2 Tim. 4:1-5 (Pastoral evangelism)
Colossians 4:2-6 (Personal evangelism)
I Peter 1
THE GIFT OF EXHORTATION (PARAKALEO,((((((((()
Romans 12:8
PARAKALEO means
“. . . to summon, appeal to, urge, exhort, encourage, request, implore, entreat, comfort, cheer up,
try to console or conciliate, speak to in a friendly manner. . .[25]
“. . . to urge one to pursue some court of conduct . . . looking to the future. . .[26]
“. . . serves in the New Testament to denote missionary proclamation and also as a kind of formula to introduce pastoral admonition. . .both the element of beseeching and also that of encouraging. . .[27]
Jesus' favorite title for the Holy Spirit (parakletos, John 14:16; 14:25; 15:26; 16:7-15) is a cognate of this word,
and Jesus Himself is called our "parakletos" at 1 John 2:1.
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to request, entreat urge people to put into practice and follow the teachings of the Bible and the leadings of the Holy Spirit in such a persuasive manner that the listeners are motivated and encouraged to do so, with the result that people receive comfort, encouragement and consolation.
BIBLICAL USAGE
1) People who had this gift of Exhortation
Barnabas
Acts 4:36
Acts 11:19-26 (esp. v. 23)
Acts 13-14 (esp. 13:43; 14:22)
Peter and the Apostles
Acts 2:40
Acts 15:31-32
Paul
Acts 20:1-2
2) Examples of Exhortation from the New Testament
Rom. 12:1
Rom. 15:4-5
Rom. 15:30-33
Rom. 16:17-20
1 Cor. 1:10
1 Cor. 4:16
1 Cor. 16:15-16
2 Cor. 2:5-11 (Cp. with 1 Cor. 5)
2 Cor. 10:1
2 Cor. 13:11
1 Thess. 2:12
1 Thess. 4:1-10
1 Thess. 4:18
1 Thess. 5:11
1 Thess. 5:14
2 Thess. 2:16
2 Thess. 3:12
1 Tim. 4:13
1 Tim. 6:2
2 Tim. 4:2
Titus 1:9
Titus 2:6
Titus 2:15
3) New Testament Letters of Exhortation
The following New Testament letters were written primarily to “exhort” Christians to obedience.
Careful study of these letters will provide those who suspect they have this gift
with the spirit and style of the supernatural gift of “exhortation."
HEBREWS: Identified as a “word of exhortation” in Hebrews 13:22. See passages below.
2:1-4
3:1-6
3:12-18
4:1-2
4:14-16
5:11-6:12
10:19-39
12:13-25
1 PETER: Identified as a “letter exhorting” the readers in I Peter 5:12. See passages below.
2:11-12
5:1-7
JUDE: Identified as a “letter exhorting” the readers in Jude, v.3.
Read the whole letter and discover the purpose of Jude’s “exhortation."
THE GIFT OF THE WORD OF WISDOM (SOPHIA, ((((()
1 Corinthians 12:8
SOPHIA means
“wisdom” either “natural” or “of God."[28]
“wisdom . . . either . . . spiritual . . . natural . . . demonical . . . insight into the true nature of things . . .[29]
“In spiritual and charismatic utterance . . .
there is reference to a wisdom which is not of this age, nor of the rulers of this age."[30]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to perceive and communicate to others God's perspective
on reality, life situations and courses of actions in a spirit compatible with James 3:13-17.
BIBLICAL USAGE
James 3:13-17 is the essential passage that illustrates the gift of the word of wisdom.
Study carefully and note the various aspects of this gift.
The lifestyle of those who are gifted with the word of Wisdom (3:13)
Wisdom not from God (3:14-16)
Wisdom's source (3:17a)
Wisdom's characteristics (3:17b)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The results of wisdom (3:18)
2) SOURCES AND TYPES OF WISDOM
Discover the sources and various types of wisdom in the passages below.
How did Paul define true wisdom?
1 Corinthians 1:10--3:23
Colossians 2:2-3
Ephesians 1:8-17
2 Timothy 3:15-17
Romans 9-11, especially 11:33
3) PEOPLE WHO HAD THE GIFT OF THE WORD OF WISDOM
Stephen
Acts 6:3--7:60(Study carefully Acts 7 and identify the source of his wisdom)
James
Acts 15, esp. vs. 13-31
James 1:5-8
James 3:13-18
Paul
2 Peter 3:15
4) WAYS WISDOM IS TO BE EMPLOYED
(See also with James 3:13-18, the essential passage)
Ephesians 5:15-16
Colossians 1:28
THE GIFT OF THE WORD OF KNOWLEDGE (GNOSEOS,((((((()
1 Cor. 12:8; 13:2; 13:8-12; 1 Cor. 14
GNOSEOS means
“knowledge”[31]
“. . . gnosis is regarded as a gift of grace which marks the life of the Christian by determining its expression . . . can be specifically theological knowledge. This grows, e.g., out of the study of scripture.”[32]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to know, understand and convey to others knowledge
about God and God's revelations to humanity.
BIBLICAL USAGE
1) The Gift of knowledge
1 Cor. 12:8
1 Cor. 13:2
1 Cor. 13:8-12
1 Cor. 14:6
2) Churches that had the gift of “the word of knowledge”.
Corinth
1 Cor. 1:5
2 Cor. 8:7
Rome
Romans 15:14
3) Individuals who had the gift of “the word of knowledge”.
Paul
2 Cor. 11:6
1 Tim. 4:3
John
1 John, especially chapters 2-5
Priscilla and Aquilla
Acts 18:24-28
4) The Sources of Knowledge
Col. 2:2-3
John 8:31-32
John 17:8
2 Tim. 3:13-4:5
2 Peter 1:16-21
5) The Means of Knowledge
1 Cor. 2
Eph. 1:17
Eph. 4:13
Matt. 11:25-30
Lk. 24:13-48
6) The Objects of Knowledge
John 17:3
Philippians 3
Col. 1:9-10
Titus 1:1
2 Peter 1:2-3
1 Cor. 13:2
7) Problems that those gifted with knowledge may potentially have.
1 Cor. 8
THE GIFT OF TONGUES (GLOSSA,(((((()
1 Corinthians 12:10; 12:28; 12:30; 1 Cor. 14
GLOSSA means
1) “tongue, as an organ of speech”
2) “language”
3) “two explanations are prominent today . . .
the one . . . holds that glosson here means antiquated, foreign, unintelligible, mysterious language . . .
the other . . .sees in glossolalia a speaking in marvelous, heavenly languages.”[33]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to speak in language(s) not learned by natural methods.
Tongues serve as a sign to those not yet Christians,
and for the purposes of Christians praising and communicating with God.
BIBLICAL USAGE
1) Jesus’ Prediction
Mark 16:14-18
2) The Fulfillment of Jesus’ Prediction
(Note carefully the terms used to describe this gift in Acts 2)
2:3
2:4
2:6
2:8
2:11
2:17-21
Acts 10, especially 10:46
(Note carefully the context and the people involved who spoke with tongues, the people who observed them and the purpose of tongues on this occasion).
Acts 18:24-19:7
(Note carefully that those who spoke with tongues on this occasion were not Christians prior to Paul’s contact with them. They were the products of Apollos’ ministry before Priscila and Aquilla led Apollos to faith in Christ.
3) 1 Corinthians 14
This is the essential explanatory New Testament passage on the gift of tongues,
because here Paul explained the nature , purposes and ways this gift is to be employed.
Study carefully, and use this passage to interpret the other passage on tongues and the modern employment of this gift.
14:1-5: THE NATURE OF TONGUES AND PROPHECY
14:1: The first DIRECTIVE
14:2a: Reason 1
14:2b: Reason 2
14:3 : Reason 3
14:4a: Reason 4
14:4b: Reason 5
14:5: The first CONCLUSION
14:6-11: THE LIMITATIONS OF TONGUES
14:6: Reason 1
14:7: Illustration 1
14:8: Illustration 2
14:9-11: Illustration 3
14:12-19: THE GOALS OF SPIRITUAL GIFTS, INCLUDING TONGUES
14:12: The second DIRECTIVE
14:13: Application 1
14:14: Reason
14:15: Goal of application
14:16-17: Reason
14:18-19: Conclusion
14:20-25: THE PURPOSE OF TONGUES
14:20: The third DIRECTIVE
14:21: Reason 1 (Compare with Isaiah 28:11-12)
14:22: Conclusion
14:23: Illustration 1
14:24-25: Illustration 2
14:26-33: THE EMPLOYMENT OF TONGUES AND PROPHECY
14:26: The fourth DIRECTIVE
14:27a: Rule 1
14:27b: Rule 2
14:27c: Rule 3
14:28: Rule 4
14:29a: Rule 5
14:29b: Rule 6
14:30-31: Rule 7
14:32: Rule 8
14:33: Conclusion
14:37-40: THE CONCLUSION OF PAUL’S INSTRUCTION ON TONGUES AND PROPHECY
14:37: The Source of Paul’s Instruction
14:39: Conclusion 1
14:40: Conclusion 2
THE INTERPRETATION OF TONGUES (HERMENEIA,(((((((()
1 Corinthians 12:10; 12:30; 14
HERMENEIA means
“translation, interpretation”[34]
“. . . to explain, interpret,”[35]
“to interpret”, “to expound”, “to explain”, . . . the conversion of what is unintelligible into what is intelligible. . . [36]
Hermes, the Greek name of the Roman god Mercury, was regarded as the messenger of the gods.
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to interpret and communicate clearly to others
the otherwise unintelligible spiritual gift of speaking in tongues.
BIBLICAL USAGE
1) THE GIFT
1 Cor.12:10
2) THE DISTRIBUTION OF INTERPRETATION OF TONGUES
1 Cor.12:30
3) GUIDELINES FOR EMPLOYMENT OF INTERPRETATION OF TONGUES
1 Cor. 14:5
1 Cor. 14:13
1 Cor. 14:26
1 Cor. 14:27
1 Cor. 14:28
4) ANALOGICAL USE OF THE TERM “HERMENEIA” IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
While these passages do not pertain to the gift of interpretation of tongues,
the term “hermeneia” is used in them which is the same word used for the gift of interpretation.
By studying these passages we can learn how the gift should function when used in conjunction with tongues.
Luke 24:13-35, esp. v. 27
John 1:38
John 1:42
John 9:7
Acts 9:36
Heb. 7:2
THE GIFT OF SERVICE (DIAKONIA,(((((((()
Romans 12:7; I Peter 4:11
DIAKONIA (where we obtain the word “deacon”) means:
“service,” “aid, support”;[37] “waiting at table,” “discharge of service”[38]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to perform specific acts of service, aid and support for others with humility.
PROCEDURE
Study carefully the passages below to obtain a biblical idea of this gift.
Then, analyze yourself and others by these passages to begin the process of identifying those gifted with Service.
BIBLICAL STUDIES ON THE GIFT OF: SERVICE (DIAKONIA)
1) THE EXAMPLE OF JESUS, THE ULTIMATE SERVANT
Mk. 10:35-45, esp. v. 45
Mk. 20:20-28, esp. v. 28
Lk. 22:24-30
2) THE EXAMPLES OF CHRISTIANS
Female disciples of Jesus
Luke 8:1-3
Mt. 27:55-56
Mk. 15:40-41
Onesiphorus
2 Tim. 1:15-18
Onesimus
Philemon 8-13
3) THE OFFICE OF DEACON
Acts 6:1-6
I Tim. 3:8-13
Romans 16:1-12 (Phoebe)
Philippians 1:1
TYPES OF TASKS PERFORMED BY PEOPLE GIFTED WITH DIAKONIA
Mt. 25:31-46 (especially 25:44)
Acts 11:27-30 (especially 11:29)
Also, obtain ideas about the types of tasks people gifted with diakonia will perform from the examples of humans and offices (above).
5) HOW IS THIS GIFT TO BE EMPLOYED?
The answer to this question will help you determine if this is your gift.
I Peter 4:11
6) POTENTIAL PROBLEMS PEOPLE GIFTED WITH DIAKONIA MAY ENCOUNTER
Lk. 10:38-42
THE GIFT OF HELPS (ANTILEMPHIS,(((((((((()
I Cor. 12:28
ANTILEMPHIS means:
“helpful deeds."[39]; “to support”, “. . . anything that would be done for weak or outcast brethren.”[40]
“. . . used of serious concern for a right relationship to brothers.”[41] “help,” “assistance,” “succour.”[42]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to help others who are experiencing weakness of any kind
(spiritual, physical, emotional, social or financial)
so that the weakness is replaced with God's strength and support.
1) BIBLICAL USAGE
God’s Example
The Father: Luke 1:46-55, especially 1:54
The Son: Mt. 8:14-17, especially 8:17
The Spirit: Romans 8:26
Jesus’ Teaching: Acts 20:35
The person gifted with helps will fulfill the directives and spirit of the following passages on a consistent basis.
I Cor. 12:22-25
I Thess. 5:14
Acts 20:35
THE GIFT OF MERCY (ELEOS,((((()
Romans 12:8
ELEOS means:
“mercy, compassion, pity.” “an outward manifestation of pity.”[43]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to feel and act with mercy, compassion and pity toward those
who are in pitiful spiritual or physical conditions, and to do so with merry, cheerful abandonment.
1) BIBLICAL USAGE:
The Example of Jesus
Mt. 9:9-13
Mt. 20:29-34
Heb. 2 (especially 2:16-18)
The Teaching of Jesus
Mt. 5:7
Luke 10:25-37
The Example of God
Ephesians 2:1-10 (especially 2:4)
Titus 3:1-6 (especially 3:5)
Dorcas, a woman gifted with mercy
Acts 9:36-43
People gifted with mercy fulfill the directives and spirit of the following passages on a consistent basis.
Luke 10:25-37
Jude 22-23
James 2:1-13, esp. v. 12-13
THE GIFT OF LEADERSHIP (PROISTEMI,((((((((()
Romans 12:8
PROISTEMI means:
"be at the head of, rule, direct, manage, conduct."[44]
“. . . the title of a citizen in Athens, who had the responsibility of seeing to the welfare
of resident aliens who were without civic rights."[45]
“. . . a special group separated by the Spirit for the primary task of caring for others."
"to lead" and "to care for".[46]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to demonstrate leadership by thinking about, caring for and working for the needs of others.
Leadership implies strong concern and can involve teaching, correcting and warning.
PROCEDURE
Study carefully the passages below, and use the information discovered
to identify those gifted with leadership.
1) BIBLICAL STUDIES ON THE GIFT OF LEADERSHIP (PROISTEMI)
HOW IS ONE GIFTED WITH LEADERSHIPTO EMPLOY IT?
Romans 12:8
1 Thess. 5:12-13
Titus 3:8
Titus 3:14
2) PHOEBE AND TITUS: SPECIFIC PEOPLE GIFTED WITH LEADERSHIP
Romans 16:1-2
Titus 1:5
3) TYPES OF PEOPLE IN THE NEWER TESTAMENT GIFTED WITH LEADERSHIP
PASTORS (EPISKOPES)
1 Tim. 3:1-7
ELDERS (PRESBUTEROI)
1Tim. 5:17-18
DEACONS (DIAKONOS)
1 Tim. 3:8-13
LEADERS
1 Thess. 5:12-13
THE GIFT OF ADMINISTRATION (KUBERNETES, (((((((((()
I Cor. 12:28
KUBERNETES means:
"steersman, pilot."
"to guide," "pilotage,"; "the pilot or steersman of a ship";
“. . . qualifies a Christian to be the helmsman to his congregation."
“. . . a true director of its order and therewith its' life."[47]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to pilot a spiritual operation or enterprise like a pilot would navigate a ship.
Note these important and different foci of administration and leadership.
Administration is primarily concerned with projects, and secondarily with people.
Leadership is primarily concerned with people, and secondarily with projects.
.
1) BIBLICAL USAGE
This word occurs in the New Testament only at:
1 Cor. 12:28
Acts 27:11
Rev. 18:17
See the following passages for possible examples of administration in operation.
Acts 6:1-6: The Apostles delegation of responsibility to the deacons for the project of caring for widows.
1 Tim. 5:3-16: The administration of the widows program by Timothy.
2 Cor. 8--9: The administration of a collection of money by Paul.
Titus, especially 1:5: Titus' administration of local church affairs.
THE GIFT OF GIVING (METADIDIDOMI, (((((((((()
Romans 12:8
METADIDIDOMI means
“to give, impart, share."[48]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to take material goods and money
obtained by labor consistent with Christian principles
and to those resources with sacrificial liberality to those in financial need.
BIBLICAL EXAMPLES OF THE GIFT OF GIVING
1) THE GIFT OF GIVING
Romans 12:8 (Note the attitude that accompanies this gift, which is the key to determine if one has this gift). See also
2 Cor. 8--9: This is the essential passage on the gift of giving and giving in general in the New Testament.
Scrutinize this passage in detail if you suspect this is your gift. Note especially the following passages.
2 Cor. 8:2
2 Cor. 9:13
2 Cor 9:22
2) THE PRACTICE OF GIVING
Mark 12:41-44
Luke 3:10-11
Romans 12:8
Eph. 4:28
3) CHURCHES GIFTED WITH GIVING
Jerusalem
Acts 2:43-47
Acts 4:32-5:11
Antioch
Acts 11:27-30
Macedonian Churches
2 Cor. 8--9: This is the essential passage on the gift of giving and giving in general in the New Testament.
Scrutinize this passage in detail if you suspect this is your gift.
Philippian Church (A Specific Macedonian Church)
Acts 18:1-5 (historical background on how this church gave gifts to Paul)
Phil. 2:25-30 in conjunction with
Phil. 4:10-20
4) SECONDARY PASSAGES ON PRINCIPLES OF GIVING
1 Tim. 6:6-19
1 John 3:13-18
Romans 12:13
1 Cor. 16:1-3
Gal. 6:6
THE GIFT OF CELIBACY (AGAMOS, ((((((; PARTHENOS, (((((((()
AGAMOS means “to be unmarried;" PARTHENOS means “a virgin”
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to remain in an unmarried state for the purpose of undivided attention to Jesus Christ,
accompanied by self-control, purity and contentment,
and without severe sexual tension (I.e., without "burning up" with sexual passion).
BIBLICAL USAGE
I Cor. 7 (Study carefully this essential New Testament passage on the gift of celibacy)
Mt. 19:1-12, especially 19:11-12
Acts 21:7-9
1Cor. 9:1-15, especially 19:5
Revelation 14:1-5 (compare with Rev. 7:1-8)
THE GIFT OF FAITH (PISTIS,(((((()
I Corinthians 12:9
PISTIS means
“faith, trust, confidence (in the active sense).”[49]
“. . . firm persuasion . . .”[50]
“. . . the primary sense in specifically Christian usage is acceptance of the kerygma (proclamation) about Christ.”[51]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to believe in and act upon God's word to such an extent
that spiritual realities beyond the humanly possible are realized and which bring glory to God.
Faith in the general sense is a gift of God (Eph. 2:8-9), produced by the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:22-23)
upon the hearing and receiving of Jesus Christ and His death and resurrection (Romans 10:5-15).
All true Christians have “faith” of this measure in God and Christ.
However, God chooses to give some Christians extraordinary “measures” of faith that empowers them
to believe God for and to see happen things that are humanly impossible.
This ability is the spiritual gift of faith.
God also dispenses different “measures” of faith to Christians (Rom. 12:3; 12:6).
PROCEDURE
Study carefully the following passages to discover the nature of the gift of faith
and how people who had this gift exercised it for God’s glory.
1) THE PATTERN OF FAITH: Hebrews 11
People gifted with faith consistently exhibit the “faith responses” of the heroes of faith mentioned in this chapter.
If you suspect God has given you the gift of faith, carefully study this passage and note how faith is manifested.
Note also that the Lord Jesus Christ is cited as the ultimate example of faith in Hebrews 12:1-4.
2) JESUS’ TEACHING ON FAITH
People gifted with the “gift of faith” consistently exercise it in the spirit of Jesus’ general teaching on faith.
Matt. 9:27-29
Matt. 17:14-20
Mk. 9:14-29
Luke 17:5-6
Mk. 11:12-14
Mk. 11:20-25
3) THE SPIRITUAL GIFT OF FAITH
Discover the nature of the gift of faith.
I Cor. 12:9
I Cor. 13:2
Rom. 12:3
Rom. 12:6
3) PEOPLE WHO HAD THE GIFT OF FAITH
Note how they exercised this gift.
Stephen
Acts 6--7
Barnabas
Acts 4:32-37
Acts 9, especially 9:27
Acts 11:19-26, especially 11:24-25
Acts 13--14
Acts 15:36-41 (Cp. with 2 Tim. 4:9-11)
THE GIFT OF MIRACLES (DUNAMIS,((((((()
I Cor. 12:10; 12:28-29; Hebrews 2:4
Dunamis (from where we obtain "dynamite") means:
“deed of power, miracle, wonder.”[52]
“. . . power, inherent ability, used of works of a supernatural origin and character,
such as could not be produced by natural agents and means.”[53]
“. . . acts of power invading the kingdom of demons.”[54]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to perform acts of power that are humanly impossible
(referred to in the Bible as miracles, wonders and signs)
and which often enable people to turn to and glorify God.
All true Christians have the “power” of the Lord at their disposal
(Acts 1:8; I Cor. 1:24-25; Eph. 1:15-23; 3:14-21; Phil. 3:10; 2 Tim. 1:7).
However, God gives some Christians the "gift" of being able to perform extraordinary acts of power
that are humanly impossible, which is the spiritual gift of “miracles”.
PROCEDURE
Study carefully the following passages to discover how those gifted with miracles operated,
and especially note the purposes and limitations of this gift.
1) THE MIRACLES OF JESUS
Study carefully the exhaustive list of Jesus' miracles on page 60 if you suspect God has gifted you with miracles,
for Jesus' miracles through you will conform to Jesus’ previous examples of miracles.
2) THE MIRACLES OF JESUS THROUGH THE APOSTLES
Acts 3:1--4:31, especially 3:12 & 4:30
Acts 5:12-16
Acts 9:32-43
Acts 14:1-20
Acts 16:16-40
2) THE MIRACLES OF JESUS THROUGH THE APOSTLES, continued
Acts 19:11-20
Acts 20:7-12
Acts 28:1-10
Romans 15:13-19
2 Cor. 12:1-12, especially 12:12
Heb. 2:4
3) OTHER PEOPLE GIFTED WITH MIRACLES
Stephen
Acts 6:5-15
Philip
Acts 8:1-25
4) MIRACLES THAT WILL HAPPEN IN “THE LAST DAYS”
False Miracles originating in and through Satan
Mt. 24:1-35, especially 24:4-5 and 24:23-25
Mk. 13:1-36, especially 13:5-6 and 13:1-23
2 Thess. 2:1-12, especially 12:9-12
Rev. 13, especially 13:11-17
Miracles originating in God
Revelation 11:1-13
THE MIRACLES OF JESUS
Acts 2:22
Acts 10:38
The Water Made Wine, Jn 2:1-11
The Courtier’s Son, Jn 4:46-54
The First Draught of Fishes, Mk 1, Mt 4, Lk 5
The Capernaum Demoniac, Mk 1, Lk 4
Simon’s Mother-in-law, Mk 1, Mt 8, Lk 5
A Leper, Mk 1, Mt 8, Lk 5
The Paralytic, 46
The Impotent Man, Jn 5
The Man with a Withered Hand, Mk 3, Mt 12, Lk 6
The Centurion’s Servant, Mt 8, Lk 7
The Widow’s Son, Lk 7
A Blind and Dumb Man, Mk 3, Mt 12
The Stilling of the Storm, Mk 4, Mt 8, Lk 8
The Gadarene Demoniacs, Mk 5, Mt 8, Lk 8
The Woman with an Issue of Blood, Mk 5, Mt 9, Lk
Jairus’ Daughter, Mk 5, Lk 8
Two Blind Men, Mt 9
A Dumb Demoniac, 68
The Five Thousand Fed, John 6
Jesus Walking on the Water, Mk 6, Mt 14, Jn 6
The Phoenician Woman’s Daughter, Mk 7, Mt 15
The Deaf and Dumb Man, Mk 7, Mt 15
The Four Thousand Fed, Mk 7, Mt 15
A Blind Man Healed, Mk 8, Mt 16
The Demoniac Boy, Mk 9, Mt 17, Lk 9
The Shekel in the Fish’s Mouth, Mt 17
The Man Born Blind, Jn 9
The Woman with an Infirmity, Lk 13
The Man with the Dropsy, Lk 14
The Raising of Lazarus, Jn 11
The Ten Lepers, Lk 17
Blind Bartimaeus and His Companion, Mk 10, Mt 20, Lk 18
The Fig Tree Cursed, Mk 11, Mt 21, Lk 19
Malchus’ Ear, Lk 22
The Second Draught of Fishes, Jn 21
Besides these particular miracles numerous general groups must be added, such as
Mark 6:56; Matt. 4:23ff; 9:35ff; Luke 4:40ff; 5:15ff; 6:17-19; 7:21ff; John 2:23; 3:2; 4:45; 20:30; 21:25.
THE GIFT OF HEALING (IAMA,(((()
I Cor. 12:9; 12:28; 12:30
IAMA means:
“. . . healing . . . (spiritual) gifts of healing."[55]
“. . . to heal . . . used of physical . . . (and) spiritual treatment."[56]
“The gift of healing is an operation in the name of the exalted Christ (Acts 3:16)
. . . an operation of the ascended Lord through the Spirit . . . an individual gift of grace.”[57]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to perform healing in the physical, emotional and spiritual realms.
These healings come directly from God through the one gifted with healing,
and are thus qualitatively different from healing which occurs by natural or medical processes.
1) JESUS' MINISTRY OF HEALING
Those gifted with healing will find their exercise of this gift will conform to Jesus’ pattern of healing,
because, after all, Jesus is the One who continues to do the healing through the gifted one.
Read the following passages in context, because the passages surrounding the “healing” often provide instructions on how this gift is to be utilized. Discover if the healing was physical or spiritual,
and any other pertinent information that will guide you if you have this gift.
Acts 10:38
Mt. 8:5-13
Mt. 13:15
Mt. 15:28
Mk. 5:29
Lk. 5:17
Lk. 6:17-19
Lk. 7:7
Lk. 8:47
Lk. 9:2
Lk. 11:42
Lk 13:31-33
Lk. 14:4
Lk. 17:15
Jn. 4:47
Jn. 5:13
Jn. 12:40
2) JESUS' MINISTRY OF HEALING THROUGH THE APOSTLES
Acts 3:1-26, especially 3:1-16
Acts 5:12-16
Acts 8:4-8
Acts 9:32-43
Acts 14:8-18
Acts 19:11-20
Acts 28:1-10
3) THE GIFT OF HEALING
I Cor. 12:9
I Cor. 12:28
I Cor. 12:30
4) A MODEL OF HEALING: PHYSICAL AND SPIRITUAL
Those who believe they have the gift of healing should study James 5:13-18 very carefully.
The practice of their gift should conform to this model.
James 5:13-18
5) SPIRITUAL HEALING
Heb. 12:12-13 (See the context, 12:1-13)
I Peter 2:21-25
DISCERNING OF SPIRITS (DIAKRISIS,((((((((()
I Cor. 12:10
DIAKRISIS means:
“. . . distinguishing, differentiation . . ability to distinguish between spirits.”[58]
“. . . of discerning spirits, judging by evidence whether they are evil or of God.”[59]
“. . . separation . . . distinction . . .”[60]
DEFINITION
The supernatural ability to determine whether people and their messages
are of God, human or demonic origin.
People gifted with discernment can often determine the motivations and needs of other people,
along with their current spiritual status.
1) JESUS’ EXAMPLE OF DISCERNMENT
Of evil spirits
Mk. 9:14-32
Lk. 8:26-39
John 6, especially 6:70
John 8:12-59, especially 8:38-47
Of human spirits
Mt. 22:15-22
Mt. 23
Mk. 12:13-17
Lk. 20:20-26
2) THE APOSTLES EXERCISE OF DISCERNMENT
Acts 5:1-11
Acts 8:9-24
Acts 13:4-12
Acts 16:16-21
3) THE SPIRITUAL GIFT OF DISCERNMENT
1 Cor. 12:10
4) THE PRACTICE AND PRINCIPLES OF DISCERNING OF SPIRITS: SATANIC & DEMONIC
JESUS’ TEACHING ON DISCERNMENT
Mt. 7:15-23
Lk. 10:17-20
Mk. 11:14-26
Mt. 12:22-30
JOHN’S TEACHING ON DISCERNMENT
1 John is the classic New Testament book on “discernment of spirits." Study carefully all of it, but especially
I John 2:18-28
I John 3:7-16
I John 4:1-6
2 John 7-11
PAUL’S TEACHING ON DISCERNMENT
2 Cor. 11:1-15
2 Cor. 4:1-6
I Tim. 4, especially 4:1-5
2 Tim. 2:22-26
2 Tim. 3:1--4:5
Colossians 2:6-23, especially 2:8, 2:18-19
Romans 16:17-20
I Thess. 5:19-21
I Cor. 14:29
PETER’S, JAMES’ AND JUDE’S TEACHING ON DISCERNMENT
2 Peter 2--3
James 4:1-10
Jude, especially vv. 17-22
DISCERNMENT OF HUMAN SPIRITS: SPIRITUAL STATURE AND MOTIVATIONS
I Cor. 2, especially 2:12-16
I Cor. 3, especially 3:1-4
Gal. 5:16-26
Titus 3:9-11
I Tim. 6:3-21
THE FEAST OF PENTECOST
In ancient Israel, this feast celebrated the ingathering of the wheat harvest in late May-June.[61] It was celebrated exactly fifty days after the feast of First Fruits. Pentecost could be thought of as analogous to the American holiday "Thanksgiving," for it was a feast dedicated to joyfully giving thanks and recognition to God, the provider of all good things (Psalm 104). The name of the feast in Hebrews is asip, meaning "ingathering, harvest."[62] The name of the feast in Greek is pentekostos, meaning "fiftieth"[63] because it fell fifty days after the feast of First Fruits. Pentecost (or Asip) is referred to in the Older Testament at Exodus 23:14-16, Exodus 34:22-23, Leviticus 23:15-21, Numbers 28:16-31; Deuteronomy 16:9-12 and II Chronicles 8:12-13. Acts 2 records what happened fifty days after the resurrection of Jesus (which event is the fulfillment of the First Fruits Feast, of I Cor. 15:20-23), the Holy Spirit was poured out upon the Apostles. Enabled by the power of the Holy Spirit, their testimony about Jesus resulted in a great "spiritual harvest", as "about 3000 people were added to their number" (Acts 2:41).
The initial outpouring of the Holy Spirit was a fulfillment of a Jewish feast, the Feast of Weeks or Pentecost. Just as Jesus' Death corresponded to Passover (Lev. 23:4-8, I Cor. 5), and Jesus' Resurrection corresponded to First Fruits (Lev. 23:9-14, I Cor. 15), thus also the Feast of Weeks corresponded to the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, precisely 50 days after Firstfruits. This is why Jesus could confidently predict to the disciples that "in a few days" the Holy Spirit would be given to them, because Jesus could count (3 days in tomb, 40 days spent with them in risen state), and thus in 7 days (50th day after Firstfruits) Jesus knew the 3rd feast would be fulfilled, Acts 1. Thus, the Holy Spirit did not come because they "tarried or waited for Him to come." Instead, they tarried and waited because it was already determined by God in 1444 BC/E, Lev. 23, that the Holy Spirit would come as predicted by Jesus to fulfill Lev. 23.
Compare John 7:37-39 with John 14:17: the disciples lived in a "transitional" period, similar to the Older Testament era, when the Holy Spirit was "with them or on them" but not living permanently within them. This transitional phase ended on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit fulfilled what Jesus promised in John 7:37-39. Acts 2 concerns the Holy Spirit being given to the Jews, and represents a new epoch in God's dealings with humanity, with God now living "within" God's people.
Acts 8 represents the second stage of God fulfilling Jesus' promise of Acts 1:8, "you will be witnesses of me in Jerusalem" (fulfilled in Acts 2 to the Jews), "in Samaria" (fulfilled in Acts 8 to the "half-Jews the Samaritans). In this case, since it was not yet a construct that Jews could handle that Samaritans would also be included in God's Kingdom (see John 4), God allowed a "gap" to occur between the Samaritan reception of the Gospel and their reception of the Holy Spirit so that Apostles could be present for this event so that they could function later as witnesses (Deut. 19:15) to other Jews that God was indeed calling not only Jews but Samaritans to faith in Christ. Later, when John wrote his Gospel, he was led to include the story from John 4 to show that Jesus has this paradigm shift in mind all along. Thus, the "laying on of hands" of Acts 8 becomes not the "cause" of the descent of the Holy Spirit, but a legal witness to God's desire to save and include Samaritans and a tacit reversal of their previous desire to exterminate Samaritans (Luke 9:51-59). Instead of calling down judgmental fire from heaven on them they were led to call down the fire of the Holy Spirit and later to testify to this to other Jews, forcing them to accept the Samaritans as family in Christ.
Acts 10 describes the fulfillment of the 3rd stage of Acts 1:8, "to the rest of the world, i.e., the "gentiles" or non-Jewish, for here we have the story of "Italians" being won to Christ. You will note as you read that a) no hands were laid on anyone, and b) there was not even an "alter call.” Rather, simply by means of the gospel being proclaimed and faith being exercised (see Eph. 1:11-14), the Holy Spirit was given to the Italians-Gentiles.
Acts 19 is among the most abused and misunderstood text among some Christians. Please note that a) Apollos was preaching a "John the Baptist" message in Ephesus prior to Paul's arrival, and himself was not even yet a Christian, until he was converted to Christ by two of Paul's disciples, Acts 18:24-26. Thus, the "disciples" of Acts 19:1-7 were actually disciples of Apollos, i.e., Jews awaiting the Messiah. When Apollos was sent to Greece to proclaim Christ after he was himself led to Christ (Acts 18:27-28), they apparently never got the word from Apollos about his conversion to Christ. Thus, b), Paul arrived on the scene soon afterward, and as was his custom, began with the Jews, and noticed something "missing" in their lives, and asked them about the Holy Spirit. They had not heard of the Holy Spirit because they had not yet even heard of Jesus as Messiah, because Apollos never told them this because when they were his disciples, Apollos himself did not know Jesus was Messiah. c) Thus, Paul then led these 12 to faith in Jesus as Messiah, and then they received the Holy Spirit. Thus, d) rather than a text that supports the "2 stage" notion of regeneration and then Baptism of the Holy Spirit, this story (when read in proper context) shows the same pattern as all the others, when we believe in Jesus, we receive all of the Holy Spirit (see Eph. 1:11-14, Colossians 2:9-10).
Consequently, after God used these events in Acts 2, 8, 10 and 19 to "prove the Point" that all peoples were to be included in Christ, God then began the normative practice of giving the Holy Spirit to everyone immediately upon their faith in Jesus (Gal. 3, etc). We can give more of ourselves to God and thus experience more of God, but now, for those truly converted, there is no getting "more" of God.
Other references to the Holy Spirit and His power in Acts are:
1:5-8; 2:1-4; 2:17-18; 2:33-39; 4:8; 4:25; 4:31; 5:3-32; 6:3-5; 7:51-55; 8:15-39; 9:17; 9:31; 10:19; 10:38-47; 11:12-28; 13:2-4; 13:52; 15:8; 15:28; 16:6-7; 19:1-6; 20:22-28; 21:4-11; 28:25
BIBLICAL INSTRUCTION
Question-Discussion:
Describe you most memorable encounter with Scripture?
What makes for a "good" Bible study?
I) Philosophy: The Preeminence of Biblical Instruction
A) The Case for Biblical Inspiration
• Cf. "Historical Reliability:" Main Idea:
• Cf. "Evidence": Main Idea:
B) The Claims of Biblical Inspiration
• Cf. 2 Timothy 3:14-17: Main Idea:
▪ The Command of Inspired Scripture
• 2 Timothy 4:1-5 : Main Idea:
II) Pragmatics: The Practice of Biblical Instruction
A) The Selection of Content
• Prayer; Observable Needs; Surveys; LISTEN!
B) The Preparation of Content
• Personal: Cf. "Ezra:" Main Idea:
• Methods: Cf. "3 Keys": Main Idea:
• Cf. "Understanding: Main Idea:
III) The Presentation of Biblical Content
• Methods: Cf. "Methods": Main Idea:
• Time:
LESSON PLAN SHEET
Lesson Topic Scripture
Aims
I want my pupils to know: Cognitive
I want my pupils to desire: Affective
I want my pupils to do: Pragmatic or behavioral skills
Outline of my lesson
Introduction:
Main Concepts
Methods of presentation: (visual aids, etc.)
Questions and plans for pupil participation:
Application:
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION
The following are ways by which information is presented or sought for the purpose of solving problems,
gaining new understandings, developing new skills, or experiencing new attitudes.
1) = Description of Method or Pattern of Interaction
2) = Advantages
3) = Limitations
LECTURE
1) One person systematically presents information.
2) Presents maximum information in a limited time; makes it possible to arrange diverse materials and ideas into an orderly system of thought.
3) Uses one person's point of view, one channel of communication, no group participation, and is strongly influenced by the personality of the speaker.
QUESTION AND ANSWER
1) Provoking responses by inquiry, usually from person to person.
2) Provides for clarification of information to answer specific needs of learner; easily combined with other methods.
3) Tends to become too formal, threatening and embarrassing with possible dullness and lack of group interest.
GROUP DISCUSSION
1) Two or more persons sharing knowledge, experiences, and opinions, building on ideas, clarifying, evaluating, and coordinating to reach an agreement or gain better understanding.
2) Meets the needs of group members by providing high degree of interaction, interest, and involvement.
3) Does not provide authoritative information nor is it helpful for large groups; requires time, patience, and capable leadership.
LECTURE-FORUM
1) Combines with the lecture the privilege of asking questions for clarification of specific points.
2) Combines with the lecture a two-way communication for clarification of ideas; and meeting specific needs.
3) Presents one person's viewpoint in answering questions that will tend to be perfunctory and limited to a few persons.
SYMPOSIUM
1) Three or more persons with different points of view presenting short speeches followed by questions and answers under the direction of a moderator.
2) Presents several viewpoints and through questions, clarifies information to meet specific needs.
3) Requires speakers with equal ability, a skillful chairman, and freedom of participation.
PANEL
1) Discussing an issue among three or more persons before a group under the direction of a moderator followed by group discussion.
2) Presents different viewpoints to stimulate thinking.
3) Needs skillful moderator to keep panel on subject and limited number of questioners from monopolizing the discussion; needs a balanced panel to keep personalities from influencing opinions.
DEBATE
1) Presenting two sides of an issue by speakers under the direction of a moderator.
2) Sharpens the issue for a group by presenting both sides, holds interest and clarifies questions.
3) Tends to become emotional, requiring a good moderator to mediate differences.
CONVERSATIONS
1) Two people informally discussing a topic before an audience.
2) Provides information in an informal setting, adding interest and emotional appeal as it encourages discussion.
3) Needs careful planning to keep form becoming disorganized or dominated by personality of participants.
BUZZ GROUPS
1) Encouraging large groups to participate in discussion by dividing the group into smaller groups of 5-10 to discuss a particular topic and then report to the larger group.
2) Promotes enthusiasm and involvement as it provides opportunity for maximum discussion in limited time.
4) Discussion tends to be shallow, disorganized, and easily dominated by one or two in the group; needs skillful leader to handle the process.
ROLE-PLAYING (SKITS)
1) Spontaneous acting out of human relations' situation or incident by selected members of a group followed by analysis and evaluation.
2) Provides opportunity "to feel" human relations situations and experiment with possible solutions.
3) Tends to be artificial and entertaining unless carefully handled, or it may become an end in itself unrelated to group problem.
DEMONSTRATIONS
1) Illustrating a process before a group.
2) Visualizes a process that illustrates techniques and skills and shows the results of particular procedures.
3) Provides limited participation by group members.
LABORATORY
1) Solving problems through testing and experimentation.
2) Translates theory into practice, providing actual experience and first-hand information; appeals to many senses and shows results by doing.
3) Generally requires more time, special skills, and equipment.
EXHIBITS
1) Showing of an arrangement or collection of materials.
2) Displays needed information in visible form.
3) Uses visual appeal only, lacking communication and discussion, and requires time and preparation.
PROJECTS
1) Co-operative investigating of a problem by group members.
2) Offers first-hand information, stimulates interest, allows pursuit of personal interests, provides practical experience and builds group cohesiveness.
3) Requires time for completion and the activity tends to become an end in itself.
METHODS MOST COMMONLY USED WITH DIFFERENT AGE-GROUPS
| | | | | | | |
|Method |Begin. |Pri. |Jr. |Jr.H. |H.S. |Y.P. & |
| |4-5 |6-8 |9-11 |12-14 |15-17 |Adult |
|Brainstorming | | | |x |x |x |
|Buzz groups | | |X |x |x |x |
|Case histories | |x |x |x |x |x |
|Chalkboard | |x |x |x |x |x |
|Charts | | |x |x |x |x |
|Conversation |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Choral reading | |x |x |x |x |x |
|Debates | | | | |x |x |
|Direct Bible study | | |x |x |x |x |
|Discussion | |x |x |x |x |x |
|Field trips |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Filmstrips, slides |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Flannelgraph |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Handwork |x | | | | | |
|Interview | | |x |x |x |x |
|Lecture | | | |x |x |x |
|Making things (murals, bulletin board displays, etc.) |x |x |x |x |x | |
|Maps | | |x |x |x |x |
|Memorization |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Models, puppets |x |x |x |x |x | |
|Motion rhymes |x | | | | | |
|Object lessons |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Panels | | |x |x |x |x |
|Picture studies |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Playing Bible stories |x |x | | | | |
|Problem-solving | |x |x |x |x |x |
|Projects | |x |x |x |x |x |
|Question-answer |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Quiz | | |x |x |x |x |
|Reports | | |x |x |x |x |
|Review |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Role play (acting out life situations) |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Skits | | |x |x |x |x |
|Storytelling |x |x |x |x |x |x |
|Symposiums, forums | | | | |x |x |
|Testimony | | |x |x |x |x |
Educational Philosophy and Methodologies
By Dr. John David Geib
This essay discusses how educational philosophy and process may correlate to religious and societal problems. The writer considers three major foci in education in light of religious and social problems: the nature of human inquiry, educational philosophy and educational methodologies. While it is outside the purview of this essay to examine social problems in detail, the writer does conclude that problem-solving abilities may be facilitated or hindered depending on the educational philosophy used in the process of education.
The Nature of Human Inquiry: Towards a Comprehensive Worldview
The intellectual capacity of human beings led to reflection on the nature of thinking itself, from which the logical methods of deductive and inductive thinking were identified and refined. These methods led to claims that humans could obtain knowledge from the domains of the personal, the empirical, the social, the abstract (reason) and the Sacred (God). The mental processes of analysis and synthesis are employed on a continuous basis by humans in a heuristic and hermeneutical attempt to understand their existence and grow towards comprehensive knowledge. This is the path of deliberate worldview thinking.
Individuals acquire their initial worldview programming through socialization processes attached to the family and the cultural context into which they are born. This social context in which a person begins life (the social dimensions of the family, the culture, the society and the civilization) constitute the initial personal, physical and social sources of knowledge from which each person begins and continues on a spectrum of consciousness regarding the various world views that exist, ranging from pre-critical fideism to critical self-consciousness. This initial world view socialization and eventual progression on the spectrum of consciousness maintains an internal sense of coherence and definition of reality for individuals until they are mature enough to, in a attitude of critical self-consciousness and deliberation, select their own world view. Every worldview provides different and often conflicting answers to the main questions of life such as, Is there a God? What is the meaning of life? What is the position of humankind and each individual within the totality of the cosmos? What happens at Death? Why (the rationale) one should believe the particular answers provided in any given worldview is a second critical question. A critically self- conscious and deliberate selection of a worldview is achieved only by arduous examination of what can be believed in conjunction with the rationale that supports each of the potentially true worldviews. The dimensions of worldviews that exist in the world (the experiential, mythic, doctrinal, ethical, ritual and social) provide the data with which personalities on the spectrum of world view consciousness interact. In light of the uniqueness of each individual and the whats and why of each existing world view, individuals eventually embrace one of the world view options as their own.
Human finitude demands an acceptance of the fact that a comprehensive grasp of all factual data that could be known (omniscience) is impossible for humans to obtain. Moreover, a failure to recognize the limitations of each of the five sources of knowledge in light of human finitude leads to a reductionistic limitation of valid knowledge from both discursive and presentational sources. One solution to this reductionism is to employ a multi-heuristic and multiple disciplinary approach to knowledge. The philosophical advantage of doing this is the development of an increasingly accurate and congruent worldview that advances knowledge within human existence. The application advantage is that major problems faced by human beings are multi-disciplinary in nature. Solutions to these problems thus require a multi-disciplinary methodology.
Education should be founded on the epistemological conclusion that knowledge is best obtained via a multi-heuristic and multi- disciplinary approach that leads to effective problem solving processes. Accordingly, the educational enterprise should be structured so that its philosophy, assumptions, and methodologies would enable instructors and students to discover, address and potentially solve problems in the domains of world view thinking, society and religion. Within this problem solving definition of knowledge, the student as actors in the educational drama defines learning as involvement. The synergistic effect of instructors and students acquiring knowledge that can be applied to real problems produces involved learners. Involved learners who have been stimulated by the spirit of inquiry and who accordingly possess a healthy sense of autonomy are more likely to develop into thinkers and scientists who have the capacity to actually address and solve some of the problems faced in social and religious spheres.
Educational Philosophy
The Christian worldview asserts that God is the Creator of the individual. Individuals are brought into existence for the ultimate purpose of knowing and living in right relationship with God. Moreover, The God of the Bible has asserted "It is not good for [humans] to be alone (Gen. 2:18). Thus, God created humans to exist most fruitfully in various social contexts. The Bible reveals that the three most basic institutions that enhance individual human experience are the family (the producer of biological life), the community (the protector of social life) and the Church (the preserver of spiritual life). Education (teaching and learning) is inherent to these three social units. The Academy is formally located within the community or social sphere. Socialization, empathy and autonomy are stages of growth individuals can experience in relationship to family, society (secular and spiritual) and the academy.
Cognitive and Affective Learning
Since humans are capable of both cognitive and affective operations, an educational philosophy that recognizes this fact is more likely to produce individuals who think "worldviewishly" and holistically. Accordingly, these individuals would be more likely to see correlation's between abstract knowledge and the application of this knowledge to problems in religion and society.
Six cognitive stages are commonly identified in educational philosophy. These goals can be placed in an ascending hierarchy as follows. 1) Knowledge (facts), 2) Comprehension (explanation and demonstration), 3) Application (problem solving), 4) Analysis, 5) Synthesis and 6) Interpretation. The pupil moves from facts (knowledge) to the highest level (the interpretation of facts) via the stages of comprehension (explanation and demonstration), application (of knowledge for problem solving), analysis (of the knowledge) and synthesis (the unique creation of the student using the knowledge gained).
Affective Goals require the student to affectivity internalize objective knowledge gained via the cognitive stages. An overview of these five affective goals is as follows. Beginning with Reception (the student listens), the pupil then is urged to respond via discussion and explanation. The student is to value knowledge by making choices, and then to proceed to the creation of their own hierarchy of things to be valued. Ultimately, the scholar is to internalize and act consistently with the knowledge they most value. These steps relate to the student in an existential manner. These goals help students establish a personal relationship with the objective knowledge they gain via cognition.
As a human endeavor, teaching combines both the cognitive and affective domains. The cognitive dimension of excellent teaching involves intellectual competency and excitement, furthered by clarity of communication, which leads to a positive environmental impact on students. One critically important affective quality of excellent teaching is interpersonal rapport, the ability to communicate with students in ways that increase motivation, enjoyment and independent learning" (Green 9). These two dimensions must be combined. "To become an excellent instructor, one must be outstanding in one of these sets of skills and at least competent in the other" (Green 9). Some technical terms used in this holistic educational philosophy demonstrate further how this particular educational viewpoint may influence problems faced in the domains of society and religion.
Ways of Teaching: Pedagogy, Andragogy and Synergogy
The general tendencies of the different learning patterns of children and adults are must be incorporated into one's educational philosophy. Children tend toward passivity, adults toward involvement, in their learning patterns. Children are confined by their lack of age and experience, leading toward a focus on the subject to be learned. Their age and experience have expanded adults, leading toward their focus on realistic forms of knowledge that may solve real life problems. Children tend to be motivated by external factors (grades, approval, social status, etc.). Adults tend to be motivated by internal factors such as utility of knowledge, personal needs and self-esteem. Children focus on acquiring units of knowledge, while adults tend to ask how the knowledge being made available to them will lead to later performance in life.
The Greek word for child or infant (paidion) is the basis for understanding Pedagogic education. The dependent, inexperienced child relies passively upon the authoritative, "parental" teacher to determine the content, style and progression of what is to be learned. Motivation to learn for the child is rooted in an external locus of control. The teaching model that drives pedagogy is rooted in the authority of the expert (the teacher), who authoritatively transmits "techniques" of knowledge via lectures, readings and other media. The dependent student is expected to absorb this subject-centered body of knowledge and demonstrate compliance by meeting the teachers' definition of successful learning.
Thus, the teacher presents as "guru."
The Greek verb for act like a man, adult (andraizomai) is the basis for the Andragogic style of education. The larger life experience base of the adult has created within the adult a sense of independence. Life situations that have revealed a need for knowledge create within the adult learner a task-centered orientation toward knowledge and education. Motivation to learn for the adult is rooted in an internal locus of control. The basis for the andragogical model is the life situations and consequent felt need for knowledge on the part of the adult learner. Consequently, instructors must demonstrate relevance of the knowledge being offered to the felt need for knowledge, problems or tasks on the part of the learner. The instructor presents as trouble-shooting resource guide who helps the students meets their own internally defined criteria of success in the educational process.
The Greek words for work (ergon) combined with the prepositional prefix for with (sun) are the basis for understanding the Synergogic, cooperative educational model. Synergogy is a cooperative educational philosophy that features structured interactions between members of an educational "team," comprised of senior members (instructors) and junior members (students). Structured interactions between members of this educational team, guided by the senior members who provide materials result in the stimulation of learning among all members of the team. In this synergogic model, the instructor presents as an administrator who provides resources and structured learning activities for the learning team. The consequence of this style of learning is that learning is stimulated but not ultimately defined by either teacher or students. Rather, the synergogic effects on the entire team define learning. One of the undefined effects this model stimulates is the ability of team members to apply their knowledge to problems they may face in their varied social roles. Another technical term useful to understand is distance. Distance is the opposite of active involvement in the acquisition and application of knowledge. It can be considered axiomatic that distance increases in proportion to the rigidity or structure of an educational model. The structure of the synergogic philosophy is designed to stimulate interest, inquiry and involvement among its students. Such a philosophy of education allows students to autonomously apply the knowledge they gain to the various problems they face in the religious and social domains. Another technical term attached to the synergogic model is change agency. Change agency means that the teacher is also changed as a result of involvement in the synergogic model. Change agency predicts and describes how the teacher will be touched and changed in the synergogic process. Such teachers are more likely to understand how abstract knowledge correlates to societal and religious problems because they expect to learn along with the other team members. Consequently, the entire team is infected with the spirit of correlating knowledge to problems each member must solve.
Teaching Models
In the modern era, Gregory is credited with the formulation of principles or laws that comprise a philosophy of education model. Gregory's Seven Laws of Teaching are as follows.
The Law of 1) The Teacher, who must know the subject; 2) The Student, who must attend with interest; 3) The Language, which must be common to teacher and student; 4) The Lesson, which must proceed from known to unknown; 5) The Dynamic, which is to excite the self-motivation of the student by never teaching what the student can learn autonomously; 6) Reproduction, which means students must be able to reproduce in their own minds the lesson to be learned; 7) Review and Application, which means that true learning only occurs by student review and application.
Guilford's Structure of Intellect model expanded upon Gregory but views the student as a cognitive machine. The Structure of Intellect Model is comprised of three components: contents, operations and constructs. The foundation of SOI is content, knowledge or objective reality. This content exists independently of knowers, who subsequently use the following two mental operations to process that which can be known. Learners use operations (ways of knowing) as they interact with content. Inductive and deductive thinking are two examples of operations. Constructs are basic units of thought that represent the result of learners using operations to process content. Abstracted systems are examples of constructs.
Williams, who added the affective domain to the cognitive domain in his model, supplied a corrective addition to Guilford. Williams also added teacher behaviors to his model (meaning strategies) to complete his three dimensional cube. Dimension 1 (Curriculum) corresponds to Guilford's "content" and is not modified by Williams. Dimension 2 (Teacher Behaviors) corresponds to Guilford's "operations and constructs" in that which the cognitive presents teachers with a variety of methods of instruction and affective change can be produced within the students. Dimension 3 (Pupil Behaviors) represents Williams' greatest modification of the SOI model. Rather than view the pupil as simply a cognitive machine, Williams suggests that students are equipped with both cognitive and affective aspects. Consequently, Williams' modification of Guilford's model requires the extensive use of teaching strategies that target both the cognitive and affective abilities of the student.
Educational Methodologies
The adoption of the synergogic philosophy employed by instructors who embrace change agency should lead deliberately to educational methodologies that are compatible with Synergogy. A brief review of some of these methods demonstrates how these methods produce student involvement in the learning process. Involved students, trained to solve problems rather than pass tests, will be more likely to effectively address problem areas that exist in society and religion.
The Inductive Method of Study is comprised of four stages and, when followed, leads to a growth in knowledge and understanding. The Observation stage is concerned with total awareness of the object or subject under consideration, i.e., the particulars, interrelationships and the gestalt. The Interpretation stage is concerned with interpreting the observations. The classical "interpretive questions" (who, what, where, when, how and why) are asked in reference to the subject under observation. Interpretation always remains incomplete due to the finitude of the human mind. After interpretation, the object under consideration must be evaluated in light of other things before the interpreter can make any applications. The stage of application leads to the final stage of correlation. How things in general and how the thing being studied stand in relation to one another in the hierarchy of God's creation is the goal of the correlative stage. Thus, the inductive method is comprised of observation, interpretation, evaluation, application and correlation.
Team Effectiveness Design (TED) is compatible with Synergogy because students learn by a multi-faceted approach that combines individual initiative, group dynamics and objective instruction along with a problem solving focus. Students who thus learn answers along with rationale for those answers are better equipped to solve future problems they may encounter in future situations. Team Effectiveness Design (TED) is " . . . useful for presenting subject matter that requires students to learn facts and data . . .” (Green 20). Four reasons support this assertion: 1) TED begins with individual pre-study of the material to be learned; 2) TED requires information exchange and explanation of rationale as students attempt to reach consensus on answers to stated questions: 3) TED provides students with objective scoring and correct rationale regarding their consensually reached answers, along with concrete feedback from instructors; 4) TED concludes with an evaluation that involves open discussion that provides a summation to this methodology. TED is justified as a method because the material to be learned is covered in a multi-faceted approach that combines individual initiative (pre-study), the benefits of group dynamics (the consensual process) and objectivity via the correct answers, rationale and concluding discussion. TED enhances exposure to concrete material without the tedium of lectures and the fear of failure that can accompany traditional testing methods.
Team Member Teaching Design (TMTD) provides students with an opportunity to learn by teaching. TMTD requires students to teach one another and is " . . . most useful for aiding the learners to acquire information, facts and data . . ." (Green 21). Distance is decreased, student involvement is increased and students are forced to see the correlation of information and problems to be solved (i.e., the problems faced by the educational enterprise). The TMTD model is comprised of four stages. 1) Learners are divided and assigned from the comprehensive course material a unit of information to be taught by them to others. 2) The units are then taught sequentially by the students to one another; 3) A comprehensive test with rationale for answers is then used to measure gains in student knowledge; 4) a summative evaluation enables students to assess both their teaching performance and their gains in knowledge.
Performance Judging Design (PJD) is " . . . a useful approach for classes in which learners are to acquire practical skills" (Green 21). Performance Judging Design is especially relevant to the thesis that true knowledge solves problems. Students are asked to address practical problems with creative and refined skills. Students educated in this manner are more likely to continue this approach with other social problems. PJD involves three components. 1) Learners develop criteria to evaluate the performance of a particular skill. This criteria alone provides students with a degree of independence and insures future growth outside the formal learning place; 2) Learners then perform the skill before others, followed by an evaluation via the performers' own criteria and with reference to the performance of others; 3) A summative critique session provides each student with suggestions for future growth in mastering the desired skill(s).
Clarifying Attitudes Design (CAD) “. . . motivates students to examine their attitudes and test their validity in terms of available information and new alternatives" (Green 21). CAD enables students to see a correlation between their affective attitudes and societal situations in light of available information. This process thus fuses the notions of attitude, problems (situations) and information into a dynamic holism that will likely lead to future problem resolution when students face problems in society and life. The CAD model involves four stages. 1) Students individually complete sentences on a bi-polar scale to identify their current attitudes; 2) Learners then discuss their responses corporately in light of group knowledge and values; 3) Individuals then retake the bi-polar questionnaire and reassess their attitudes and any changes from the first test; 4) A summative evaluation by each student enables them to determine any attitudinal shifts that may have occurred via the CAD process.
The Planning and Teaching philosophy of education is a formal expression of an educational model that synthesizes the dimensions of content, processes and strategies, leading to a holistic development of students and teachers. This holistic emphasis is especially relevant to the question of how educational philosophy may lead to problem solving in the areas of religion and society. The (PAT) Model recognizes the interplay between cognition and affection in the student. Accordingly, PAT employs a wealth of strategic methodologies designed to release energy in the educational process such as learning centers, small group learning, multiple talent development and problem solving exercises. Other strategies emerge from the synergistic effects of involved students and teachers committed to change agency. These unexpected strategies, discoveries and open-ended effects create students and teachers who expect to find correlations between learning and life situations. Such people are likely to prize education and knowledge for their application to problems that must be solved. Cognitive and Affective goals relate primarily in their "synergistic" effect when combined with the Planning and Teaching Model. Since the sum of parts is greater than individual parts, the combination of cognitive and affective goals under a holistic methodological approach produces creative and unplanned for change in both student and teacher.
Conclusion
My personal philosophy of education is a God-centered and inspired process that involves the acquisition of and productive use of knowledge in the spiritual, intellectual, moral, social and scientific domains. Problems faced in the domains of society are religion are more likely to be solved (at least partially) by students who have been exposed to an educational process that asserts a connection between knowledge and life, utilizes the synergistic model of operations and employs educational strategies compatible with Synergogy.
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[1]F. F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? (InterVarsity: Downers Grove, 1975); Josh McDowell, Evidence That Demands a Verdict, Rev. Ed. (Here's Life: San Bernardino, 1979), 39-74.
[2] The Greek word translated as "inspired" is theopneustos ((((((((((((), which is used only in this verse in the entire Greek New Testament, and literally means "inspired by God" or even "breathed out by God." Paul used this word to teach very clearly in agreement with Jesus that the Scriptures are the products of Divine Inspiration. See also Bauer, Arndt and Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (Chicago: Chicago, 1952), 357.
[3] N. L. Geisler, Christian Apologetics, 307
[4] E. M. Blaiklock, Who was Jesus? See especially pages 7-29.
[5] Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed., 1974, p. 145; See also The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? By F. F. Bruce, Evidence that Demands a Verdict and More Evidence that Demands a Verdict, by Josh McDowell.
[6] Suggested Sources: Josh McDowell, Evidence that Demands a Verdict, v. 1, c. 3; F. F. Bruce. The Canon of Scripture,
[7] B. Ramm, Protestant Biblical Hermeneutics; M. Terry, Biblical Hermeneutics
[8] E. W. Bullinger, Figures of Speech in the Bible; this is a classic work.
[9] The Bible was first divided into chapters by Stephen Langton (d. 1228 A.D./CE) or by Hugo de Sancto Caro in the 13th century. Rabbi Modecai Nathan in 1445 A.D /CE put the Jewish Bible into verse form. The first appearance of verses in the New Testament occurred in 1551 in the Greek text edited by Robert Estienne. All of these men were great Bible scholars and their work in dividing the Bible into chapters and verses has proved helpful. However, the careful student of the Bible should realize that these divisions were not made by God but by humans. While the words of Scripture are inspired, the divisions are not. Thus, if you feel that a chapter or paragraph division actually interrupts the original literary structure of the author, make the division where you feel it most naturally occurs. Information above is from International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, v.5, 2963, and The Layman's Bible Encyclopedia, 964
[10] God reveals more of God by what God has done than by what God has said.
[11] Published by Charles E. Fuller Institute of Evangelical Church Growth, P.O. Box 91990, Pasadena, CA 91109
[12] BAG, 99.
[13]Vine, 65.
[14]TDNT, v. I, 422.
[15]TDNT, v. I, 422.
[16]BAG, 730.
[17]Vine, 904.
[18]TDNT, v. 6, 829.
[19] BAG, 190. Cf. also TDNT, v. 2, 135-165.
[20]The gift of pastor may, according to a strict grammatical reading of Eph. 4:11, include the gift of teacher, i.e.; “Pastor-Teacher." “The absence of the article before the (((((((( ((( (((((((((( [pastors and teachers] which follows . . . shows that the pastors and teachers from a single group . . .” (TDNT, v. 6, 497).
[21]BAG, 690-91.
[22]Vine, 849; TDNT, v. 6, 485.
[23] BAG, 318.
[24] TDNT, V. 2, 707-737.
[25]BAG, 622-23.
[26]Vine, 400.
[27]TDNT, V. 5, 799 (733-799).
[28] 1BAG, 766-767.
[29] 2Vine, 1244.
[30] 3TDNT, IV, 519.
[31]BAG, 162-163.
[32]TDNT, v. I, 689-719
[33]BAG, 161 (Cf. also TDNT, I, 719-726)
[34]BAG, 309.
[35]Vine, 607.
[36]3TDNT, v. II, 661-66
[37]BAG, 183.
[38]TDNT, v. II, 87-88.
[39]BAG, 74.
[40]Vine, 553-54.
[41]TDNT, v. I, 375-76.
[42]MM, 48.
[43]
[44]BAG, 713-14.
[45]2 Vine, 111-112.
[46]TDNT, VI, 700-703.
[47]BAG, 457; Vine, 508; TDNT, v. III, 1035-37.
[48]BAG, 512
[49]BAG, 668.
[50]Vine, 411.
[51]TDNT, 174-228 (208); MM, 515.
[52]BAG, 206-207.
[53]Vine, 757-58.
[54]TDNT, 284-317 (315); MM, 171-72.
[55]BAG, 368.
[56]Vine, 543.
[57]TDNT, v. 3, 194-215; MM, 466-67.
[58]BAG,184.
[59]Vine, 317.
[60]TDNT, v. 3, 921-954 (949-50); MM, 150.
2 H. E. Dosker, "Pentecost," International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Eds. J. Orr, and others (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1939), IV, pp. 2318-2319; Ella Davis Isaacs, "Feasts," ISBE, II, pp. 1103-1104.
3 Francis Brown, et al, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the OT (Oxford: Clarendon), p. 63; R. L. Harris,
Et al., Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament (Chicago: Moody), pp. 60-61.
4E. Lohse, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1968), VI, pp. 44-52;
W. E. Vine, Vine's Expository Dictionary of the New Testament (McLean: MacDonald), p. 854.
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