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WORKBOOK ANSWERS

Edexcel AS/A-level Geography 2

Globalisation

Regenerating places

Diverse places

This Answers document provides suggestions for some of the possible answers that might be given for the questions asked in the Workbook. They are not exhaustive and other answers may be acceptable, but they are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.

Exam-style question answers

The answers given for exam-style questions of an explanatory or evaluative kind set out what is called ‘indicative content guidance’. Just showing the examiner you are familiar with some or most of the content will not suffice. You need to demonstrate that you understand it and are willing and able to use it in a way that directly addresses the question. The indicative content shown for each question is not exhaustive. Questions may be approached in a number of different ways. The choice of approach is yours. Just make sure your approach answers the question.

Assessing whether or not the question has been answered is where ‘levels marking’ comes in. For questions with maximum marks of 6, 12 or 15, three levels of attainment are recognised. Where the maximum mark is 20, four levels are defined. The table below gives an idea of the descriptors that are used to determine the quality of an answer and the mark to be awarded.

|Level |Descriptor |Mark (depending on maximum) |

|1 |Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding.|1–2 (max. 6) |

| |Question not addressed. |1–4 (max. 12) |

| | |1–5 (max. 15) |

|2 |Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding — not always relevant|3–4 (max. 6) |

| |or accurate. |5–8 (max. 12) |

| |Shows some awareness of the question. |6–10 (max. 15) |

|3 |Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding which is mostly |5–6 (max. 6) |

| |relevant and accurate. |9–12 (max. 12) |

| |Addresses the question directly. |11–15 (max. 15) |

Topic 3

Globalisation

What are the causes of globalisation and why has it accelerated in recent decades?

The acceleration of globalisation

1

a Trade; foreign investment; TNCs.

b International migration; social interconnectivity.

c Trade blocs; IGOs.

d Americanisation; glocalisation.

2 Capital; commodities; information; tourists; migrants.

3 As the travel times fall between places, due to advances in transport, so different places approach each other in ‘time-space’ and begin to feel closer to each other than before.

4 Steam power; railways; jet aircraft; motor vehicles; container shipping.

5 Transport developments allow for multiple production sites — taking advantage of such aspects as cheap transport and reduction of the friction of distance; cheap labour; access to resources.

6 a Information and communications technology.

b Mobile phone; broadband and fibre optics; GIS and GPS; internet.

c Benefits include:

• Mobile phone: telephonic communication without need for telephone lines

• broadband: fast movement of huge amounts of data through cyberspace

• GIS and GPS: satellites continuously broadcast position and time data

• internet: social and business networking by instantaneous communication

The politics and economics of globalisation

7 IMF; World Bank; WTO.

8 Offshoring; foreign mergers; foreign acquisitions; transfer pricing.

9 Free-market liberalisation (neoliberalism); privatisation; encouraging business start-ups.

10 Free trade between 10 member countries — a mix of high-income and emerging economies. Its aim is to create a single market with free movement of labour and capital. Another aim is to promote regional peace and security. Positive outcomes include regional stability and regional trade which particularly benefits the less developed member countries.

11 Its door was opened in 1978, since when China has made great strides in terms of economic development. The key factor has been involvement in global-scale free trade. However, the economy and currency are very much still controlled by the government. There are strict controls on foreign TNCs, public access to the internet and freedom of speech.

12 Asia’s three most populated countries — China, India and Indonesia — have all embraced global markets as a means of achieving economic development. Many countries in Africa, the Middle East and South America have introduced reforms that all encourage FDI, particularly to exploit cheap labour and resources.

Uneven globalisation

13 Globalisation is a multi-faceted process. The relative importance of these facets varies from country to country. Even if it is agreed, for example, that the economic aspect is the most significant, can it be assessed by a single measure? Are reliable data for that agreed measure available in all countries?

14 Because of the impact of other factors, such as spatial variations in level of development; availability of resources; accessibility; labour costs and skills; government policies, etc.

15 A chain of connected suppliers of parts and materials that contribute to the manufacture or assembly of consumer goods, e.g. the network involved in the production of a BMW Mini.

16 Setting up production networks and chains; glocalisation; they generate global trade.

17 Changing the design of globally available products to suit local tastes or laws. It is a strategy increasingly used by TNCs to break into new markets. It makes sense because it recognises the importance of spatial variations in tastes, laws, religion and culture.

18 The reasons may be physical (remoteness, e.g. Mali); political (wish to be isolated, e.g. North Korea); economic (mismanagement of resources); environmental (harshness, e.g. Chad).

19 a It is an international measure of the degree to which individual countries are globalised.

b All high-income countries, but small in area and unlikely to be self-sufficient — therefore dependent on the global market.

c Small; remote; poverty; lack of resources; war torn (e.g. Somalia and Eritrea).

What are the impacts of globalisation for countries, different groups of people and cultures and the physical environment?

Creating winners and losers

20 Differential labour costs — cheaper outside developed countries. Pull of locations where there are lax controls over pollution and working conditions.

21 The benefits include investment in infrastructure, waged work, poverty reduction, education and training, and recognition as a global economic power. However, the costs include the loss of agriculturally productive land, unplanned settlements and serious environmental pollution.

22 Taking advantage of cheap but educated labour in developing countries, particularly in the setting up of call centre services.

23 Plenty of fluent English-speakers (British colonial heritage). Plenty of university graduates looking for employment. Good communications infrastructure in major cities for global connectivity.

24 In addition to a loss of jobs, deindustrialisation has led to social and environmental problems — finding work for workers made redundant, dealing with industrial landscape scars and finding new uses for brownfield sites.

25 Opportunities to remove outworn nineteenth century urban and industrial fabric — to redevelop and rebrand it. Reduced pollution and improved environmental quality.

The increasing scale and pace of economic migration

26 a A migrant whose primary motivation is to seek work, better working conditions or better remuneration.

b A person forced to flee their home due to persecution, as for example on religious or political grounds.

27 Proportional flow lines.

28 Improved transport — speed and cost. Developments in communication are increasing awareness in rural areas of the opportunities in towns and cities.

29 a Dhaka; Lagos.

b Rio de Janeiro; Shanghai.

30 Provision of decent and affordable housing; meeting demand for employment.

Maintaining quality of urban environment — minimising pollution; providing proper infrastructure.

31 a A highly globally-connected city or home region of a globally-connected country.

b Elite international; low-waged; internal (rural–urban).

32 a Loss of human resources; reduced economic growth as consumption falls; problems of providing for an ageing population; closure of services geared to young adults.

b Social tensions over jobs and housing; strain on social services, housing and social benefits; political resistance.

The emergence of a global culture

33 Language; religion; diet; traditions; clothing.

34 TNCs; mass media; migrants; tourists.

35 Paralympic Games; legislation preventing discrimination in the workplace; specifically targeted help (e.g. access to social services, access to buildings).

36 Cultural erosion; environmental exploitation for the benefit of other, more wealthy people; economic exploitation of less developed countries; wish to maintain national identity and autonomy; loss of jobs in deindustrialised countries.

37 The landscape of a place that has been shaped over time in characteristic ways by the combined action of natural and cultural processes.

38 Loss of minority languages and cultural traditions. Spread of ‘westernisation’.

39 North Korea, China, France, Nigeria, Maldives.

40 a Chinese traditional diet is largely rice and vegetables. The rise in the standard of living and the rise of consumerism have meant many more Chinese people are now able to afford meat.

Meat is also more readily available as a result of global trade. Also the taste for meat may reflect the spread or diffusion of a global culture and the perception of being fashionable.

b The size of the Chinese population inevitably means that any rise in demand, however small, is going to be huge in absolute terms. It is tempting to intensify livestock production to the point of exceeding carrying capacities and inflicting environmental damage. Chinese demand is persuading other potential supplier countries to do the same and convert crop land to provide grazing, also encouraging deforestation, as in Brazil. Use of land for livestock rearing does not represent the most efficient use of agricultural land.

What are the consequences of globalisation for global development and the physical environment and how should different players respond to its challenges?

Globalisation has widened the development gap

41 Yes, it has many different facets — demographic, cultural, social, political and environmental. Economic development is the main driver of these other aspects which might be regarded as the outcomes of development.

42 A sector balance weighted towards the tertiary sector indicates a substantial demand for services. This in turn reflects the existence of a consumer society and therefore a high standard of living and a level of economic development.

43 Human development index (HDI) — a composite measure which is part economic (GDP per capita) and part social (life expectancy, literacy). It uses widely available and reliable measures. Index values range from 1 to 100 (least to most developed).

Gender inequality index (GII) — another composite measure (reproductive health, female empowerment, secondary education and labour force participation). Index ranges from 0.1 to 1.0 (gender equality to inequality).

44 a Gini coefficient.

b Everyone has roughly similar incomes.

45 No. Initially, development takes place almost irrespective of environmental damage.

Probably the relationship is most inverse during the emerging stages. When countries are well developed, there is increasing concern about the environmental costs and steps are taken to improve environmental quality.

46 It might be argued that the poor get left behind while the not so poor countries become relatively richer. But it is not only the rich who benefit. Relatively speaking, it is possibly the countries in the middle (emerging economies) that benefit most.

The speed of global change has resulted in tensions

47 Diaspora refers to the scattering of people away from their original homeland. Thus the clustering of Indian immigrants in a UK city would be just one example of an Indian diaspora.

48 Large concentrations of immigrants, particularly if they are ethnically different from the host society, can easily lead to tensions. Their presence can be perceived as a threat.

These circumstances can become a seedbed of political extremism — of overt discrimination and hostility.

49 Concerns about the adequacy of the available supply of housing, schools, medical services, pressure on social benefits, possible segregation and ethnic tensions.

50 Because citizens may become aware that there are better lifestyles and higher standards of living elsewhere. This might generate dissatisfaction, unrest and even revolution. North Korea and China are two such countries restricting internet access.

51 The tendency for an increasing number of governments to take measures to ensure that domestic industries and consumers have priority access to resources found within their borders.

52 Often indigenous people are the victims of the resource exploitation encouraged by globalisation — environmental damage and disturbance or extermination of traditional life styles. However, since they were the first inhabitants they should enjoy prior rights and access. Their culture is a vital part of a country’s cultural heritage.

Concerns about unsustainability

53 Relying on goods and resources that occur close to the point of demand rather than transporting them over long distances.

Benefits: savings in terms of transport costs and the burning of fossil fuels (i.e. reduced contribution to global warming); the local economy and employment.

54 The state or condition of doing something that cannot continue at the same rate without causing loss or damage. For example, taking more water from a river than is being added to it by precipitation and runoff.

55 Yes: demand for goods and services creates and sustains jobs.

No: excessive and often wasteful consumption of resources.

56 It means unfettered or fair access to markets (no tariffs) and a ‘fair’ price for goods being traded.

57 Ethical consumption is the practice of purchasing products and services produced in a way that minimises social and/or environmental damage, while avoiding products and services deemed to have a negative impact on society or the environment.

58 Recycling reduces the rate at which resources are consumed. Reduced resource consumption means that the human impact on the stock of resources is reduced — so the ecological footprint is reduced in depth.

59 a Reducing food insecurity often involves attempting to raise the productivity of the existing farmed area. It is likely that land will not have the capacity to do this so diminishing returns set in and agricultural production becomes even more unsustainable.

b Water is vital to human survival. Shortfalls in water supply drive countries to take remedial actions which might include taking more than a fair share of water from a shared river or lake. The upstream ‘owners’ of shared rivers are in a strong position and downstream ‘owners’ might be forced to take military action to ensure a continued water supply.

Exam-style questions

1 Globalisation is speeding up. As a result, the number of emerging countries is increasing and developing countries are moving more quickly along the development pathway.

Economic development always encourages large volumes of rural–urban migration.

It is the largest cities in a country that attract most immigration.

The megacities are located in countries which have large populations.

The urban multiplier means that megacity success (growth) breeds more success (more growth).

Many of the megacities are gaining from becoming global hubs.

2 Focus on the three major IGO players:

• World Bank (UN specialised agency) — provides low-interest loans and technical help. Its aims are to reduce poverty and to help development.

• World Trade Organization — promotes free and fair trade between countries. It ensures that the rules of international trade are observed.

• International Monetary Fund (IMF) (UN specialised agency) — ensures that exchange rates between the currencies of the world remain stable. It also supports a system of international payments. Both are vital to the workings of the global economy.

If you have time, you might make brief reference to other UN agencies, for example FAO (food), UNESCO (health and education) and WHO (health).

To include TNCs may be stretching the spirit of the question, but it is worth mentioning that they are powerful, and sometimes rival players in the global economy.

3 Costs and benefits need to be evaluated from at least five different perspectives: the customer, the company commissioning the outsourcing, the call centre providing the service, its employees and the country from which the outsourcing occurs.

• Customer:

o Benefits — 24/7 service at the end of the phone; service is free.

o Costs — some frustration caused by ‘foreign’ English.

• Commissioning company:

o Benefits — cheap, well educated labour to be found in countries like India where English is taught and spoken.

o Costs — not in control of the service (customer contact remote).

• Service provider:

o Benefits — highly profitable, flourishing business.

o Costs — strained labour relations.

• Call centre employee:

o Benefits — relatively well paid; become part of new ‘techno-elite’.

o Costs — complaints about exploitation and repetitive nature of work; anti-social working hours.

• Country from which the outsourcing occurs:

o Benefits — none.

o Costs — loss of jobs and tax revenues

Possible conclusion: aggregate benefits outweigh aggregate costs.

Topic 4A

Regenerating places

How and why do places vary?

The significance of the local economy

1 Part time/full time; temporary/permanent; employed/self-employed; waged/salaried; skilled/unskilled; qualified / unqualified.

2 Most likely temporary/permanent in that the former suggests income insecurity.

Waged/salaried implies a difference in income and therefore income inequality.

3 Level of income impacts on all aspects of quality of life.

Type of employment is often related to education and skills training and is a possible trigger of the intergenerational cycle.

The need for a household to have both partners working may have impacts on children.

4 Marked social segregation within residential areas.

Pockets of poverty and deprivation.

High incidence of crime, particularly burglary and robbery.

5 Yes. In the long run it is probably easier to help the poor than to restrict the rich.

No. The rich should be targeted through increased taxation and the taxes used to raise the poor.

6 a Tertiary sector becomes the largest, but only by a small margin over secondary sector. Primary sector is in steady decline.

b Tertiary sector is dominant. There is a significant divergence between secondary and tertiary sectors after 1961. Primary sector becomes almost inconspicuous.

c Quaternary sector is missing. Although it accounts for a small percent of total employed, its contribution to the economy (GDP) is significantly large.

Factors causing places to change

7 Aspects of a population, such as its age structure, gender balance, ethnicity, etc.

8 a Deindustrialisation; decentralisation of services from CBDs; conversion of villages into commuter dormitories.

b Immigration increasing ethnicity; ageing populations of rural places; studentification; gentrification.

9 Profitability of individual activities declines; those activities are replaced by others on the up.

Locational needs or source availability change.

Advent of new technology and new functions.

10 General ageing of population; arrival of immigrant groups; new employment opportunities encouraging internal migration.

11 It involves assessments of seven different domains — income, employment, education, health, crime, accessibility to housing and services and the living environment.

It uses relevant, reliable data, mainly derived from the national census. Data are available for very small areas and therefore it is possible to detect small pockets of deprivation.

12 Time sets of employment or unemployment data. Analysis of land-use change. Incidence of new building. Change in the population pyramid.

13 It is a device for capturing, storing, checking and displaying spatial data by computer. Because it is geospatial, it can show layers of data on one map and by so doing helps in the analysis and understanding of distributions and relationships. Maps can be superimposed to show how a place has changed over time.

Place studies (1)

Questions 14–18 Answers will depend on you and your choice of places for investigation. Ask your teacher to check your responses.

Why might regeneration be needed?

Economic and social inequalities and the perceptions of places

19 It is the ‘picture’ that a person has of reality resulting from his or her assessment of information received. Perception is influenced by demographic and social factors, such as age, gender, ethnicity, education and social class.

20 They will be disadvantaged by the higher cost of living, particularly of housing. Successful places have higher property prices and more expensive services. Lower-income people will also be likely to be disadvantaged in terms of education and skills, and therefore disadvantaged in terms of employment.

21 The poor become less engaged; less trust in the police and politicians. Reduced social mobility; more segregation. Increasing inequality of access to education and healthcare. Widening differences in the life expectancies of rich and poor.

22 The term was first coined in the 1980s in the USA. It referred to the once powerful manufacturing belt running from the Great Lakes to the Midwest. It was a major centre for steel production and vehicle making. It fell into catastrophic decline, largely as a result of the global shift, automation and free trade. Today the term is used when referring to an area that is experiencing all the problems associated with large-scale deindustrialisation.

23 These segregated areas of housing for low-income people are faced with a range of problems mainly related to neglect — substandard housing in high-rise blocks; rundown commercial and social services; environmental quality. They also have a high incidence of crime and addiction to drugs and alcohol. There has been unwillingness to invest and upgrade.

24 Redevelopment of an area of old housing.

25 a Replicators tend to maintain a reputation for low-skills employment. Reinventors have managed to move away from low-skills employment and gain a larger share of knowledge-intensive jobs.

b Reading had relatively low incidence of lower-knowledge industries, and has increased the overall number of jobs, particularly in KIBS, whereas Plymouth, with fewer knowledge-based industries to start with, has not attracted new ones. .

c Burnley or Blackburn. They have failed to replace jobs lost as a result of deindustrialisation and employment remains largely of the lower-knowledge kind.

Lived experiences, engagement and attachment

26 This is the actual experience of living in a particular place — it can range from positive to negative. The experience can have a profound effect on a person’s perceptions and values, as well as on his or her general outlook and behaviour.

27 Level of engagement refers to the extent to which people are actively involved in the local community. Attachment to place is what people feel towards the place in which they live. Do they feel they belong and to what extent? It is likely that a high level of engagement will also involve a strong attachment to place.

28 Age: possibly disengagement increases with age. Young adults might be more engaged if only to protect and promote opportunities for their children.

Gender: women with children are more likely to be more active in the local community.

Ethnicity: non-White British may feel marginalised and not disposed to engage other than within their own ethnic minority.

Length of residence: it will be some time before newcomers become engaged because of weak attachment to the place.

Level of deprivation: the higher the level, the greater the feelings of marginalisation and the greater the likelihood of disengagement.

29 Someone who has a strong attachment to a place as a result of living there for a long time is likely to have a rather negative attitude to any proposed changes.

30 Social and economic inequalities; ethnicity; political influence; place perceptions; change.

31 Marginalisation: what people feel when ‘pushed’ by the dominant core culture.

Exclusion: an extreme form of the above when people’s access to services and opportunities is severely restricted.

Social polarisation: the process of physical segregation based on income inequality.

Place studies (2)

Questions 32–36 Answers will depend on you and your choice of places for investigation. Ask your teacher to check your responses.

How is regeneration managed?

The role of national government in regeneration

37 Government ‘colour’: there may be differences in policy between Tories and Labour in terms of willingness to invest.

Global economic climate: chances of attracting external investment.

National priorities: national infrastructure or employment vs local issues.

38 National infrastructure, especially transport. Improvements in transport probably lead to the greatest and most widespread benefits. Likely to be a catalyst for more local regeneration projects.

39 Laws can be used to control the location and scale of development — place marketing.

Controls are particularly effective as regards housing needs, supply and affordability.

Housing is an important component in many regeneration projects.

Planning laws and permission for fracking are another critical development today. Fracking could help regenerate some areas.

40 The regeneration of London as a global financial hub. Foreign banks were encouraged to set up bases there.

41 Young adults and their families help to counteract the UK’s ageing population structure. They provide labour that matches well the skills required by the UK.

Through their employment they swell taxes. Their concentrated presence in towns and cities can also trigger regeneration.

42 a To link London and the southeast with the ‘Northern powerhouse’ involving four major cities. This should encourage more investment and regeneration in the ‘powerhouse’ and play some part in reducing the North–South divide.

b It is very expensive, with a relatively small saving in journey time between London and Manchester. Better to improve existing links?

The environmental impact will be considerable.

Doubt whether there will be a trickledown effect leading to more regeneration in the North.

The aims of local government policies

43 To attract inward investment to provide much of the funding for regeneration. To provide a solution to a local issue or problem.

44 The lack of consensus about the nature of the proposed regeneration.

Investment returns are deemed to be inadequate — deters investment.

45 Local Chamber of Commerce; local political parties; heritage and conservation societies; residents associations, etc.

46 They could be divided on the basis of whether regeneration is necessary — division between those who claim that the existing situation should be left as is and those in favour of some form of intervention.

Tensions over the exact form the regeneration should take.

47 a Westfield shopping centres, West and East London

b Olympic Park, East London

c Cambridge Science Park

d Ironbridge, Shropshire

e Powys regeneration partnership

48 Many more urban areas are in need of regenerative action — to cope with the impacts of deindustrialisation, stocks of substandard housing, pockets of poverty and deprivation.

There are rural areas in need of regeneration but they are larger in extent and the problems more thinly spread. Therefore rural areas are more difficult to deal with and perhaps regeneration is more costly. By contrast, urban problem areas are much more compact and readily defined. Some would argue that the urban issues are far more pressing than the rural ones.

Rebranding and changing perceptions

49 Rebranding is about marketing a regenerated area in a way to make it attractive to businesses, residents and visitors. Re-imaging is part of rebranding and is focused more on making an area more widely attractive and appealing.

50 Rebranding involves changing images and when it comes to images, perception is paramount. The problem here is that we all have our own perceptions. So the rebranding message must be of such a boldness and character that it is obvious to most, if not all.

51 Yes, the challenge has been to remove the industrial scars and create a scenario of new opportunities. If that is done successfully then new jobs should follow.

No, there is a need to reduced levels of unemployment in deindustrialise areas. Jobs particularly needed to counteract poverty and deprivation.

52 In general terms, yes, but it is not appropriate for all rural areas, for example inland areas of high agricultural productivity. Tourism can thrive on a range of different resources, such as fine scenery, the coast, heritage and literary associations. Tourism is not deterred by the remoteness that characterises many rural areas — indeed, it can be marketed as a positive.

53 The media can contribute much in terms of making sure the public is well informed about a specific regeneration project. They could do much in terms of campaigning on behalf or against the project. And they can do much in terms of purveying the new hoped-for image.

54 More difficult to change the image of rural areas; in urban areas image is relatively easily changed by rebuilding and by new layouts. Probably easier to find funding for urban projects — they possibly promise a higher return.

How successful is regeneration?

Assessing regeneration

55 Those that are economic led, such as retailing, housing and office development. These are likely to have a double benefit of jobs and return on investment.

56 Basically, no two regenerations are exactly the same, even though they may be led in the same way. Also time is an important factor. It is unlikely that the projects were undertaken at the same time; therefore comparison is of limited value if different lengths of time have elapsed since completion.

57 This relates to how individuals or groups of people improve and sustain the quality of their lives. It might also involve a raising of relative status within a given society.

58 Index of multiple deprivation; improvement in life expectancy; reduction in economic and social inequalities.

59 Lower levels of pollution (e.g. water, air, noise, visual); housing amenities (e.g. water supply, sanitation); accessible social services (e.g. education, healthcare).

60 They allow people to create, share and exchange information, ideas, opinions and images. In the context of regeneration they can inform you about the perceptions and lived experiences of different people. They can be especially useful in terms of gathering views on the success or otherwise of rebranding and re-imaging projects. But all data gathered from these sources come with a ‘health’ warning. You cannot be sure of the authenticity and soundness of the data or how representative your data collection will be of the whole community.

61 a Crime data in public domain (personal safety). Pollution levels (health).

b Two aspects: transport and communication. Transport connectivity would be important if the regeneration has an economic focus — businesses and services need to be readily accessible; also important to tourism. Communications connectivity is also vital to business and to the promotion of tourism and heritage.

c Efficient and transparent governance is needed to see a regeneration project through. It is needed to check that approved plans have been properly and fully implemented. Also to check that there has been no corruption in the awarding of contracts.

Urban stakeholders and their evaluations

62 A developer and a long-term resident or protection/conservation society.

63 Comprehensive redevelopment and rebranding. Renovation and re-imaging.

64 Clearly, urban regeneration is about coping with and adjusting to change, but change is an ongoing process so urban regeneration is one response to a set of on-going changes.

The fear is that further changes may invalidate what has been done or call for a new round of regeneration.

65 It is literally the experience, feelings and perceptions that people gradually acquire as a result of living in a particular place. This experience, which can range from strongly negative to strongly positive, can have a significant influence on the level of attachment a person has to a place.

66 National government is likely to view regeneration in terms of active political issues. Today that would mean criteria to do with such matters as the creation of jobs, the supply of housing and the attraction of private sector investment.

67 It would most likely use the same criteria, but it is likely to make a wider assessment and so take in more criteria. This might include levels of deprivation, environmental quality and access to services.

Rural stakeholders and their assessment criteria

68 Farmers and conservation societies. Long-term residents and newcomers.

69 Rebranding: moving a rural area into a new realm of activity.

Diversification: adding new activities to an existing portfolio.

70 Situations are constantly changing over time. The key question is how long after the completion of a regeneration scheme is it appropriate to make an assessment? Is there a process of maturation over time that needs to be taken into account?

71 The meaning of place is a personal thing. It stems from a person’s perception of a place and therefore affects his or her level of place attachment to it.

72 National government is likely to view regeneration in terms of active political issues.Today that would mean criteria to do with such matters as the creation of jobs, the supply of housing and the attraction of private sector investment.

73 It would most likely use the same criteria, but it is likely to make a wider assessment and so take in more criteria. These might include environmental quality, access to services and personal security.

Exam-style questions

1 The legacy of this development might include some of the following:

• enjoyment of the public garden as amenity and recreational space

• possible use of sports facilities

• accessibility of major sporting events (e.g. West Ham now play in the Stadium)

• has been successful in rebranding the East End of London and triggered more urban regeneration thereabouts

• beneficial impact of all this on residential property prices nearby

• upgrading of residential property because of proximity to the Olympic Park may have positive spinoffs for local businesses

Possible conclusion: the legacy has been a positive one both for the image of this previously rundown part of London and for local residents.

2 Rebranding involves developing a place in a deliberate way that changes its popular image. The idea is to change the image so that it helps ‘sell’ the place to a target market. This is not that easily distinguishable from re-imaging.

Regeneration is transforming the declining economy and obsolete fabric of a place. It might be described as a general upgrading and updating.

Regeneration is more bricks and mortar; rebranding is to do with changing popular perceptions.

The Olympic Park was a rebranding exercise combined with an element of regeneration.

In this sort of question, try to do more than just set down two separate definitions. You should make an effort to highlight similarities or differences. It sometimes helps to use examples.

3 The roles played by different stakeholders depend on the nature of the rural regeneration scheme. Is it designed to breathe new life into the local economy? Provide more housing? Promote tourism? Protect the countryside?

Basically stakeholders will divided into two groups — those in favour and those against the scheme:

• Developers — will seek to ‘sell’ the scheme and to deal with or ‘persuade’ opposition groups.

• Local authority — most likely very ‘pro’ the scheme but needs to ensure the public have the opportunity to protest and that the scheme meets all planning regulations.

• Local businesses (Chamber of Commerce) — if the scheme seeks to regenerate the local economy, they will join the supporters.

• Landowners — usually have political punch and ‘influence’; whether they are for or against depends on what their potential gains are.

• Local residents — could easily be divided, views being conditioned by age or class.

• Farmers — most likely to be ‘anti’ if the scheme involves the loss of farmland. Farmers are well practised in lobbying.

• Conservation organisations — new schemes involve change and virtually all rural ones may be seen by them as a threat to the environment and heritage; often well organised and articulate protesters.

Possible conclusion: stakeholders vary in terms of their ability to influence the course of events and therefore whether or not a proposed scheme materialises. Possibly the first four of the list of stakeholders are those who command most power.

Topic 4B

Diverse places

How do population structures vary?

Population variations

1 a The make-up of a population in terms of age, gender, life expectancy, ethnicity, family size and marital status.

b The unbroken transition from remote and sparsely populated rural areas to the intensively used and densely populated centres of towns and cities.

2 Population distribution is the way people are located over an area. Population density is the number of people per unit area. Population density is the variable most often used to show the distribution of population.

3 a North–South drift.

b The decline of the coalfields and their associated manufacturing industries. The rising prosperity of London and the southeast as a global financial hub and a concentration of modern service industries.

4 Physical environment: lowland areas are more conducive to population and settlement.

Functions: non-agricultural activities are likely to encourage higher densities.

Dwelling type and family size: the smaller the dwelling type and larger the family size, the higher the density.

Planning: control over housing densities.

5 It only shows two, albeit important, aspects of a population — age and gender. However, there are other important aspects, such as life expectancy and ethnicity.

6 The nature of the balance between arrivals (immigrants) and departures (emigrants) in the population of a country or region.

7 a Roughly 8 million.

b Only around 1980 was the rate negative. For the rest of the period, there was growth, albeit at a low rate. So there would have been population growth. Also contributing to the population growth was net inward migration.

Variations in population structure

8 Populations of the inner cities will live at higher densities, show higher rates of fertility and growth and have a higher level of ethnicity.

Populations of the suburbs will show higher life expectancies and lower levels of deprivation.

9 Commuter villages are likely to have expanding populations due to high incidence of young adults, higher rates of natural increase and inward migration flows.

Remote villages will have ageing populations, more women than men and higher levels of deprivation.

10 a The cultural heritage of a group of people sets them apart from others. The most obvious traits are ancestral background, language, religion and forms of dress.

b The mix of different ethnic groups and their cultures in a given society.

11 Cities and towns usually become the first homes of immigrants. Immigrants are drawn to them by the mix of cheap, often rundown, housing and low-paid jobs. Those sorts of opportunities are much less common in rural settlements and the surrounding countryside.

12 The changing cultural mix brought about by the arrival of immigrants of an ethnicity different from that of the host country.

The gradual dissemination of a constantly updated ‘new’ global culture.

13 The high incidence of young adults among immigrants would boost the fertility rate, plus there is the possibility that immigrants are from ethnic groups characterised by higher rates of fertility than the host population. Mortality rates are unlikely to change much. However, the immigrants might be drawn from ethnic groups with lower life expectancies.

Place studies (1)

Questions 14–18 Answers will depend on you and your choice of places for investigation. Ask your teacher to check your responses.

How do different people view diverse living spaces?

Contrasting lived experiences in urban places

19 a The ‘picture’ of reality resulting from the information received and interpreted by a person.

b In a broad sense, it refers to all that space given over to meeting the day-to-day needs of a population, from work and shopping to education and entertainment.

20 Appalling slums; much poverty; pollution.

21 Plenty of employment; redevelopment; emerging global city.

22 High living costs; low environmental quality; crime; social inequality; social isolation.

23 Loneliness; increasingly marginalised as more newcomers enter the area; concerns about personal safety; inaccessibility of welfare services; poverty.

24 For young adults it is cool to live close to the action in city and town centres. The cost of housing is met by flat or house share. With marriage and the arrival of children, priorities change. More important now are the acquisition of housing space, access to schools and a safe environment. These requirements are more readily met in the suburbs.

25 a Religion.

b Muslim and Jewish.

c Verbal abuse; physical abuse; damage to property; graffiti.

d Around the margins of ethnically segregated areas. In urban centres and suburban shopping areas where minorities mingle with the host community. Along the routes taken by people from ethnic minority groups as they pass through British White residential areas.

Contrasting lived experiences in rural places

26 Important distinction on the basis of accessibility and travel time to the nearest city. As distance increases, so the functional emphasis changes from commuting to recreation and leisure. Demographic characteristics are likely to be different with people in the economically-active age range in the commuter belt and more elderly people in the accessible rural.

27 Attractive landscape and scenery; peace and quiet; friendly community; proximity to nature; little pollution.

28 Urban view — a place for recreation, leisure and tourism; rural view — a place for food production and environmental protection.

29 The commuting and the distance to the high-order services of the city leading to the feeling of being a part-time resident. Difficult to become fully engaged with the local community.

30 It starts with younger people leaving for jobs in towns and cities. Employers find it increasingly difficult to recruit labour. This leads to reduced investment in the area and businesses close. Fewer people and less money being earned lead to the closure of shops and a decline in services. More people are persuaded to leave as the quality of life deteriorates.

31 Three lines of hope. Modern telecommunications seriously dilute the remoteness and inaccessibility and so it is possible to conduct business from such locations. Counter-urbanisation involves a reappraisal of the quality of life on offer in remote places. Increasing tourism as people appreciate the benefits of remoteness and fine scenery.

32 Cheaper housing; more pleasant living environment; less pollution; quieter and calmer environment.

Place studies (2)

Questions 33–36 Answers will depend on you and your choice of places for investigation. Ask your teacher to check your responses apart from question 35 which is Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient.

Why are there demographic and cultural tensions in diverse places?

An increasingly diverse UK culture and society

37 Both are decentralising processes. Suburbanisation is from central and inner city towards rural–urban fringe. Counter-urbanisation is from big city to town and from town to rural areas.

38 The main movement was the North–South drift prompted by the changing distribution of job opportunities. Also decentralising migrations — suburbanisation and planned overspill to new and expanded towns.

39 Shortage of labour due to wartime fatalities, especially of men. Large-scale rebuilding to rectify bomb damage also increased the demand for labour. Labour easily recruited from Commonwealth (ex-colonial) countries with high rates of unemployment and poverty. The labour demand in the UK was largely for unskilled, manual labour which the Indian subcontinent and West Indies were able to provide.

40 The national government.

41 They are largely drawn by the cheap housing and employment opportunities to be found in towns and cities. Even those immigrants taking up farm work usually set up home in nearby towns. They are also drawn by the likelihood that previous immigrants from the same origin have established a first foothold here.

42 They are attracted by farm work of ‘picking, packing and plucking’ which they had experience of back home. There is little accommodation in rural areas, but immigrants are happy to live in small towns and to be bussed out to the field on a daily basis.

Geographical expressions of segregation

43 Brent.

44 In order to provide mutual support, group security and protection (internal factors).

As a result of discrimination — in the workplace and the housing market. They may be forced by external factors to occupy areas of cheap housing.

45 Shops selling traditional foods and clothes.

Places of worship, e.g. temples, mosques.

Signs written in foreign scripts.

46 a Percentage importance of different groups within the population of an area. Might be possible to adapt the botanists’ index of diversity.

b Pie charts or divided proportional circles.

47 Tensions based on suspicions and mutual feelings of threat.

The segregation gathers momentum and so becomes even more marked.

Segregated areas begin to reflect the ethnicity and culture of the residents.

48 Increasing confidence; less fear of discrimination; increasing job security and remuneration so able to afford better housing; wish to assimilate and not be confined to ethnic or immigrant group.

Change, tension and conflict

49 a Acquisition of brownfield site for new factory or office.

b Designation of areas for redevelopment and rebranding.

c Press for the creation of a public park or playground.

50 Highway improvement. Designation of an entertainment quarter. Expansion of CBD.

51 Arrival of newcomers intent upon upgrading housing and reimaging a residential area. Tension between newcomers and long-term residents.

Growth of an ethnic minority enclave. Tension between White British and incomers.

Infiltration of non-residential land uses or businesses. Tension between business and local residents.

52 Social exclusion is the process in which individuals or groups of people are blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights, opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are fundamental to social integration within that particular group (e.g. housing, employment and healthcare and civic liberties).

53 Developers are keen to maximise their profits. The biggest potential profits lie in commercial and business uses. So developers would be keen to develop residential or green space for the benefit of commerce. The planners will be more concerned about an adequate supply of housing and protecting green space as an amenity.

54 Conspicuous indicators: places of worship (mosques, temples); ethnic restaurants; grocery stores selling ethnic foods; shops selling ethnic clothing; cultural festivals and ceremonies; cinemas showing ethnic films; non-English signboards and advertising; non-English newspapers and magazines on sale.

55 a Glasgow.

b Poor, substandard housing; few services; lack of employment (unemployment); neglect by local authority.

c Roughly similar in the mix of most and least deprived areas, with the latter more conspicuous. The areas of most deprivation are fragmented but slightly more clustered in the case of Edinburgh. The least deprived areas are located at the margins of both cities — a very extensive area in the southwest of each city.

How successfully are cultural and demographic issues being managed?

Assessing the management of issues

56 Trend in: employment numbers; unemployment rate; average household income, percentage on social benefits.

57 Not really. No two places are alike. Therefore there is limited value in comparing either actions taken to deal with slightly different issues or assessments of performance. Time lapse – no two projects will be on exactly the same timeline.

58 Successive editions of Ordnance Survey maps. Photographs of the same view taken at different times. Old postcards and present view comparisons.

59 The idea that societies can or do improve in terms of their social, political and economic structures. This may happen as a result of direct action through enterprise or activism or as a natural part of the socio-cultural evolution of society.

60 The coexistence of diverse cultures in a given area or place. People from different ethnic or cultural background living alongside each other — either separately or in an integrated manner.

61 Mapping residential distributions of different ethnic groups. Disparities in wage rates and salaries between ethnic groups. Degree to which ethnic groups are engaged in the political process. Incidence of ‘hate crime’.

62

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Urban stakeholders and their criteria

63 a An individual, group or organisation that has an interest in a particular issue or project and its management.

b A person, group or organisation taking an active part in a particular situation. Is this term really distinguishable from stakeholder?

64 a Local government; building contractor.

b A local action group; councillor.

65 The increasing concentration of a particular cultural or ethnic group in a particular locality. Concern about the impact on other local residents and housing, services, etc.

66 The expectation is that most change is change for the good and therefore will last and become part of the area’s heritage. In so doing it will replace something that was part of earlier heritage and because of the very nature of change will be something different. The important point is that legacy is not static; there is a dynamic side to it.

67 How many new units? Contribution to housing shortage? How much social housing? Impact of additional traffic on road network? Pressure on social services? Is there a risk of flooding, and how great is the risk?

68 Encroachment on the green belt? Environmental impact? Quality of newly-built environment? Impact on the image and heritage of the city?

Rural stakeholders and their criteria

69 Farm diversification. Public transport. Declining services. Impact of tourism. Improving accessibility and connectivity.

70 Population growth. More jobs. Improved accessibility. Better services.

71 Number of visitors? Spin-off in terms of increased employment? Provision of social housing? Enhanced tourism?

72 More jobs? Congestion on the roads? Provision of social services? Control of second home ownership?

73 a Pensioners living alone. Low-paid farmworkers. Car-less working adults — unable to commute to the towns and cities. Long-term sick or disabled.

b A long commute to school located in a nearby town or city. Reliance on declining public transport. Limited social life and local entertainment. Shortage of people of same age. Good outdoor recreation. Healthy place to live.

c Contraction of social services. Withdrawal of public transport. Displacement from housing by second homers. Lack of jobs outside farming.

Exam-style questions

1 The main causes of the clustering fall into two groups:

• External factors are those which involve the host community pressuring ethnic minority groups to live in separate areas:

o discrimination in the housing market by sellers, estate agents, financial institutions and landlords

o the availability of housing that is affordable to members of ethnic groups — possible discrimination in the job market

o the overt threat of ‘racism’

• Internal factors are those that encourage ethnic minorities to segregate on a voluntary basis:

o the pull of commonality and the feeling of ‘security’ that comes from living close to those of the same background

o the availability of services (e.g. shops) that cater for the specific needs of ethnic groups

o the multiplier effect of new immigrants choosing to settle in close proximity to family and friends who migrated earlier

Possible conclusion: the segregation is the outcome of a mix of both internal and external factors.

2 This is best answered by thinking in terms of typical population pyramids and comparing three age groups within those pyramids: under 20; 20 to 65; over 65. It is better to start at the top.

• Over 65s: well represented in both locations. Popularity as retirement destinations but in remote rural elderly component is emphasised by the outward movement of working adults.

• 20 to 65: big loss of young adults from remote countryside contrasts with inward movement of young adults into accessible countryside (commuting, counter-urbanisation).

• Under 20s: loss of young adults from remote countryside reflected in low birth rate and undercutting at the base of the pyramid. The recent arrival of young adults in the accessible countryside is beginning to be reflected in a widening of the base.

3 Migration management is much more likely to be aimed at immigration. Most countries do not worry about emigration, except possibly if there is a brain drain.

Management of immigration may mean depriving people of their assumed right to migrate freely around the globe. Infringement of human rights?

Setting limits on the number of immigrants to be admitted over a given period, i.e. controlling the rate of immigration.

Establishing what a country needs by way of immigrants — possibly labour with particular skills and experience. So selective approach to who is granted admission.

Another issue is whether or not family members and would-be partners should be allowed to enter as of right.

Policy towards refugees and granting them asylum.

Internal or domestic migration — does this require any form of management?

Possible conclusion: a major issue is whether or not governments have the right to stop the free movement of people between countries.

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