Saint Mary's Hall
-The Julio-Claudian Emperors-
- Tiberius –
- Caligula –
-Claudius –
- Nero -
THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN EMPERORS
(14 - 68 AD)
Domus Divina (“Divine House” of the Julio-Claudians)
-Julians descended from Venus/Aphrodite (mother of Aeneas, grandmother of Iulus, son of Aeneas, and ancestor of Julius Caear)
-Julius Caesar was deified after his death (comet in sky = his soul going to Olympus)
-Augustus is deified right after his death (a giant among men, who saved a staggering Empire)
Tiberius (born 42 BC, reigned 14-37 AD)
-designated Augustus’ heir (stepson by Livia)
-Senate ratifies his status
-becomes first Julio-Claudian Emperor (Augustus is pure Julian, Tiberius is pure Claudian)
-age 56 years old when he came to power
-brooding, resentful, heavy-handed, and hesitant to take power (no finesse)
-still upset over forced divorce of Vipsania (Agrippa’s daughter) for Julia (Augustus’ daughter)
-upset that Augustus forced him adopt as his son and heir Germanicus, Tiberius’ nephew (more of a Julian)
-lived in awe of Augustus
Tiberius had great respect for Livia (first woman to be given the title “Augusta”)
Tiberius began reign well, by consulting the Senate and treated it as an equal partner
Reign begins with Legions in Pannonia (Hungary) and the Rhineland revolting over conditions and abuses
-settled by his son Drusus (Pannonia), and his adopted heir Germanicus (Rhineland)
Germanicus campaigns in Germany (14-16 AD)
-defeats Germans and Arminius, but cannot subdue Germany (only unifies Germans!)
-performs funeral rights at Teutoburg Forest
-war too expensive
-border remains at the Rhine, not Elbe
-returns to Rome in Triumph
-Germans begin to fight amongst themselves, and Arminius assassinated by another German
Germanicus then sent to the Middle East to negotiate with Parthia (Imperium granted)
-very successful
-Germanicus takes ill in Antioch, and dies
Tiberius’ natural son, Drusus, now his sole heir
Conspiracy of Lucius Aelius Sejanus, Commander of the Praetorian Guard
-convince Tiberius to concentrate all 9 Cohorts in Rome
-seduction of Livilla, wife or Drusus
-23 AD Drusus dies under suspicious circumstances
-Sejanus not allowed to wed Livilla
-Sejanus plots against Agrippina, wife of Germanincus, and their 3 sons (clear way to the throne)
-begins to speak of plots and conspiracies, arrests and torture follows
26 AD Tiberius goes into semi-retirement on Capri
-left Prince Gaius in Rome to overlook his affairs
-“pleasure palace”(?)
29 AD Livia dies at age 86
Agrippina exiled (and murdered) and sons Nero & Drusus arrested (and commit suicide)
31 AD Sejanus Consul with Tiberius (statues)
-marries Julia, daughter of Drusus and Livilla
-engaged his daughter to son of Claudius
Antonia, mother of the late Germanicus, (and daughter of Marcus Antonius) intervenes
-Sejanus put to death
-replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro as Commander of Praetorian Guard
Invokes ancient Treason (Maiestas) laws
-carries out a reign of terror
-aided by Informers (Delatores) for profit
An able administrator who followed the policies of Augustus (and very frugal)
-uniformed coinage and tax relief
-“It is the wise shepherd who knows how to sheer, and not skin, his flock”
-left behind a surplus of 2,700,000,000 sesterces
March 16, 37 AD Tiberius dies (stroke/syphilis?)
-not designate an heir
-not deified (treason trials and absence from Rome fuels dislike of him)
-“To the Tiber with Tiberius”
Caligula (reigned 37-41 AD)
-Gaius Augustus Germanicus
-25 years old (nephew of Tiberius)
-great pedigree
-father, Germanicus, was a Claudian
-mother, Agrippina, was a Julian
-great-grandfathers were Augustus and Marcus Antonius
-no other Julio-Claudians around
-"little boots"/Caligae
-was in Capri at the time
-Praetorian Prefect Macro aids Caligula
Begins reign as a popular youth and hailed by the people
-reduce taxes, released those charged with treason, abolished Delatores, respected the Senate, held games, gave legacies of Livia & Tiberius to the people, showed religious piety
Adopted his cousin Tiberius Gemellus (grandson of Tiberius) as his son and heir
Co-Consul with his uncle Claudius (brother of the late Germanicus)
Honoured his three sisters (Drusilla, Livilla and Agrippina the Younger)
Hid a self-centred, sadistic and cruel personality
-liked to visit taverns and brothels
Planned to invade Germany & Britain
-plans postponed when he fell ill and into a coma
-recovers, but emerges a deranged megalomaniac
-schizophrenia?
-totally self-absorbed
Saw self as a god Neos Helios (sun-god) and talked to the Gods (his peers), especially Jupiter
39 AD Bridge of ships over the Bay of Baiae and wore Alexander’s breastplate
Spendthrift (depleted the treasury)
-taxed everything and revived treason laws
Incest with sisters (especially Druscilla)
Built a Temple in his own honour
-Incitatus made a Senator & High Priest of his cult
Saw Treason everywhere (not all imagined!)
-murdered his father-in-law, his heir, and Macro
-put down Rhine army conspiracy to replace him with his brother-in-law (Druscilla’s husband)
-executed the ringleaders and exiled his two remaining sisters Agrippina the Younger & Julia Livilla)
Raided across the Rhine (bring back blonde Gauls as proof!)
Built a lighthouse on the English Channel (and brought back sea shells)
“Give us a kiss”
Ordered Petronius, the legate of Syria, to install a statue of himself in the Temple of Jerusalem
-Petronius stalled the process!
41 AD assassinated by Cassius Chaerea (a Tribune of the Praetorians)
Claudius (reigned 41-54 AD)
-found hiding behind a curtain in the palace
-proclaimed by the Praetorian Guard
-15,000 sesterces donative to the Guard
-Senate confers title
-Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
-51 years old (born 10 BC)
-overshadowed by Germanicus (brother) in his youth
-physical afflictions (ugly, drooled, twitched, stammered, limped, socially awkward)
-often ridiculed, ignored and thought a family embarrassment
-Augustus made an Augur (minor priesthood)
-Caligula made him a Consul and used him as a court buffoon
Scholar (taught by the historian Livy et al)
-keen mind
-expert on government, law, and Etruscan & Carthaginian history, and Augustus
-wrote many books (none survive)
-last speaker of Etruscan
-autobiography is the basis of “I Claudius”
Army and people supported as Germanicus’ brother
-emulated Augustus
-showed Senate great respect and refused grand titles offered to him (Imperator & Father of the Fatherland)
-return Macedonia and Achaea to Senatorial control
-reversed bad policies of Tiberius and Caligula
-acted as an ordinary Senator
New Senators elected from Gaul to make the Roman government reflect the Roman Empire
Roman government more centralized for the good of all, not just the rich Senators & Equestrians
-growth of Imperial Bureaucracy through an
expansion of the civil service
Imperial freedmen (talented Greek & Asiatic ex- slaves) run the government from the Imperial palace
-ie Narcissus (secretary of state)
-ie Pallas (secretary of the treasury)
-ie Callistus (secretary of justice)
-most were billionaires, efficient, powerful & corrupt
-owed their status to Claudius (loyal)
-Equestrians resented them (freedmen!) and the Senate feared their influence
Claudius continues extensive public works in Rome and across Empire
-canals, roads, aqueducts
Ostia, Rome’s port at the mouth of the Tiber
Continues Augustus’ and Caesar’s foreign policies
-46 AD annexation of Thrace (lead to the Black Sea becoming a Roman lake)
-protectorate over Armenia (counter Parthia)
-annexation of Judea (peace and trade routes to China)
Cunobelinus and his son, Caratacus, begin to expand their territory across southern Britain
-build a pan-Celtic alliance against Rome
-supported by Druids (outlawed by Augustus and Tiberius
-petty kings call on Rome for aid
-Rome sees as a threat to Gaul, ….and an opportunity
43 AD Aulus Plautius invades with 50,000 men
-defeats Caratacus
-Claudius arrives (with elephants) to accept the surrender of 11 Celtic kings
44 AD hailed by the Senate as “Britannicus” (Conqueror of Britain)
-most of Britain conquered over the next 8 years
48 AD his wife Messalina and her lover put to death
-kept their children Britannicus and Octavia
Claudius finally marries his niece, Agrippina the Younger (cruel, seductive and ambitious)
50 AD Agrippina convinces Claudius to adopt her son Nero (from a previous marriage) as his son and primary heir
53 AD convinces Claudius to allow Nero to marry Octavia
54 AD dies at a banquet
-poison mushrooms, poison feather, Agrippina or poor health
Nero (reigned 54-68 AD)
-16 years old (born 37 AD)
-descendent of Augustus on both
-strong build, liked sports, poetry, music, art
-promise 15,000 sesterces to Praetorians
Managed by Agrippina the Younger (mother), Seneca (most influential Senator and philosopher), Pallus (freedman who ran the Treasury) and Afranius Burrus (Praetorian Prefect)
59. Quinquennium Neronis (5 Golden Years)
-promises good government and social reform
-popular socially, politically and militarily
-managed well by his inner circle
-Nero’s darker side kept quiet
Agrippina dominates Nero & Rome
-Seneca & Burrus undermine Agrippina
-Agrippina opposed Nero’s marriage to Acte (freedwoman & servant of Octavia)
-threaten to use Britannicus against him, Seneca & Burrus
55 AD Nero has Britannicus poisoned
59 AD death of Agrippina
Nero takes interest in running government, as well as arts, theatre and horseracing
-begins to patron arts & perform in public
-scandalous behaviour
61 AD revolt of Queen Boudicca (Boadicea) of the Iceni in Britain
-massacred 70,000 Romans in London
-General Suetonius Paullinus defeats
-Boudicca commits suicide
62 AD divorce and exile of Octavia (later murdered)
-marries his new mistress Poppea Sabina
Burrus dies and is replaced by Ofonius Tigellinus
-former fish salesman and horse breeder
-a poor choice (plotter & schemer)
-vicious hunter of conspiracy (real or imagined)
Seneca disgusted and retires
-Nero now has no restrictions on him
64 AD Great Fire of Rome
-burns down half of Rome over 9 days
-Nero helps to fight the fire and ease suffering
-Composes poem of the fall of Troy!
-rebuilds Rome as a more “fire safe” city
Nero builds his new palace, the Domus Aurea (the Golden House)
-covers 120 acres and includes public parks and a 120 foot statue of himself (the Colossus)
Nero looks for scapegoats for the fire (avoid the blame himself)
-beginning of Christian persecutions
-why Christians?
65 AD Conspiracy of Calpurnius Piso
-many Equestrians and Senators involved
-savage reprisals
-Seneca (philosopher & old mentor), Lucan (poet) and Petronius (satirist) forced to commit suicide
66-67 AD Nero’s Concert Tour of Greece
-1808 first prizes for various events
68 AD C. Julius Vindex (governor of Gaul) rebels
-Rhineland legions (under Verginius Rufus) defeat Vindex (suicide) and then proclaim Rufus Emperor (declines the honour)
-General Servius Sulpicius Galba rebels in Spain and buys allegiance of Praetorian Guard for 80,000 sesterces a man)
-Nero declared a public enemy by the Senate
-"Quolis artifex pereo"/"What a great artist dies in me"
Legions become Emperor makers!!!!!
LECTURE # 2
-The Flavian Emperors-
-The Five Good Emperors-
- The Severan Dynasty -
-The “Barracks Emperors”-
THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS (69-96 BC)
69 AD "The Year of the Four Emperors"
Galba (Spanish legions and Praetorian Guard)
-too old and cheap (soldiers rebel)
Otho (friend of Galba) supported by Portuguese legions (and later bought Praetorian Guard)
-also a fellow debaucher of Nero’s
-rebel against Galba when he discovered he was not his successor (troops lynch Galba)
Aulus Vitellius declared by Rhine legions
-did not wish to be Emperor (no choice!)
-defeat Otho in April at the Battle of Cremona (Otho commits suicide)
-a disgrace during his seven month reign
-spent 900,000,000 sesterces on dinner alone!
-paid troops by sanctioning looting
Vespasian supported by eastern legions in Syria-Judaea and on the Danube
-had put down Jewish revolt in 66 AD under Nero
-Vitellius tries to abdicate but troops won’t let him
-killed in April at the Battle of Cremona
Titus Flavius Vespanasius/Vespasian (69-79 AD)
Equestrian who was serious, hard working and dedicated (born 9 AD)
-stabilize economy
-pay toilets
-good administrator and reform government and laws
-Equestrians begin to replace Imperial Freedmen in Imperial bureaucracy
-aristocrats begin to accept wages vs land
-extended citizenship
-aqueducts and social reforms
-conquer Judea
-consolidate frontiers
-began Colosseum
-dies in his bed
-last words are "Ut puto deus fio" ("I think I'm becoming a god") (contrast to Nero)
-deified
Titus (79-81 AD)
-elder son of Vespasian
-popular general (captured Jerusalem in 70)
-generous and efficient
-opens the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre)
-holds 55,000
-criticized for slow response to aiding the victims of the Mt. Vesuvius eruption in 79 AD
(buried Pompeii & Herculaneum)
-dies in the East of plague (?)
-deified
Domitian (81-96 AD)
-younger, bitter, brother of Titus
-nasty and murderous man
-tried to restore old gods
-persecute Christians
-victories along the Rhine and Danube
89 AD Conspiracy uncovered
-Treason trials begin (wipe out most of the old Republican Senatorial families)
-saw conspiracies everywhere
-alienated all around him
-murdered by Praetorian Guard, palace officials and Senators
-not deified, but damned and statues torn down!
THE "FIVE GOOD EMPERORS" (96-192AD)
Nerva (96-98):
-Senate nominates him, quickly, as emperor to avoid civil war
-elderly, childless senator
-suspected by army
-reduces taxes, recalls exiles, gives land to poor
-alimenta (scheme to help farmers & needy children)
-adopts Trajan (respected general) as son and successor
-dies of old age after 16 months(stroke after shouting at an officer?)
Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus) reigned 98-117
-from Spain (first provincial emperor)
-soldier
-calls himself Optimus Princeps (Best of the Emperors)
-expanded empire (50 million people)
-102 AD invasion and conquest of Dacia (across the Danube)
-Trajan's Column depicts Dacian war (one of Rome’s last conquered Provinces)
-annexes Arabia
-conquers Parthians (weak) = 3 new provinces
-eastern war drains other frontiers
-massive revolts along other frontiers
-Congiaria (money gifts) of 75 denarii to each citizen in Rome
-improved Ostia to expand Annona (grain supply)
-Trajan & Pliny (Governor of Bithynia)
-Aug 8, 117 dies on the way home from Parthia
Hadrian (117-138):
-Spaniard "adopted" by Trajan (forged will?)
-ward of Trajan since 85 AD when father died
-Aug 8 Trajan dies, Aug 9 Hadrian proclaimed his heir, Aug 11 Trajan “dies”
Brings greatest peace, prosperity and order
-Empire becomes more cosmopolitan
-1st Emperor to go on the defensive
-abandons new provinces (except Dacia which was Romanized)
-visits provinces, troops and frontiers
-builds 75 mile long Hadrian’s Wall across Britain (practical, but defensive policy)
-2nd Jewish War (132-135) destroys remain of the Old Temple of Solomon at Jerusalem
-replaced by a Temple of Jupiter(blasphemy?)
-begins Diaspora
-excuse $900 million in back taxes
-Empire run by Imperial Consilium (Emperor and Advisors (Amici Caesaris /Caesar’s friends)
-huge donative (money gift) to the army
130 AD - boyfriend Antinuus commits suicide to ensure safety of Hadrian(divine honours and city of Antinuopolis founded)
Builds Pantheon (Domed Temple of all the Gods), Mausoleum (Castel Sant’ Angelo) and Temple of Venus and Roma in Rome
Adopts Antoninus Pius, and forces Antoninus to adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus
In old age developed a nosebleed for two years, and suffered a slow, lingering death from water accumulation in the body
-asked slaves to kill him (they wouldn't)
Antoninus Pius (138-161):
-model of behaviour and decorum
-insists on Hadrian's deification
-excellent administrator (as part of Hadrian’s Council)
-legal reforms
-teachers to be paid by cities
-university at Athens
-Antonine Wall (north of Hadrian's): shorter but less secure
Marcus Aurelius (161-180):
-reluctant emperor
-insists that his "brother" Lucius Verus be co-emperor (161-169)(dies of apoplexy)
-philosopher-statesman, not soldier
-Stoic
-long wars, plagues and famines
-"barbarians" begin to breach the Roman frontiers
-German tribes swarm across Danube and threaten Italy
-suffered great chest and stomach pains
-became a "junkie" on opium
-died in sleep (or murdered?)
Commodus (180-192):
-son of Marcus Aurelius
-lacked ability and not worthy to rule
-a “voluptuary, degenerate and buffoon”
-hedonist who saw himself as Hercules/god
-has Senate deify him while still alive!
-bankrupts treasury with his vices
-appoints his favourites to high positions, and then killed them when no longer in favour
-praetorian prefect rules
-abandons (a) invasion across Danube(buys off Germans and Sarmatians!), (b) Antonine Wall
-great collector of treasure, robes, chariots and gladiator equipment
-appeared as a gladiator 735 times (could hit an ostrich in the neck with a javelin at 50 paces!)
-alimenta suspended
-reign of terror(many plots and purges)
-assassinated (poison plus straggled by wrestling partner/lover)
-memory damned
-civil war follows his death
Helvius Pertinax (193 AD):
-assassinated after 87 days
Didius Julianus (193 AD):
-a rich Senator who bought “the purple”
-Praetorian Guard auctions off the throne
-offered each man 25,000 sesterces (66 years pay!)
-does not pay up and is murdered after a few months by the Praetorian Guard
THE SEVERAN DYNASTY (193-235 AD)
Septimius Severus (193-211):
-a native North African married into a Syrian royal family
-declared Caesar by the Danube legions
-raised their pay from 375 to 500 denarii per year
-replaces Praetorian Guard with his troops
-won civil war against Pescennius Niger in Asia (193) and Clodius Albinus in Gaul (195)
-extends power of Equestrians (run legions, provinces)
-“adopted” Marcus Aurelius as his father and proclaimed Commodus his brother (heir!)
-alimenta restored & free medical care
-soldiers allowed to marry
-devaluation of coinage (reduce silver content in denarius to 50%)
-recaptures Parthian provinces (194/5 & 197-99) and further weakens them (open to attacks from the East/Persians)
-208-211 battled Caledonians in Scotland
-dies at York of natural causes (unusual!)
Caracalla (211-217):
-name means “long Gallic cape”
-a tough, reliable soldier
-son of Septimus Severus
-murders his brother Geta & his supporters
-raises army pay (500 to 700 denarii)
-increased taxes (ie 5% inheritance tax)
-212 gave citizenship to all except slaves
-took part of Alexander the Great's tomb from Alexandria(last mention of the tomb)
213-217 campaigned against Alemanni (Germans) and Parthians
-assassinated during war with Parthians by Marcus Opellius Macrinus (Praetorian Prefect)
Macrinus (217-218):
-Praetorian Prefect of Caracalla
-a Moor & Equestrian
-murdered by troops for cowardly leadership against the Parthians
Elagabalus or Heliogabalus (218-222):
-real name is Varius Avitus
-14 year old priest of the Syrian Sun god Elagabal (changed his name to reflect this)
-mother is Julia Maesa, matriarch of Severan clan (and sister-in-law to Septimus Severus)
-convince Syrian legions that he was the natural son of Caracalla
-chosen by Syrian legions (after huge bribes)
-religious fanatic (sun cult)
-imposes his religion on Rome (huge black stone of Elagabal, weird rights, prostitutes and perversions)
-arrived in Rome wearing a purple robe, a pearl necklace, a bejeweled crown and rouge on his cheeks!
-travelled with a harem of "300 cute young boys and 300 cute young girls"
-bloody and cruel, appoint friends to office
-let grandmother and Severan princesses rule
-convinced to adopt cousin Gessius Bassianus Alexianus (now called Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander) as his son and heir
-Grandmother used this against him and tried to kill him twice
-murdered by Praetorians while hiding in a
chest/privy
-he and mother beheaded, weighted down, and hurled in the Tiber
Alexander Severus (222-235):
-cousin of Elagabalus
-aged 13
-a "sissy"
-dominated by grandmother and mother (Julia Mamaea), who really run the Empire
-reduced taxes, built bathes and provided aid to the poor
-guilds (collegia) legalized, and given tax breaks, under government control (foodstuffs, essential services, bakers, shoemakers, wine and oil producers)
-army discipline breaks down and frontiers breached
-Alexander stalemated with Persians
-bribes Germans to withdraw
-army revolts, lead by Maximinus the Thracian
-Alexander and Julia murdered by army
THE “BARRACKS EMPERORS" (235-284)
This period marked the beginning of the end for Rome
-most Emperors were short-lived and died violently
-financial and military troubles
-high, unfair taxes
-rampant inflation
-cities go bankrupt
-robber bands on the rise
-constant civil wars, plagues and famines
-barbarian invasions
Maximinus the Thracian (235-238)
-proclaimed by the Pannonian legions
-murdered Emperor Alexander Severus and his mother
-ignorant peasant of tremendous size and strength
-reportedly drank 46 pints of wine and 40 pounds of meat daily!
-eventually lynched by his own troops when he was unable to pay them
Pupienus and Balbinus (238)
-elderly Senators
-murdered by troops after two months
Gordian III (238-244)
-13 year old co-emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus
-Praetorian Prefect (Philip the Arab) acts as regent
-Goths and Persians invade
-murdered when he gave troops choice of either “Philip or me!”
Philip the Arab (244-249)
-Arab sheik from Jordan
-was Gordian III’s advisor, commander-in-chief and Praetorian Prefect
-fought Goths and Persians
-murdered in civil war
Decius (249-251)
-a good man who could have been a great emperor
-killed in battle with the Goths(unusual!)
Gallus (251-253)
-proclaimed by troops of Lower Moesia
-murdered by mutinous troops
Aemilianus (253)
-murdered by mutinous troops
Valerian I (253-260)
-ran the Eastern Roman Empire
-captured by Persian King Shapur I
-used as a human mounting-block for his horse
-on his death, the skin was flayed from his body, dyed with vermilion, and hung in a Persian temple!
Gallienus (253-268)
-son and co-Emperor with Valerian I
-ran the Western Roman Empire
-faced invasions by the Franks, Goths, Saxons, Jutes and Persians
-fought off 18 rebellions against him!
-created a mobile, elite, central reserve army to rush to trouble spots
-murdered by jealous staff officers
Claudius II (268-270)
-staff officer of Gallienus
-defeated Germans and Goths
-died of plague
Aurelian (270-275)
-Illyrian Emperor from the Balkans
-very harsh disciplinarian, whose nick-name was Manu ad ferrum (“Hand on Steel)
-both Gaul and Palmyra separate from the Empire
-both defeated, as were the Goths
-builds a new defensive wall around Rome
-murdered by mistake by Praetorian Guard Officers (they thought he had a “hit list”)
Claudius Tacitus (275-276)
-a Senator in his mid-seventies!
-murdered after six months
Florianus (276)
-half-brother of Tacitus who assumed the throne
-murdered by the army
Probus (276-282)
-another excellent Illyrian General
-defeats the Franks, Germans, Burgundians and Vandals
-murdered by mutinous troops
Aurelius Carus (282-283)
-another good Illyrian General
-died in Persia from a lightning bolt (or possibly the dagger of his Praetorian Prefect)
Numerianus (283-284)
-son of Carus
-had many vices (swam in cold water, and in bathes of apples and melons, deflowered virgins and officers wives, and took revenge on old childhood friends who were mean to him)
-stabbed by his own troops in battle
….and another round of civil wars begin
LECTURE # 3
The Crisis of the 3rd Century
- Decline in Army Discipline –
- Economics –
- Barbarian Invasions –
- Failure of Education & Technology –
-Agricultural Decline -
THE CRISIS OF THE 3RD CENTURY
Main problems are:
-economics
-civil wars
-barbarian invasions
-depopulation by famine, war and plague
-declining discipline of the army
-political ambitions of military leaders
Each of these areas fed into each other and created a cycle of economic, political and military chaos and decline
DECLINE IN ARMY DISCIPLINE
Root of all Rome’s problems in the 3rd century
Septimius Severus comes to in 193 power after the bloody civil war following the death of Commodus in 192
-realizes that the army was his key to power and that he needed their goodwill & support
-the army quickly realized this too!
-raised their pay, improved their conditions and increased their privileges
-pay increased from 500-700 denarii
-promoted officers to administrative posts
-quickly “militarized” the government
-gave them rich discharge gratuities
Septimius Severus’ last words to his sons: “Agree with each other, enrich the soldiers, and never mind all the others”.
Each succeeding emperor raised new units to fight off their rivals and protect the frontiers
-little done to increase revenues
-each new unit commander a potential “barracks emperor”
Septimius Severus allows troops along the frontier to marry “local girls” and live outside the barracks
Alexander Severus allowed troops to own and cultivate land near their barracks
-hoped to give them more money and incentive to fight
-made them less disciplined, less willing to fight elsewhere in the Empire, and more willing to support local officers as potential emperors
Army saw its strength and numbers and used this to their advantage
-no longer servants of Rome, but its master
217 Caracalla murdered by the army
-next 36 years saw 12 Emperors (not counting co-emperors)
-not one died in his bed
228 Praetorian Guard mutinied and killed their commander, Domitius Ulpianus, in the emperor’s palace, for being too strict
228 Mesopotamian legions murder their commander
235 Pannonian legions mutiny when the Alemanni were bribed to retreat to Germany
-they wanted the money!
Maximinus the Thracian(235-238) doubled the army’s pay and then plundered the Empire, especially the rich to pay for it
After Valerian came to power in 253 it is impossible to keep count of all the usurpers, pretenders and imposters
-5 in Gaul from 257-273 alone!
Gallienus (253-268)
-tried to restore discipline and a sense of professionalism in the army by making many reforms
-fought off 18 rebellions against him!
-murdered by jealous staff officer
Army discipline continues to break down and frontiers continue to be breached
ECONOMICS
3rd century saw great prosperity, but in private hands
-trade flourishes
-many new roads and cities built
-“Empire” staggers financially
Rome lacks new sources of foreign wealth or currency
-no longer expanding into foreign lands
-no great commercial empires to conquer (ie Carthage or the Greek East)
-“barabarian” lands rich in slaves and timber, not gold and silver
-state almost bankrupt
Peacetime revenues of Empire continue to mount and barely covered expenses
-Government and Imperial Bureaucracy
-cost of the standing army increases with inflation and its growing size
-growing border defences expensive (ie Caracalla’s 105 mile stone wall on the Rhaetian frontier)
-Donatives to army
-vast sums on education and public welfare
-ie Septimius Severus (193-211) provides free medical care and primary school to all citizens
-monuments, bathes, public buildings, games and spectacles
-triumphs and festivals of Emperors
-relief to stricken communities
-alimenta (baby bonus) to the poor
-Some provinces divided into two smaller provinces to decrease chances of revolt (ie Septimius Severus’ division of Syria and Britain, and the separation of Numidia from Africa)
-each now need own bureaucracy
-all left nothing for civil or military emergencies and kept state on brink of bankruptcy
State income limited by many factors
-cancellation of arrears in taxation to individuals or communities
-reduction in personal taxes
-inefficient, sporadic and corrupt collection of taxes
-lack of annual budgets set by the state or communities
-breaches in Rome’s frontiers result in economic loss and dislocation
-extravagant and/or incompetent Emperors
Emperor must obtain loans to go on campaign
-creates further economic hardship
-Marcus Aurelius (161-180) had to sell many of the palace jewels and treasures in order to finance his Danube campaigns against the Germans
-Rome seldom conquer new territory, so economic advantages minimal
-loss in battle creates inability to repay loans
-some Emperors pay enemies to leave (ie Alexander Severus’ bribe of the Germans)
State uses heavy-handed measures to gain income
-extraordinary taxation
-Caracalla gave Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212, and increased the inheritance tax to 5%
(note: non-Romans could gain Roman citizenship by serving in the army for 25 years. Caracalla now removed a major incentive to join the Army!)
-requisitions of food, transport and money for the army from individuals and communities
-compulsory labour in place of money
-all impose hardship on communities and individuals made responsible for these payments
-many individuals, and even communities, strike, revolt or even flee
-in some cases Emperors loot towns that rebel (ie Septimius Severus’ sack of Lyon)
-leads to more economic dislocation
Many Emperors chose to raise money by devaluing the coinage
-Marcus Aurelius debased silver currency in the denarius by raising its copper content to about 34%
-“coin dipping” to get more (devalued) coins
-Septimius Severus reduces silver in denarius to 50%
-in 200 the denarius was a nicely engraved coin of almost pure silver
-1,250 denarii = 1 pound of gold
-by 300 it was a roughly shaped piece of bronze washed in a thin coating of silver
-50,000 denarii = 1 pound of gold
-only lead to further inflation
Craftsmen, farmers, landowners and the poor could survive inflation the best
Inflation hits government civil servants and soldiers the hardest
-salaried wage earners
-no other source of income than their pay
-taxes could not make up for inflation
-both fall further behind economically
Civil servants turn to corruption
-charge for everything, even tax receipts!
-274 Aurelian closes all local mints due to mass corruption
Soldiers turn to looting and supporting barracks Emperors
Government provides occasional donatives to both to supplement their pay and try to placate them
-also required to provide rations and clothing
-all paid by towns and rich individuals
Emperors provide generous donatives to both
-becomes an expected custom
-on taking power
-at 5 year anniversaries
-frequent change of Emperor creates greater financial hardships
Entire Roman Empire struggles under the strain
BARBARIAN INVASIONS
Lack of army discipline and constant civil wars depleted Rome’s armies and left her borders weak and vulnerable
-Rome did not have enough men to repel invasions in both the east (Syria) and in the north (Rhine and Danube) at the same time
-barbarians took advantage of this
-some German invasions even reached Italy
Parthians:
- Septimius Severus (193-211)
-Caracalla (211-217)
-Macrinus (217-218)
-Elagabalus or Heliogabalus (218-222)
Persians:
-Alexander Severus (222-235)
-Gordian III (238-244)
-Philip the Arab (244-249)
-Valerian I (253-260)
-Gallienus (253-268)
-Claudius II (268-270)
-Aurelius Carus (282-283)
Palmyra:
-Aurelian (270-275)
Germans (Alemanni, Franks, Jutes, Saxons, Goths, Burgundians, Vandals, etc):
- Caracalla (211-217)
-Alexander Severus (222-235)
-Maximinus the Thracian (235-238)
-Gordian III (238-244)
-Philip the Arab (244-249)
-Decius (249-251)
-Gallienus (253-268)
-Claudius II (268-270)
-Aurelian (270-275)
-Probus (276-282)
Caledonians/Scots:
-Septimius Severus (193-211)
Pirates:
-Gallienus (253-268)
All create economic dislocation and decline
-Rome forced to wait for plunder-laden raiding parties to try and escape before attacking them
-plunder confiscated by the army, not returned to the rightful owners!
FAILURE OF EDUCATION & TECHNOLOGY
-failure to industrialize
-Greek tradition of pure science from Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 BC) to Hero of Alexandria (c.150 BC), and others
-designs for the endless chain, compound pulley, the lifting crane, the steam engine, reaction turbine never put into practical use
-why?
-slave syndrome
-aristocratic leisure-class contempt for work
-failure of Greco-Roman education
-education focuses on rhetoric to the exclusion of science and practical/technical training
-produce lawyers, administrators, professors and politicians, not scientists, technicians and industrial engineers
-failure to transform pure science into technology
3rd century saw rapid disappearance of slave labour + shortage of free labour
-great need for industrial technology and labour-saving machinery
-none available
AGRICULTURAL DECLINE
Frequent devastation and looting of farming communities by the government, army and barbarians was disastrous to Roman agriculture
-many peasants desert the land for employment in “safer” towns
-no one to work the land, provide food or pay taxes
-large sections of Gaul left uncultivated
-leads to food shortages, famine and malnutrition
-plagues ravage a weak and malnourished population
Other peasants become Bacaude (outlaws and brigands)
-loot small towns and farms
-take slaves
-some grow into bands of several thousands
-parts of Gaul held by them
-proclaimed own emperors and minted own coins
Plagues ravaged the Empire
-plague during the reign of Gallienus lasted 15 years
-up to 5,000 deaths per day in Rome
-creates a huge shortfall in farm and factory workers
-depletes ranks of the army
-some cities totally depopulated
-many flee their communities
-production falls sharply
-economy slows and declines
-wages for remaining workers increases
-creates more inflation
….and the cycle continues
LECTURE # 4
The Reign of Diocletian (284-305)
- Diocletian’s Rise To Power -
- The Dominate -
- The Tetrarchy -
- Provincial Reforms -
- Military Reforms -
- Economic Reforms –
- Christian Persecutions -
- Problems With Reform –
- Abdication -
DIOCLETIAN’S RISE TO POWER
Born ca. 245 near Salona in Dalmatia (now modern Split in Yugoslavia)
-father a humble scribe or freedman
-brilliant soldier
-cavalryman under Gallienus
-dux (cavalry commander) in Moesia
-eventually promoted to dux of the imperial mounted bodyguard
283 accompany Emperor Carus on his campaign against Persia
-Carus brings his son Numerianus with him
-other son, Carinus, left in charge of defense of Italy and Gaul
-Carus killed by a lightning bolt in Persia (more likely the dagger of his Praetorian Prefect, Arrius Aper)
-Aper later secretly arranged the murder of Numerianus
Army of the East holds a war council
-ignores Carinus and chooses Diocletian, one of their own officers, as their new Emperor
-Diocletian’s first act as Emperor of the East was to run Arrius Aper through with his sword!
Carinus refuses to accept Diocletian as his colleague
-285 gathers a huge army and marches on Diocletian
-armies meet at the Valley of Margus (Morava) in Moesia
-just as Carinus’ superior army was about to win the battle, Cariunus was struck through the heart by a dagger( wielded by a tribune whose wife Carinus has seduced!)
-Carinus’ victorious, but leaderless, army accepts Diocletian as Emperor
THE DOMINATE
The “Dominate” begins in 285 (from dominus, meaning “lord and master”) with Diocletian’s rule
–Roman Empire evolves into an absolute monarchy
–could be one ruler or an autocracy
–most people supported it because it brought peace, order and security
Emperor becomes more of an oriental ruler
-emperor worshipped like a god
-much pomp, ceremony and sanctity
-emperor rarely seen in public
-appears in dazzling purple robes, diadem and scepter
-huge palace household travels with the Emperor and is the government
-Imperial bureaucracy isolates people from the Emperor
-“sacred bedchamber” attended by a corps of eunuchs
-secretaries, accountants, scholars, spies, interpreters, messengers, officers, librarians, bodyguards and servants
Diocletian is a great organizer
-liked order, method, uniformity and detail
-delegated authority to qualified individuals
-absolute loyalty from those he chose as colleagues
-saw problems of the 3rd century and set about trying to correct them
-a conservative, but brought in revolutionary changes to restore the order and prosperity of the old Roman world
-his reign halted Rome’s decline (temporarily)
-tried to bring order out of chaos, but at a huge price
March 1st, 286 he made Maximian, another Illyrian officer and an old comrade, his Caesar (and adopted him as his heir)
-needed help with the West, especially the Bacaudae in Gaul
-also not risk a possible revolt from a potential rival
-6 months later Maximian made Augustus of the West (co-Emperor)
-Diocletian still the senior Augustus
THE TETRARCHY
293 Diocletian establishes the “Tetrarchy”
-Roman Empire still too large, with too many problems and armies to deal with
-Empire divided officially into East and West
-joint rule of 2 Augusti (Diocletian , Maximian)
-adds two more Caesars to help run the Empire
-Caesars also next in line to be Augustus (provide an orderly succession)
Each half of Empire has one Augustus and one Caesar
-Eastern Roman Empire run by Diocletian as Augustus
-he chose Galerius Maximianus as his Caesar
-married him to his daughter Valeria
-Western Roman Empire run by Maximian as Augustus
-he chose Flavius Constantius as his Caesar
-commonly called Constantius “Chlorus” (“Pale Face”)
-married him to his step-daughter Theodora
Constantius’ son, Constantine, sent off to live at Diocletian’s royal court as a hostage to guarantee Constantius’ loyalty
Each had own capital:
West: Maximian (Milan), Constantius (Trier)
East: Diocletian (Nicomedia), Galerius (Sirmium)
Each had own section of the Empire to guard
-Maximian (Spain, Italy, Africa)
-Constantius (Britain, Gaul)
-Diocletian (Balkans, Pannonia, Asia Minor, Dacia)
-Galerius (Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Judea)
-each set about restoring order
PROVINCIAL REFORMS
Broke Roman provinces down into more manageable, and roughly equal size
-some large provinces broken into 4-5 smaller provinces
-grows from 50 to 100+ provinces
-governors lose military authority
-more government officials scrutinize their work
Each province organized into one of twelve new Dioceses
-an administrative unit between the Provincial and Central government
-relieve Central government of some of the administrative burden
-governors of each Diocese supervised by its official, called a Vicar (vicarius)
-each Vicar was a deputy of one of the four Praetorian Praefects
-each Praetorian Praefect reported to one of the four Tetrarchs
Town Councils made hereditary for sons of Curiales (town Senators/Councils)
-keep numbers up (unpopular occupation)
-Curiales must pay city taxes “up front” and then collect taxes from city
-cities are poor & Curiales go broke
-councils still appeal to Governors for $
-requests often overwhelm Governors
MILITARY REFORMS
296-297 Diocletian puts down revolt of Domitius Domitianus in Egypt
297-302 fight the Persians and win an advantageous peace treaty
-Constantine accompanies him on both campaigns
Army increased from 400,000 to 500,000
-not enough voluntary recruits
-military service for sons of veterans made compulsory
-conscription of rural population
-tax exemption for soldiers
-money in lieu of enlistment in army
-legions grow in number from 39 to 65
-legions drop in size from 5,500 to 1,000
-much greater use of cavalry, mobility, auxiliaries and missile troops
-more barbarians and mercenaries hired
Factories built in “safe areas” to guarantee supply and uniformity of equipment, food, wool and linen
Strategy
-strategic defences and forts along frontier
-many upgraded and new ones built
-strategic forts built further inside Empire (defence in depth)
-roads connected all forts and frontiers
-fresh units created to reinforce frontiers
-local commanders (“Dukes” & “Counts”) control own area of frontier
New division of army for defense in depth
-army divided into two groups, the limitanei and the comitatenses
-limitanei are static troops in small garrisons along the frontier (limes)
-first line of defense, but often second class troops who served for 25 years
-comitataenses (“the emperor’s escort”) were an elite, mobile field force, consisting largely of cavalry
-stationed at strategic points well behind the frontier
-able to rush to any point to contain an invasion
-higher pay, more privileges and food , higher physical standards and only serve 20 years
Professional Officer Corps from the Equestrian Class
-Senate no longer a source for officer
-Senate becomes even more irrelevant
ECONOMIC REFORMS
Based on the introduction of a new and more stable currency, and tax reform
Reform currency of 286
-new gold coin1/60 lb (Solidus)
-new silver coin 1/96 lb (Argenteus)
-still mint silver-washed copper coins
(denarius) and plain copper coins
-50,000 silver-washed denarius = 1 gold pound
-inflation gains momentum with silver coins
301 Edict of Maximum Prices
-all fixed in minutest detail
-at first enforced ruthlessly (executions!)
-just drove goods off the market and created a “black market”
-allowed to lapse to encourage production
Creation of an annual budget and uniform tax rate across Empire
-all land surveyed and assessed into equal taxable units, called iugum (acres)
-each iugum based on type of agricultural use (ie arable, pasture, vineyard, olive etc) and of its quality
-therefore various quantities of land used in assessment
-humans and animals also assessed per capita (head count)
-therefore possible to calculate the yield for the entire Empire and establish an annual budget
-mostly used to levy money and supplies for the army
THE LAST PERSECUTIONS OF THE CHRISTIANS (303-311)
298 Diocletian and Galerius make sacrifices to the gods for good omens in the upcoming war with Persia
-omens came back unclear
-Tagis, the chief soothsayer, blame it on Christians
-Diocletian order all to make sacrifice to the gods or be flogged
-also all civil servants and soldiers should make sacrifices or be discharged
Diocletian had practiced religious tolerance
-Galerius a devout pagan and encouraged persecutions
-asked Apollo for advice, who blamed the Christians for Rome’s problems (and why the prophecies had not come true)
February 23, 303 first Edict of Nicomedia on Christians
-Feast of god of Terminus (god of Endings)
-joke against the Christians
-all Scriptures to be surrendered and burned
-all churches torn down and gatherings banned
-February 24 all Christians lose citizenship (can be tortured and killed) and cannot take legal action
-Imperial freedman reduced to slavery
-fire breaks out in the palace and Christians are blamed
-three Christian eunuchs of the Imperial household are tortured and killed
-the bishop of Nicomedia is executed
-a second fire in palace two weeks later
-Sept/Oct 303 Diocletian issues his second Edict, resulting in the arrest of all bishops and priests
Jails become overcrowded with priests and becoming an embarrassment
-late 303 Diocletian issues his third edict on Christianity
-Diocletian tries to save face by allowing release during his Vicennalia(20 year anniversary in 304)
-allows those who will sacrifice to go free (or die)
-some do of free will, others tortured into it
-some just given certificate and released
-a few tortured to death
Fourth Edict of spring 304 requires all in Empire to sacrifice to the gods publicly
Not all members of the Tetrarchy enforce Edicts equally
-Constantius destroy churches but leave Scriptures
-no deaths
-Maximian ruthlessly enforces Edicts
-Felix, Bishop of Thibiuca (North Africa) beheaded for not surrendering Scriptures
Diocletian prefers to lock churches
-few deaths in the West
-thousands imprisoned and tortured across Empire
-repeat offenders executed
-small Christian town in Phrygia burnt with all its inhabitants
-fanatical Christians beheaded in Egypt
Diocletian wanted submission, not genocide
PROBLEMS WITH REFORM
All reforms continually increase government expenses and demands for money
Massive expansion of bureaucracy at all levels of government
-massive increase in expense of government
-officials and accountants everywhere
-no avoiding taxation
Expanded army, and new armoured cavalry units very expensive
-also takes men away from farms and factories
Peace depends on cooperation of each Tetrarch
Roman agricultural methods and industry not up to the challenge of supplying all the government’s needs efficiently
-levies against poor farm land often exceed rents
-peasants often have no money to feed their families after paying taxes (resulting in smaller agricultural families)
-population could not increase fast enough to meet the increasing demand for soldiers, farmers or factory workers
-chronic shortages of manpower results
-key industries beginning to become hereditary occupations
-peasant farmers now tied to the land
-census defines your occupation
-many not efficient at occupations, but have no choice
All results in increasing wages, prices, taxes and inflation
HIS ABDICATION
304 falls gravely ill (probably a stroke)
-December 13 thought to be on deathbed
-March 1, 305 makes first public appearance and appears emaciated and ill
-May 1st, 305 abdicates
-forces Maximian to abdicate (against his will) as Augustus of the West (keep Caesars happy)
-Christian writers, such as Lactantius, say it was because of his ill health due to his guilt over the persecution of Christians (divine revenge)
Galerius becomes Augustus of the East
-chooses Maximin as his Caesar
Constantius becomes Augustus of the West
-chooses Severus as his Caesar
Diocletian would not allow their sons (Maxentius and Constantine) to be chosen as Caesar
Diocletian retires to his massive and luxurious fortress palace at Split, on the Adriatic
-spent the rest of his days weeding turnips and cabbages in his garden
-died in his bed in 313 AD
LECTURE # 5
Christians, Pagans & Persecutions
- Roman State Religion -
- New Trends in 3rd Century -
- The Mystery Cults –
- The Great Mother of Pessinis –
- Isis, Serapis & Horus –
- Mithras –
- - Sol Invictus –
- Christianity –
- -The Christian Persecutions -
Roman State Religion
Rome very tolerant of most cults
-allowed freedom of religion in exchange sacrifices to the Roman gods
-most people “played the game”
-police regulate or ban cults that posed a material, moral or spiritual threat to the Empire
Roman State religion had many very disciplined priesthoods based on earlier Etruscan models
-Augur (a priest who examines the movements of stars, flights of birds, etc)
-Auspices (the will of the Gods)
-Disciplina (the art of divination)
-Haruspices (“Liver Lookers”)
-Fulguriator (lightning divination off of Elba Island)
-Pontifex Maximus is Chief Priest of the Roman State Religion
-from the time of Julius Caesar, each Emperor has his own temple, priests and cult
Greek Olympians given Latin names and worshipped with Etruscans and Italic god/desses
-Jupiter, Juno, Minerva (celestial triad)
-animism and anthropomorphism
-by the 3rd century their worship was more customary that devout
-Emperor worship even less devout and more of a customary respect for the head of state
New Trends in 3rd Century Religion
An intensely religious period
-festivals, public meetings, games, social gatherings etc all begin with offerings and prayers
-all believe in magic, astrology, and supernatural forces at work in the human affairs
-all wish to avert the anger of the divine and to come into communion with it
-move towards monotheism
-aided by simple, relatively uneducated, but very religious, men who became top civil and military officials, even emperors
Educated and elite turn to philosophy, not religion
-neo-Platonism and neo-Pythagoreanism
-dualist systems of belief
-matter is evil and the body a tomb
-salvation through subduing the flesh and contemplating the divine Godhead
Lower classes worship countless number of local deities and cults
-some are natural, others anthropomorphic
-protectors of their community
-local shrines
-practices range from prayers and simple offerings to castration and ritual prostitution
-many become identified with the Olympians
Many amalgamate Olympians, philosophy and local cults in their worship
The Mystery Cults
Mystery cults stood between educated philosophy and the local cults of the peasantry
-appeal to urban middle and lower classes, soldiers, sailors, merchants, civil servants and those in cosmopolitan areas
-people cult off from local cults and open to “foreign” ideas
-also appeals to dissatisfied aristocracy
-little appeal to rural peasantry
-no central authority or control over most cults to regulate doctrine, ritual or priesthoods
“Mystery” is part of their appeal
-rights only known to their initiates, and in varying degree with devotion to the cult
-offered life, and happiness, after death
-offered purification of sins
-communion with the divine
-created community through forms of communion, ritual and moral teaching
-all preach some form of purity of soul
-most monotheistic
-no demand for worldly social justice or equality
-all exotic and exciting since from the ancient East
Great Mother of Pessinis
Oldest is Great Mother of Pessinis and her consort Attis
-came during Punic Wars (3RD c BC)
-fetish is a huge, smooth black stone
-accompanied by Phrygian eunuch priests
-rituals include exotic dancing and music
-barbaric and orgiastic in nature
-this upsets proper Romans and her worship was limited to her temple on the Palatine hill in Rome
-Emperor Claudius allows her worship to spread throughout Italy
March 15 procession of the Reed Bearers
-discovery of Attis on the reed banks of the river Sangarius (//Moses)
-sacrifice of a bull
-one week of fasting
March 22 a pine tree (symbol of Attis) is cut down and decorated
-a day of mourning follows
March 24 the Day of Blood
-devotees work selves into a frenzy
-wild dancing and music
-slash selves with a knife and castrate themselves with a flint!
-midnight vigil follows
March 25 Attis resurrected and celebrations follow
March 26 day of rest
March 27 statue of goddess carried to the sea and bathed
-initiates share a communal meal
Isis, Serapis and Horus
From Hellenized Egypt
-banned in Rome, until the reign of Caligula
-Triad of bearded father, mother and child
-Isis is chief goddess of the Mediterranean
-worship includes communal banquets and interpretation of dreams
-her symbols common on jewelry and graves
-Egyptian temples, rituals, priests, and sacred water from the Nile used
-autumn is the major festival, accompanied by music and dancing
-represents death and dismemberment of Serapis
-Isis searches and gathers pieces of her son
-Serapis is then resurrected
-devotees pass through three degrees of initiation
-open to both sexes
Mithras
Mithras (Asian/Persian god of light, truth, and goodness)
-arrived in Rome in 1st century AD
-Mithras battles forces of darkness
-worshippers must join in fight to attain communion with him
-associated with the power of the sun
-known as “Lord of Light”, God of Truth”, “Saviour from Death”, “Giver of Bliss”, “Warrior” and “Victorious”
-link to astronomy
Slayer of a bull from which all plant and animal life useful to man came forth
-belief in prosperity and an afterlife
-purified souls would be escorted by Mithras through the seven planetary spheres to the highest heaven
-live in heaven forever in eternal light
-temples built in caves or built to look like caves (born from a cave?)
-rites included a sacramental meal of bread and wine
-initiates washed in the blood of a slaughtered bull to gain life force of the bull
-devotees passed through seven grades
Followers must be tough, disciplined
-popular with army, merchants and all social classes
-exclusive cult for men
Sol Invictus
Sol Invictus (“Sun Unconquered”)
-Sun God (identified in the West with Apollo)
-conical black stone is Syrian cult image
-weird rites (perversions?)
-drums, cymbols and anthems sung by women
-rites include baptism and ceremonial meal
-rites often linked to Mithraism
Emperor Aurelian erected a magnificent temple to the Unconquered Sun in Rome
-wished the cult to be the supreme god of the universe and protector of the Roman Empire
-chief religion until the advent of Christianity
-established a college of priests of senatorial rank
Christianity
Jesus Christ (Jewish Palestinian carpenter's son, believed by many to be the son of Yahweh/God)
-30 AD crucified by Pontius Pilate (prefect) during the reign of Tiberius
-arose from his burial tomb three days after being buried (came back to life after death)
-visited his disciples and ascended into heaven
Cult had initiates of varying degrees, communal meals, priesthoods
-promote love, forgive sins, equality, and everlasting life, purification of sins
-also appealed to the urban middle and lower classes
-cult was open to everyone(and so unpopular with mainstream Judaism of the time)
Christianity combined the strengths of:
-Greek Philosophy
-Roman Administration
-monotheism and moral code of the Jewish faith
Christianity denied emperor’s divinity, thus was treasonous
-would not “play the game”
-would not recognize or worship other gods (demons!)
-unique among cults
-made them very clannish and exclusive
-would not take part in many common activities that involved paganism (ie theatre, festivals, public restaurants)
-local bishops chosen for life (held great authority)
-communities tried to stay connected through writings and councils of bishops
-regularly encouraged followers to oppose paganism in all of its forms
Disliked and mistrusted by their pagan neighbors
-would not take part in social life of community
-atheists, traitors and enemies of the state
-Jews worship an ancestral tradition and tolerated by Rome
-Christians are a new, innovative cult (Rome dislikes this), based on the worship of a criminal legally executed by the state(!) and therefore persecuted
-Rome felt new cults introduced immorality, and this cult even contributed to the occasional riot
-accused of having secret meetings in catacombs, bird and fish secret symbols, murder, cannibalism, incest
-its organization had contributed to its growth across the Empire
-by the late 3rd century it had spread to all classes, even the Imperial household
THE CHRISTIAN PERSECUTIONS
Originally, Christians viewed as a Jewish religious faction
64 AD Great Fire of Rome
-burns for 9 days
-Nero’s “artistry” and Golden House fuel gossip that he started it
-written of in Tacitus’ Annals, Book XV
Nero’s council advises blaming the Christians
-already hated
-waiting for another king
-no sacrifices to the Roman gods
-“Hatred of the Human Race”
Christians persecuted and outlawed
-also charged with being “incendiaries”
-put to death, crucified, fed to wild animals, sewn into animal skins and attacked by wild dogs, used as human torches to light his dinner parties and private chariot course at night
68 AD edict prohibiting Christianity
Domitian (81-96)
-sadistic, paranoid Emperor
-continued persecutions of everyone!
-Clement, Bishop of Rome, put to death
-Flavius Cemens, his cousin, put to death on charges of atheism (probably Christianity), and his wife sent into exile
Throughout this period Christians and Jews quarrel
-Clement of Rome writes to Church of Corinth
-stop jealousy and envy among selves, and with Jews
-fratricidal jealousy will destroy Church
Letters of the Emperor Trajan(98-117) to Pliny the Younger, Governor of Bithynia (111-113)
-both do not want a “witch-hunt”
-asked three times if they are Christian
-if plead guilty and profess their faith three times, then they will be beheaded
-if plead guilty and then not-guilty, let go, even if suspect
-do not hunt down Christians (“not our custom”)
-deal only with those brought to you
-do not accept anonymous letters (“not our way”)
2nd century Christians who refused to give up their faith could be executed
-biggest problem become “the Mobs”
-force Governors to go after Christians
Hadrian (117-138)
-132-135 Jewish Revolt suppressed
-500,000 killed and more enslaved
-some Christian persecutions carried out
Septimius Severus (193-211)
-anti-Jewish and anti-Christian lobby in court
-201 edict prohibits conversion to either
-recent Christians, and those studying it, are arrested in great numbers
-new tactic to limit, not stop it (can’t)
-ie Perpetua (“everlasting”) and Felicitas (“good luck” goddess) arrested in Carthage, tried and put to death
Caracalla (211-217)
-Septimius Severus’ son
-Edict of 212 grants Roman citizenship to all free people in the Empire
-must come to a temple and give thanks to the gods for his survival of his brother Geta’s assassination attempt is the only criteria
-Christians refuse and are caught
Decius (249-251)
-wished to restore Roman paganism to its old standards
-begins first systematic persecution of Christians across entire Empire
-all inhabitants of the Empire must make sacrifices at the altar of the gods, under penalty of death
-all given certificates to prove they have done so
-those who deny Church given certificates
-thousands imprisoned, tortured and killed
-thousands flee, go into hiding or turn apostate
-Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage says Church is “like a desert” and demoralized
-corrupt officials allow many to purchase certificates
-Church writers, like Lactantius, called Decius
“an execrable animal”
Courage of confessors and martyrs encouraged the Christians and impressed the pagans
-most lapsed Christians readmitted to the Church by bishops after the persecution waned
Valerian (253-260)
257 1st Edict against the Christians
-order Bishops, Priests and Deacons to sacrifice to the Roman gods or be banished
-eliminate these and eliminate the Church
-prohibit Christians from going to the cemetery under pain of death
-Christians then hide in cemeteries
-only strengthens them as a group
2nd Edict against the Christians
-order Bishops, Priests and Deacons to sacrifice to the Roman gods or be put to death
-order all Senators, Equestrians and nobles to deny Christianity and make sacrifice to the Roman gods or be beheaded and lose their property to the Roman Fiscus (treasury)
-all Matrona (respectable married women) must deny Christianity or lose property and be banished
-all members of the Caesariani (the Emperor’s Household) must deny Christianity or lose property and be sent to work as farmhands on Imperial farms
-most Caesariani are rich freedman
Valerian soon after captured and killed by the Persians
-Church writers see this as divine justice
Gallienus (260-268)
-son of Valerian
-begins 40 years of peace for the Christians
-reversed policies of his father
-Christianity no longer a crime
-orders return of Church property
-Christians allowed back into cemeteries and churches
-many churches built in prominent sites
-converts flow in from all classes and occupations, including the army
-become more secular (serve in public life, town councils and even in pagan priesthoods!)
-some Provincial Governors are Christians
-becomes less exclusive and even pagans begin to accept them
Church uses time to consolidate and become more organized
-Bishop of Rome has primacy over all
-major bishoprics in Carthage, Antioch and Alexandria
Peace lasts until the reign of Diocletian
LECTURE # 6
The Rise of Constantine
- Constantine’s Youth –
- The Abdication of Diocletian –
- The Tetrarchy Stumbles –
- The Conference at Caruntum –
- Galerius’ Edict of Toleration -
Constantine’s Youth
285 born at Naissus, to Constantius Chlorus and his concubine, Helena (probably a Christian)
-Flavius Valerius Constantinus
289 Constantius Chlorus abandons Helena to marry Theodora, the stepdaughter of Maximian, the Augustus of the West
293 Constantine sent off to live at Diocletian’s court
–hostage for his father’s loyalty
-well educated and learned the art of leadership
-grew into a strong and handsome young man
-betrothed to Fausta, daughter of Maximian, Augustus of the West
-showed great promise as an officer
-served with distinction with Galerius against the Persians
The Abdication of Diocletian
304 Diocletian falls gravely ill (probably a stroke)
-December 13 thought to be on deathbed
-March 1, 305 makes first public appearance and appears emaciated and ill
-May 1st, 305 abdicates
-forces Maximian to abdicate (against his will) as Augustus of the West (keep Caesars happy)
-Christian writers, such as Lactantius, say it was because of his ill health due to his guilt over the persecution of Christians (divine revenge)
Galerius becomes Augustus of the East
-chooses Maximin Daia as his Caesar
-Constantine a hostage at Galerius’ court
Constantius becomes Augustus of the West
-chooses Severus as his Caesar
Diocletian would not allow their sons (Maxentius and Constantine) to be chosen as Caesar
Diocletian retires to his fortress palace at Split on the Adriatic
Constantius nominally the senior Augustus
-Galerius is actually the senior Augustus
-both Caesars, Severus and Maximin Daia devoted to him
-Controlled all Empire except Gaul and Britain
-had Constantine as a guarantee of his father’s loyalty
-Constantine also used as a popular advocate with the army
-Galerius at his height of power
The Tetrarchy Stumbles
306 Scottish Picts invade England
-Constantius requests Constantine’s presence in campaign
-Galerius suspects a trick in this and procrastinates
-finally signs travel papers
-Constantine disappears that night and flees to Gaul (also fears Severus’ motives)
-lames all post horses along the way
-reaches father a Bologne (first time in 12 years!)
-sails to Britain and quickly defeats Picts
-June 25 Constantius dies at York
Army of Britain and Gaul declares Constantine Augustus of the West
-Constantine writes to Galerius requesting recognition of his title
-Galerius does not want a civil war
-recognizes him as Caesar of the West
-made Severus Augustus of the West
Constantine accepts this
-respects Tetrarchy ideal and does not want civil war
-saw time as on his side
-needed to built up his strength
-had to defeat an invasion of Alemanni and Franks (German tribes) in Gaul
-captured kings thrown into dungeons and fed to the lions in the arena at Trier
Maxentius, Maximian’s son, upset over the elevation of Constantine to Caesar
-felt it was his right as son of an ex-Augustus
-bitter over being blocked by Galerius (who personally detested Maxentius as lazy and unworthy of command!)
Maxentius convinced Severus to dissolve the Praetorian Guard in Rome (for its role in supporting a riot in Rome’s pig market!)
-Severus also attempted to impose the capitation tax (head tax) on Rome and Lower Italy
-this creates great hatred of Severus in Italy
-Maxentius foments an uprising in Rome and takes the city in an almost bloodless coup
Maximian sees this as an opportunity to regain his throne
-marches from his estate in Lucania to Rome to win over the army
-fails to convince Diocletian to retake his throne
Galerius hates both men personally
-not willing to recognize their claims
-saw them as a threat to the stability of the Tetrarchy
-ordered Severus to march on Rome
-Severus attempts to besiege the city but is not up to the task
-most of his army is convinced to desert to Maxentius
-retreats to Ravenna, but is convinced to surrender to Maximian (promised his safety)
307 Galerius marches on Rome
-city too well fortified to storm, and well supplied to starve into surrender
-some troops mutiny and others desert
-does not wish the same fate as Severus and retreats
-Maxentius does not follow up Galerius
-Severus treacherously murdered as a safeguard
-Maxentius assumes the title of Augustus
Maximian becomes estranged from his son
-assumes the title of Augustus
-visits Constantine in Trier and attempts to win his support against Maxentius
-Constantine marries his daughter Fausta
-offered to recognize Constantine as Augustus
-Constantine does nothing (can afford to wait)
Maximian returns to Rome and tries to get army to revolt
-army refuses and Maximian exiled from Rome
-returns to Constantine’s court
Africa takes advantage of chaos and revolts under the leadership of Domitius Alexander
-becomes an independent province
-cuts off food to Rome and causes famine
Conference at Carnuntum
308 Galerius calls a meeting of all Augusti and Caesars
-attempts to avoid collapse of Diocletian’s Tetrarchy
-Conference at Carnuntum on the Austrian Danube
-Maximian and Diocletian also attend
-Constantine and Maximinus Daia did not attend
-Maximian forced into retirement
-Licinius, an old army comrade of Galerius, made Augustus of the West (replaces Severus)
-Maxentius declared a public enemy
-Constantine and Maximinus Daia retained inferior status as Caesar
Conference only satisfies Galerius and Licinius
-Constantine and Maximinus Daia upset at not being made Augustus
-upset over the elevation of the unknown Licinius
-both Constantine and Maxentius still claim title Augustus
-Maximian upset over forced retirement
-Maxentius not ready to give up power
-Licinius only hold Illyrian provinces because he was not strong enough to challenge Maxentius or Constantine
-sickly Diocletian happy to go home
An uneasy peace falls upon the Empire
Maximian returns to Constantine’s court
-well treated and honored, but given no special offices
-secretly insulted by this
310 Constantine on the Rhine in eastern Gaul fighting the Franks and Alemanni
-Maximian takes the town of Marseilles (in Gaul) and declares himself Augustus (for the third time!)
-Constantine and his army are outraged by the treachery
-rush back (in record time) and besiege Maximian
-forced Maximian to surrender
-Maximian hangs himself (or ordered to, or helped!)
Maximian claimed ancestry from the line of Hercules (as Diocletian had from Jove)
-with Maximian’s death (his father-in-law) Constantine repudiated the line of Hercules as his claim to power (discredited their actions)
-claimed descent from the Emperor Claudius Gothicus (268-270)
-no justification for this claim
Claudius Gothicus’ patron god had been the Unconquered Sun (Sol Invictus), who was also identified with the god Apollo in Gaul
-adopted Sol Invictus as his patron deity as well (also a popular cult)
-“family” connection allows him to assert his right to the throne
-Gothicus also ruled a unified Empire alone
-Constantine claims this right as well
Constantine openly declares Maxentius a usurper and tyrant
-uses this and “birthright” as justification to declare war on Maxentius
Constantine takes Spain from Maxentius
-formerly held by his father
-Rome’s chief food supply since defection of Africa in 308
-results in famine and food riots in Rome
-6,000 die
-Spain gives Constantine food, supplies, money, troops and a reputation as a winner
Maxentius responds by conquering Africa
-why not retake Spain?
-Africa gives Maxentius food to supply Rome and his army
-prepares for war with Constantine
-accuses him of murdering his father Maximian (legitimize war of honour!)
War is postponed by events in the East
Galerius’ Edict of Toleration
Christian persecutions not universally pursued after Diocletian’s abdication
-Galerius in Illyricum, Thrace and Asia Minor
-Maximinus Daia in Syria and Egypt
Maximinus Daia the most cruel
-punishments range from mutilation and hard labour in mines and quarries, to death for men women and children
-can only escape through making pagan sacrifices
-attempts to counter Christianity by creating a pagan church with similar priesthoods, charities, local temples and organization
-counter Christian use of pagan concepts (clever!)
311 Galerius (senior Augustus) becomes ill with a mysterious illness
-becomes convinced of the futility of Christian persecutions
- October 30 issues Edict of Toleration across Empire
-Christians granted freedom of worship and reopening of churches
-not return their property
-must pray for him and do nothing to disturb public order
-(“there are no atheists in foxholes”)
-said it was better for the Empire for everyone to practice some religion than none at all
-dies 5 days later
Christians openly celebrate his “conversion” and God’s vengeance on His enemy
-Christian writer Lactantius in “On the Death of the Persecutors” feels that this was a deathbed conversion
Galerius’ death leaves two things
-Christianity on the brink of triumph
-Tetrarchy on the brink if dissolution
Maxentius renews Christian persecutions 6 months later
-publicly posts “testimonials” of Christian lies, decadence and abuses (written by prostitutes and propagandists!)
-agents forged a book “The Acts of Pilate” that showed how the gospels were wrong
All begin to grab for power and position themselves for the coming war
-divided by mutual hate and jealousy
Maximinus Daia overruns Galerius’ Asiatic provinces
-threatens Licinus’ Balkans provinces
-makes a secret alliance with Maxentius
Licinius’ takes over Galerius’ European lands
-Constantine allies with Licinius
-bethroves Licinius to his half-sister Constantia (married in 312)
….and Empire braces itself for civil war
LECTURE # 7
One Ruler, One World, One Creed
- Constantine’s Invasion of Italy –
- The Battle of Milvian Bridge –
- In Hoc Signo Vinces –
- The Edict of Milan –
- The End of Maximinus Daia -
-The Final Victory of Constantine -
Constantine’s Invasion of Italy
312 Constantine openly declares Maxentius a usurper and tyrant
-uses this and “birthright” (Claudius Gothicus) as justification to declare war on Maxentius
-allies to Licinius and bethroves her to his half-sister Constantia
Maxentius prepares for war with Constantine
-adopted three strategies
1) suddenly no longer estranged from his father Maximian
-acts the pious and devoted son
-accuses Constantine of murdering his father Maximian (legitimize war of honour!)
-issued coins in honour of “the Divine Maximian, his father”
2) Maxentius issues similar honours to Constantine’s father, Constantius
-claimed to be related by marriage and blood
-Constantius had married his half-sister
-Constantius was his brother by adoption
-laid claims to Constantius’ lands
-accused Constantine of being a usurper (weak claim at best!)
3) secretly allied to Maximinus Daia
-Maxentius hoped to stall Constantine in Europe
-draw Licinus’ troops in to aid Constantine
-Maximinus would then invade the weakened lands of Licinius
-then combine to finish off Constantine
Spring 312 Constantine prepares to leave Gaul and invade Italy
-known as his March on Rome
-90,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry from Gaul, Britain and the Rhine
-cross the Alps into Italy
Maxentius sends a large force of cataphracts (armoured cavalrymen) to stall Constantine in the Alpine passes
-he supplies Rome and brings in many reinforcements from Africa
-planned to wait behind Rome’s walls
-let Constantine waste his strength in trying to take Rome
-strategy had already worked against Severus and Galerius
Constantine quickly took Turin after defeating a large force of Maxentius’ cataphracts (armoured cavalrymen)
-left Upper Italy open to invasion
-quickly took Turin, Milan, Aquileia and Modena
-advance on Rome
Sources vary in numbers, but Constantine was outnumbered by Maxentius’ forces by 2:1
-army too weak to take the city or conduct a long siege
-Maxentius changes strategy and marches out to battle Constantine
-bad “omens” or fear of a popular uprising?
-many Romans taunt him
Maxentius consults the sacred Sibylline Books (very superstitious)
-Books foretell a prophecy that on the 28th of October “the enemy of the Romans would perish”
-taken as a good omen
The Battle of Milvian Bridge: 312
Maxentius has the old Milvian Bridge over the Tiber River destroyed
-part of his first plan to retire behind the walls of Rome
-changes strategy and goes on the offensive
-has a new pontoon bridge built over the Tiber River
-new bridge could be easily disassembled to prevent pursuit
Maxentius advances about ten miles from Rome along the Flaminian Way, to a place called Saxa Rubra (“Red Rock”)
-spot where Constantine encamped the night before
-hope to surprise Constantine’s army
In Hoc Signo Vinces
Constantine receives a “sign” before the battle
-two versions of the story
a) Lactantius (providential historian and Christian apologist) states that he had a vision or dream the night before the battle
-God told him to place the ancient symbols of victory on his men’s shields
-symbols were the Greek letters P (Rho) superimposed on X (Chi)
-first two letters in the Greek spelling of
Christ
b) Eusebius (Bishop of Caesarea) states that Constantine told him this story years later
-wanted to counteract Maxentius’ magic
-he knew it would be a difficult campaign
-prayed to god for help, but which one?
-late July (noontime) in Gaul when sign appears
-saw a flaming cross across the sun
-beneath it was written in Greek “By this sign thou shalt conquer” -more familiar Latin form is “in hoc signo vinces”
-whole army saw sign and was amazed
Christ appeared to him in a dream the next night
-ordered him to use the Chi-Rho symbol as his battle standard
-included a flag with Constantine’s image as well as “in hos signo vincas”
-made of purple cloth embroidered with gold thread and precious stones
-known as the Labarum
Was Constantine telling the truth or looking for an angle to motivate his troops?
-many Christians in his army
-a time of simple, religious people
-many believed that great men were such because they were favoured by the gods
Solar vision may have been no more than the “halo phenomenon”
-much like a rainbow
-local and transient
-ice crystals fall across the rays of the sun
-can appear as a “mock sun”, halo around the sun, or even as a cross of light with the sun at its centre
Constantine was a Sun worshipper (Sol Invictus)
-probably directing attention to the sun at his time of prayer
-Sun God sent him a “sign”
-the sign was a Christian sign
-Christ a manifestation of the Unconquered Sun, or the Sun was a symbol of the power of the Christian god
-manifest of Christ, the Lord of the Cross
-Christ was to be his champion and protector
Did Constantine really see this?
-what matters is that he believed it
-used Chi-Rho (first two letters in the Greek for Christ, Christos) as a monogram
-painted it on his soldiers’ shields, on his Labarum, and on his helmet
-first time this symbol was used as a “heraldic symbol” of Christ
-a new invention of Constantine
-also combined some pagan and Christian beliefs/symbols, so is inspiring to all of his troops
October 28th Constantine’s army advances on Rome
-his troops confident in their leader’s vision and new symbol’s of divine favour
-Maxentius’ troops notice strange new symbols on the shields and standards of Constantine’s troops
-some may have thought this magical or wards of protection
-some may have taken this as a Christian symbol (Christians hesitant to kill other Christians)
-symbols may have created some doubt or hesitancy in the minds of some of Maxentius’ soldiers
-gives Constantine a bit of a psychological edge
Constantine’s forces outflank Maxentius’ and threaten his hold of the Milvian Bridge
-Tiber River was swollen and allowed no other place to forde it
-forces Maxentius to fall back to defend his only axis of retreat
-troops are quickly hemmed in and unable to use their superior numbers
-Maxentius’ men fight well, but were soon crowded and driven into the Tiber
-a retreat to Rome over the Milvian Bridge quickly became a route
-Constantine’s armoured cavalry and horse archers ride down routers
-bridge collapses, drowning Maxentius and most of the Praetorian Guard (Imperial Bodyguard)
-thousands drown in the river
-as the prophecy read “the enemy of the Romans” perished
-remainder of army trapped against the Tiber and surrender to Constantine
The Emperor of the West
October 29th Constantine entered Rome as the master of the West
-triumphal procession
-Maxentius’ body recovered from the muddy banks of the Tiber
-his head was mounted on a lance and carried through the streets in the forefront of the procession
-all would know that he is dead
-free of his tyranny or a warning to others?
-head then sent to Africa to inform them that Constantine was their new master
-joyful crowd hails him as a liberator
-313 Rome erects a huge seated statue of Constantine in Maxentius’ basilica in the Forum Romanum (head alone is 9 feet tall!)
-Arch of Constantine also erected
Conquest and possession of Rome a huge moral, psychological and political triumph
-Senate condemns and damns the memory of the “tyrant” Maxentius
-all his acts declared null and void
-Senate elects Constantine senior Augustus of the whole Empire
-not much choice
-air of legitimacy to his conquests
-really only Augustus of the West
Christians hail his victory as their victory
-victory statue of Constantine has a cross placed in his right hand
-Constantine does not make sacrifices to the Roman gods for his Triumph
-traditional act
-Christians see this as a sign of his Christianity
Many writers believe that Constantine was a Christian
-Constantine believed that Christ had given him his great victory
-too shrewd a politician to offend the rest of the population of the Empire (not just another crude warlord)
-80% of Empire pagan
-next policies work to support Christians and unite the West, without offending any religious group
313 Constantine leaves Rome for his provinces
-not like Rome
-city had been in decline physically and politically since the time of Hadrian
-abolishes the Praetorian Guard and dismantled their barracks in Rome
-reduces the threat of the Illyrian “generals”
-as senior Augustus, he ordered Maximinus Daia to discontinue his persecutions of the Christians (he obeyed, but not happily)
-dealt with other issues concerning the return of Church property (more on that later)
Edict of Milan
February 313 Constantine and Licinius meet to discuss matters of state (not realy like each other)
-Maximinus Daia their common enemy
-celebrate marriage of Licinius and Constantia (Constantine’s half-sister)
-Edict grants complete freedom and recognition of the Christian Church
-restoration of all Church property
-all religions granted freedom and toleration
-builds on the Edict of Toleration of Galerius
-issued for the entire Empire
The End of Maximinus Daia
Maximinius Daia feels isolated, ignored, deprived of the honours due him, and threatened by the alliance of Licinius and Constantine
-had hoped Maxentius would have put up more of a fight, but now must act first or risk being destroyed
Constantine leaves Milan to face an invasion of
Gaul by the Franks
-Maximinus decides to act while Constantine is occupied in the north
-he was lavish with money while Licinius was a miser
-hoped a quick victory might win Licinius’ troops to his side
Maximinus Daia attacks Byzantium with 70,000 men in winter (captured in 11 days)
-Licinius races from Milan with a smaller but better trained army of 30,000 men
-April 30th Maximinus Daia defeated at Adrianople
-attempts to flee to Asia Minor in the disguise as a slave and attempts to rebuild army
-Licinius pursues and defeats all opposition
-June 15 enters Nicomedia and extends the Edict of Milan to all of the East
Maximinius dies at Tarsus
a) of illness/plague (more likely)
b) has a last meal/banquet and takes poison (more interesting)
-wishes to die a noble Roman’s death
-food neutralized some of the poison
-made him unbearably sick for four days
-went mad, ate soil, bashed his head against a wall until the eyes fell out of their sockets
on deathbed saw vision of God and his angels passing judgement against him
-Christian writers took great joy in this
Licinius now master of the Eastern Roman Empire
-stage is now set for the final battle for the mastery of the Roman Empire between two men who neither liked nor trusted each other
The Final Victory of Constantine
Constantine wished to avoid or postpone the inevitable struggle for power
-Licinius has more people, soldiers, money, ships and resources
-Constantine tries to create a buffer state between them
-proposes making Bassianus Caesar of Italy, Africa and Pannonia
Bassianus married to Constantine’s step-sister Anastasia, and has a brother, named Senecio, in the court of Licinius (seemed a perfect candidate)
-Licinius not trust Constantine
-persuades Senecio to get Bassianus to incite a plot against Constantine
-plot discovered and Bassianus executed
-Licinius refuses to turn Senecio over to Constantine
Late summer 314 Constantine invades Licinus’ territory with 20,000 men
-October 8 defeats Licinius’ 35,000 men at the Battle of Cibalae
-2nd Battle of the Adrianople a draw (a few weeks later)
-both come to terms
-Licinius gives up all of his European territory except Thrace
-Constantine give up his right as Senior Augustus to legislate for Licinius’ half of the
Empire
-both men share the Consulship of 315
-Constantine’s eldest son Crispus (by his first wife Minervina), his youngest son Constantine II (by Fausta) and Licinius’ son, Licinius, made co-Caesars
Treaty buys peace for a few years, but animosity between them grows
315-321 Constantine remains in the Balkans and solidifies his support/defences
320 Licinius’ sees Christians as pro-Constantine conspirators and begins to persecute them
-sees the Donatist Schism and the Arian Heresy as disruptive (more on them later)
-banned all Church Councils/synods
-only open air masses outside of city gates
-Bishops could not visit other cities(can’t consecrate new Bishops)
-men and women could not worship together
-civil service and Imperial Court purged of Christians
-a half-hearted persecution
Constantine uses this as moral justification to pursue a “crusade” against Licinius
-from 320 he begins to plan for war
-gathers support from Christian Bishops
-Licinius invokes pagan deities and images
321 Crispus and Constantine II made Consuls without Licinius’ consent
322 nominate two other Consuls without Licinius’ consent
322 crosses the Danube and defeats the Sarmations
323 nominated two other Consuls without Licinius’ consent
-campaigned against the Goths and pursued them into Thrace (Licinius’) province
-Licinius’ protests ignored
324 open warfare begins
-Constantine raises 120,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 200 ships (many veteran troops)
-Licinius raises 150,000 infantry, 15,000 cavalry and 350 ships
July 3rd Constantine defeats Licinius at Adrianople (aided by the “magical” Labarum)
Constantine’s fleet, under the nominal command of the teenaged Crispus, defeats Licinius’fleet in the Hellespont
-victory allowed Constantine to take Byzantium and cross the Bosphorus into Asia
September 18th Constantine defeats Licinius at Chrysopolis (aided by the “magical” Labarum)
-victory ends the war and unifies the Empire under Constantine
Licinius flees to Nicomedia
-Constantia begs for Licinius’ life, and he surrenders to Constantine
-Constantine exiles Licinius to Thessalonica
-is executed/murdered for treason six months later
Constantine unified Empire under one ruler for the first time in forty years
-new slogan for the Empire becomes “one ruler”, one world, one creed”
LECTURE # 8
Constantine’s Religious Policies
-Devotee, Politician, or Opportunist?-
-From Toleration to Favoritism –
- The Donatist Schism –
- The Arian Heresy –
- The Council of Nicaea –
Devoted Christian, Clever Politician or Shrewd Opportunist?
Constantine was a practical compromiser
-saw that unity gave strength
-disunity created chaos and weakness
-Christian persecutions were a great dividing force and wasted energy, men and resources
-from his rise to power as Caesar of the West in 306 he carried out a policy of religious toleration, especially to the Christians
Many writers believe that Constantine was a Christian, in principle, most of his life
-Bishop Hosius, of Cordoba (Spain), was part of his entourage and his religious advisor
-Constantine had become a devoted Christian since the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312
-is it a matter of policy or religious conviction?
Constantine believed that Christ had given him his great victory
-Christian Church should be supported to give thanks to divinity who aided him, and to keep this divine favour
-massive victory statue of Constantine has a cross placed in his right hand
-Constantine does not make sacrifices to the Roman gods for his Triumph (traditional act)
-Christians see this as a sign of his Christianity
Constantine’s policies worked to support and unite Christians, and the West, without offending any religious group
-too shrewd a politician to offend the rest of the population of the Empire (not just another crude warlord)
-80% of Empire pagan and have much influence (Senate, Army, Civil Service, rural population)
-most Christians were urban low and middle class citizens and slaves (no real power)
-nothing to gain politically by making Christianity the official religion of the Empire and banning paganism
Many Emperors had given special attention to their particular cult of choice
-many pagans had a particular deity as their guiding or patron spirit
-Constantine’s support of the Christians was no different in many ways
Constantine kept the pagan office of Pontifex Maximus (Chief Priest of the Roman Empire)
-became a traditional part of being Augustus
-office gave him control over all religions in the Empire
-very useful power
Maintained the Imperial Cult
-became more of a social than religious affair
-tied the Provincials to the Emperor
-would not allow cult statues of himself made
313-320 still use pagan images of Hercules, Mars, Jupiter and the Unconquered Sun on coins
-no radical changes to Empire
-slowly introduce Christian images
Constantine’s victories over Maxentius and Licinius often seen as the victory of Christianity over paganism
-Christians hail his victory as their victory
-many see the power of the Labarum as a sign of the power of Christianity
-Chi Rho symbols of the Labarum begin to be seen everywhere (of Constantine’s creation)
Constantine gave many benefits and privileges to the Christian Church as thanks for its divine aid
-recognition of the Church made it a powerful partner of state
-Pope of Rome and orthodox clergy permitted to determine doctrine and church policy
-their decisions enforced by the state
-many Christians promoted, above their station, throughout the Empire
-privileged becomes “Companions” of the Emperor (power, prestige and a pension)
FROM TOLERATION TO FAVORITISM
313 Edict of Milan
-Licinius and Constantine grant Christians, and all cults, freedom of religion
-Christian Church given legal rights
-restitution of church property
-exemptions of the clergy from public burdens
312-313 wrote many letters to church leaders showing a move from toleration to favoritism
-letters to Caecilianus, Bishop of Carthage & Anullinus, Proconsul of Africa
-subsidise Church from public funds
-money to non-Donatist clergy only (takes side in religious debates early)
-Church can count on support from government officials (Anullinus, and Patricius, his deputy of Prefects)
-attempt to right the wrongs of the persecutions
-free clergy from public service so that they can pray for the good of the Empire
-Christian cult seen as of vital importance to the prosperity and security of the Empire
Constantine provided money to build Churches and lands to support its clergy across the Empire
-ie Basilica Constantiniana in Italy, and the church on the site of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem
-no money for pagan projects
-many rich pagan temples looted for their wealth (common), such as golden idols and art
-closed some of the more exotic temples, such asthe temples of Apheca and Heliopolis in Phoenicia(centres of ritual prostitution!)
316 banned the branding of convicts on the face
-“that the face, which is formed in the likeness of heavenly beauty, may not be disfigured”
318 recognized the legality of decisions (civil and religious) handed down by the bishops’ courts
-ie both parties can consent to having a civil suit settled by a bishop
321 legalized bequests by Roman citizens to the Christian Church
-also assigned property of martyrs dying intestate (without a will) to the Church
-Sunday proclaimed a public holiday (holy day) for all people working in law courts and factories
-Christians see this as their Sabbath, “the Lord’s Day”
-pagans see this as “the holy day of the Sun”
-shrewdly wins widespread support
The Donatist Schism
Internal politics was dividing the Church in Africa
-in 313 it threatened to spread and threaten the unity of the Empire
Donatus was a fanatical leader of a group of dissident and non-conformist clergymen in North Africa
-Christian “hard-liners”
-they opposed the election of Caecilianus as metropolitan bishop of Carthage
-Caecilianus was ready to forgive and reinstate to clerical office priests who had “betrayed the faith” during the persecutions of Diocletian
-many had saved themselves by renouncing Christ and handing over the Holy Scriptures to be burned
Donatists called them traditor (“traitors”)
Donatus himself had endured six years of imprisonment in a foul dungeon during these persecutions
-had been stretched on the rack nine times
-never recanted or gave up Holy Scriptures
Roman Pope, Miltiades, supported Caecilianus
-Donatist’s supporters elected Donatus in opposition to the Pope
-Constantine refused to recognize the decisions of the Donatists
313 the Donatists asked Constantine to select bishops from Gaul to be impartial judges and arbitrate the crisis
-Constantine selected 3 bishops from Gaul and asked the Pope to preside over it
-Pope added 15 Italian bishops and turned the tribunal into a Church council
-council decided in favour of Caecilianus
Donatists asked Constantine to summon a larger and more representative council
-Constantine fears growing schism
-314 summons the Council of Arles
-included 33 bishops from across his half of the Empire
-Council supports Caecilianus
Council of Arles also passes several Canons
-clergy should not practice usury (loan at interest)
-charioteers and actors to be excommunicated as long as they followed their professions (!?)
-Christian soldiers were excommunicated if “they threw away their arms in peace” (ie conscientious objectors)
Constantine is a great soldier and firm ruler, but a religious neophyte
-simple religious man
-no real understanding of the Christian theological metaphysics until late in his reign
-saw the power of the Christian divinity
-sees his power tied to the unity of the Church
-sees his duty to keep they clergy unified
-just wants clergy to compromise and “work it out”
Donatists reject this Council and ask Constantine himself to judge the case
-Constantine reaffirms the decisions of the Councils
-Donatists reject Constantine’s decision and riot
314-321 Constantine unsuccessfully tries to mediate with the Donatists
-321 orders Donatists suppressed by the military and their churches confiscated
-leaders banished
-Donatists see oppressed clergy as martyrs
-first persecution of Christians by a Christian government
Constantine soon realized this persecution only made the Donatists more fanatical and created more turmoil
-called off persecutions 3 months later
-left them “to the judgement of God”
-schism smolders in Africa for centuries
Constantine’s first attempt at creating Church peace and unity failed
-implications on history are huge
-Church now subordinated to the state
-state/Emperor can adjudicate theological disputes, summon church councils, exile bishops, confiscate churches
-Emperor assumes status of Isapostolos (“an equal of the Apostles”) and elected servant of God
-power struggle between Church and state will grow throughout the Middle Ages as the Church grows in power, wealth and influence
THE ARIAN HERESY
Seeds of the Arian Heresy took place during the persecutions of Diocletian
-problems arise in Licinius’ province of Egypt
-Bishop Melitius of Lycopolis opposed the readmission of wavering or “renegade” Christians by St. Peter, the Bishop of Alexandria (// Donatist Schism)
-Arius, a priest from Alexandria, was the most heretical of Melitius’ supporters
Arius was a great speaker
-unorthodox views on the nature of Christ set the east ablaze
-threaten to destroy the Church
Arius preaches that Christ was not “of the same substance” as the Father, but “of a similar substance”
-since He (Christ) was the Son of the Father, he must have been subsequent to the Father
-there must have been a time when Christ was not in existence, and the Father was not a father
-if the Father is indivisible, then the Son was created out of nothing
-makes sense to the theologically uneducated, but challenges a fundamental principle of the Church
-this view shocked and angered most of the clergy
Christian Church believed that the Son was the same substance as the Father
-all three Persons of the Trinity (the Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit) were one in time, substance, and power, representing the three aspects of the Almighty Power of the Universe
Constantine not understand the metaphysics
-just wants peace and unity
-wants all parties to agree to disagree
318/319 St. Peter’s successor, Bishop Alexander, excommunicates Arius and his followers and expels them from Egypt
-Arius wins the support of several bishops who had influence in the court of Licinius
-also won the support of the empress Constantia
Arius managed to have synods held in Bithynia and Palestine
-both declared Arianism in accord with the Holy Scriptures and Church doctrine
-both condemned Arius’ excommunication
-demand that Bishop Alexander revoke excommunication and reinstate Arius as a priest in good standing
Bishop Alexander rejects these demands
-calls his own synod of 100 Egyptian and Libyan bishops
-reaffirms Arius’ excommunication
-excommunicate two other Arian bishops in Libya as well
-crisis continues to grow and divide the Church
320 Licinius has had enough
-never really sympathetic towards Christians
-see turmoil a distraction from his upcoming war with Constantine
-see Church as pro-Constantine (a possible threat)
-banned all church synods
-only open air services beyond city gates
-some churches destroyed
-women could not attend services with men
-court, army and civil service purged
-some bishops, both Arian and non-Arian, are arrested, imprisoned, and even executed
Controversy does not die, but Arian and non-Arians now hate Licinius as well as each other
-persecutions gives Constantine a moral justification for war
The Council of Nicaea
Constantine defeats Licinius in 324
-Empire is politically unified
-wishes to promote religious unity
-wrote to Arius and Bishop Alexander to end their battle of words and get down to fundamental issues
-both ignored him and various councils begin excommunicating their opponents
Constantine calls a Council at Nicaea, for May 20, 325
-invited 300 bishops from across Empire
-many are learned Church Fathers, while others are simple pious men
-Constantine pays all expenses
-both he and the Pope’s representatives are present (Pope ill)
-Constantine pledges his devotion to the Christian Church
-asks them to work to return unity to the Church, and place other issues aside
-turned council over to them
-only intervened to expedite the process
-had become versed in Church doctrine by then (via Hosius) and spoke authoritatively
The Council of Nicaea defined the doctrine of the Church
-completed the organization of the Catholic Church
-decisions still resonate today
-formulated the Nicaean Creed (basic beliefs of Catholics and many Christians)
-except for minor modifications made by the Council of Constantinople in 381, it remains the creed of most of the Christian Church today
-reaffirmed the doctrine of the indivisible Trinity
Excommunicated Arius and ordered the burning of his books
-edicts on various minor heresies and schisms
-fixed the date for Easter (the first Sunday after the first full moon following the spring equinox)
-20 canons (Church laws) were formulated to regulate church discipline and government throughout Christendom
-canons allow clergy to marry before they are ordained
Council cleared up disorganization, schisms and heresies caused by 300 years of persecutions
Council of Nicaea began the gradual replacement of paganism with Christianity as the religion of the Roman Empire
-some see this as the end of ancient history and the beginning of the Middle Ages
327 Constantine calls 2nd Council of Nicaea
-Arius recants and asks forgiveness
-Constantine orders that Arius is to betaken back into the Church
-struggle begins with hard-line “catholic” bishops who won’t accept Arius back
-bishops refuse to obey Emperor
327-336 Constantine holds several Church councils
-attempt to create peace and unity in the Church
-often lose temper with quibbling bishops who ignore him
-Arius becomes more fanatical
336 Arius invited to Constantinople by Constantine
-Constantine forces Bishop of Constantinople to take Arius back (not want to)
-was to be reaffirmed on Sunday
-Arius found sitting dead in a toilet on Saturday (murdered?)
-Arianism slowly dies out
Constantine’s reign ended with a much stronger, unified (for the most part) Christian Church
-pagan’s saw “the writing on the wall”
-impoverishment of many pagan temples discouraged worshippers
-envious of the privileges granted to Christians
-many “converted”, if for no other reason that personal, social, political or economic gain
-a Christian Empire was about to be born
LECTURE # 9
Constantine’s Secular Policies
- The Coming of the Middle Ages -
- Military Reforms -
- Currency Reforms -
- Feudal System, Serfdom & Guilds -
- Other Legislation –
- The “New Rome” Constantinople -
The Coming of the Middle Ages
Constantine’s contributions reach far beyond religion
-attempt to solve many of the problems of the second and third centuries
-military, social and economic reforms mark the end of the ancient world and the beginning of the Middle Ages
-beginnings of the Feudal System, Serfdom and Guilds
Military Reforms
Completed military reforms begun by Diocletian
-Diocletian built a number of static frontier garrisons called Limitanei (along land frontier) and Ripenses (river and sea frontier)
-Comitatenses (small field army) of a few elite regiments stationed on the interior
Constantine increases the size of the Comitatenses
-includes a few good units from the Limitanei
-weakens the frontier garrisons
-creates new, mobile, elite units, mainly of cavalry, called Palatini (Palace Guards)
-much more emphasis on armoured cavalry, missile troops and mobility
-infantry Legions now secondary arm of the military
-regular army, well paid and supplied
-stationed in cities back from the frontier
-act as a “fire brigade” to rush to trouble spots along the frontier
-Emperor’s personal army and power base
Massive numbers of Germans recruited to defend the frontier
-many promoted to high military offices
-312 replace the Praetorian Guard with a bodyguard of Germans, called the Scholae Palatinae (“Palace Schools”
-Germans swear devotio to their warchiefs
Frontier divided up into a number of zones
-each under the command of a Dux (Dukes and Counts)
-look after local defences and call on Comitatenses when overwhelmed by invaders
Reorganization of the High Command
-separation of military and civil functions
-Praetorian Prefects replaced by a Master of Horse (magister equitum) and Master of Infantry (magister peditum) to command the Field Army
-two officers are the right-hand men of the Emperor in all military affairs
-become his Chiefs of Staff and Second-in-Command
Four Praetorian Prefects now only have civil functions
-no longer control frontier garrisons
-still powerful individuals
-powers of a deputy Emperor in each of the four great prefectures of Gaul, Italy, Illyricum and the East
-after 331 their judicial decisions were final, and beyond appeal, even to the Emperor
-responsible for imperial postal system, public buildings, taxation, craft and merchant guilds, regulation of market prices, higher education
-establish, supply and maintain military bases, recruit and enroll soldiers
-can impede ambitious army officers by limiting supplies/recruits and spying
Constantine creates the Master of Offices (magister officiorum)
-by 320 became the head of all departments of the executive
-member of the Supreme Council of State (sacrum consistorium)
-acted as secretary of state, directed foreign affairs and diplomacy, grand master of all State ceremonies
-chief administrator of the Imperial Post
-all arms factories and arsenals
-commanded Emperor’s mounted bodyguard
-head of imperial bureau of investigation
-chief of the secret police (agentes in rebus)
-secret police direct all espionage and controlled the movement and deployment of troops (model for all secret police until modern times)
Currency Reforms
Constantine succeeded where Diocletian failed
-created a stable and abundant gold currency
-aided by massive confiscation of gold from pagan temples to provide a pure issue
-309 issue a new gold coin, the solidus
-stabilized Diocletian’s old solidus at 72 to the pound
-became the standard coin of the Byzantine Empire, and most of the Mediterranean world for centuries to come
-Roman coins, again, valued everywhere
-introduce a new silver coin, the miliarense (1000 to the pound)
New, valuable, coinage slowly brought about the return of a more stable money economy (lasted two centuries)
-stimulated trade within the Empire and abroad (ie Roman coins traded in India)
-allowed government to collect most of Diocletian’s taxes in cash (vs service or barter)
-provided the long-lasting financial stability and resources that allowed the later Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire to beat back the early spread of the Islamic Caliphate
-stable economy and active trade would make Constantinople the richest city in the world
Feudal System, Serfdom, and Guilds
3 most characteristic institutions of the Middle ages had their origins in the reign of Constantine
-most fueled by his desire for order and harmony
Catastrophes of the third century (civil war, plague, inflation & barbarian invasions) impoverished many
-rich senatorial families and wealthy bureaucrats able to buy up huge tracts of land, often quite cheaply
-land is the safest investment
-leads to the patrocinium movement (forerunner to feudalism)
-small landowners and entire peasant villages cannot support their tax burdens
-surrender their lands to rich land magnates in return for protection and tax relief
-work the land in return for protection
-become coloni (tenant farmers)
-many emperors opposed this on moral grounds
-do not legislate against it because they need the tax money
332 law bounds the tenants to the land and gives the rich landlords great powers over them
-extract taxes from them
-draft sons into the army
-act as police and judge over tenants
-coloni legally transformed into serfs (free men tied to their land and landlord)
-sets the pattern for medieval feudalism
-guarantees Constantine with a steady supply of taxes, men, supplies and local warlords to defend sections of the Empire
Many land magnates (Lords and Dukes) own estates the size of small kingdoms
-self-sufficient and self-contained
-many operate as lesser kings
Urban dwellers, craftsmen and merchants faired little better
-regular annual taxes on all
-two super taxes collected every 5 years
-follio tax levied against the value of land owned by those of senatorial rank (wealthiest citizens)
-collatio lustralis levied on all traders and merchants, except farmers
-urban poor pay no taxes
-paid in cash or kind
-additional emergency taxes of labor or products
-many tried to escape oppressive taxes
-change careers, move away or become brigands
-punishments severe
Constantine passes a series of “labor laws”
-tied workers and craftsmen to their occupations
-create associations known as colleges, corporations or, more commonly, guilds
-314 ship builders made a compulsory and hereditary obligation
-later laws include all “essential services”
-millers, bakers, butchers, shoemakers, carpenters and bricklayers
-must stay on the job for life and train their sons to follow the same occupation
-agricultural workers who try to change jobs can be enslaved
-some sources speak of occupations being tattooed on craftsmen
-later Roman, Islamic and medieval European guilds grow from this
Tries to maintain order and steady supplies
Other Legislation
Many Christian influences
Frustrated by official corruption in all government offices of the civil service
-331 letter “Let the rapacious hands of the officials forthwith refrain….armed vengeance will visit them, which will sever the heads and necks of the villains.”
-legislation and death penalties for bribes and graft rarely carried out
325 banned gladiatorial games (only enforced in the East)
-criminals condemned to the arena now sent to the mines
-continued the annona (food and clothing welfare) to the poor
-tightened up marriage and divorce laws
-disinherits illegitimate children
-improved women’s legal rights
-prohibited slave families from being broken up
-affairs between women and slaves results in the women’s execution and the slave being burned alive
The “New Rome” Constantinople: 324-330
Constantine’s greatest building project
-create a new Eastern capital of the Empire
-previous Emperors used cities other than Rome (ie Treves, Nicomedia)
-built on the site of the Greek city of Byzantium
-city also celebrates his victory over Licinius
-meant to rival, but not surpass, Rome
324 "New Rome" renamed Constantinople
-inauguration of city on May 11, 330
-Rome’s new Christian capital, breaking from her pagan past
-Rome is old, badly aging, sentimental pagan capital
-Rome had not been the administrative centre of the Empire for some time
-since the 3rd century the administration of the Empire went with the Emperor
Location shows his brilliance
-Byzantium is where Europe meets Asia
-spot where the Black Sea flows into the Mediterranean
-on a promontory, protected on two sides by the sea
-deep water harbor (later called the Golden Horn) is easily blocked and defended
-massive land fortification on third side
-almost impregnable
-only sacked by Crusaders in 1203 and Ottoman Turks in 1453
Roads through city link the Middle East, Asia Minor, the Balkans and Western Europe
-Black Sea and Mediterranean link it to the Europe, Africa and Asia
-key for trade, transportation, communication and moving troops to any frontier (especially lower Danube and Euphrates)
-economy of Europe stagnating, while the East still thriving
-neighboring Illyrian provinces key recruiting grounds for soldiers and officers
-quickly becomes one of the wealthiest world trade centres
-attracts a rich, cultured multicultural population
-also hastens the stagnation of the Western Roman Empire
East is the birthplace of Christianity
-Constantinople a predominantly Christian city
-becomes center of Christian theology and “mother” of churches
-builds Church of the Holy Peace, the Church of the Twelve Apostles, and the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia)
Constantinople meant to be a copy of Rome
-builds a new Senate House (glorified town council of elite and noble citizens)
-massive imperial palace, hippodrome (chariot race track), a university, public schools and libraries
-ransacked the Empire to beautify his new city
-took art and statues, even from Rome
-60,000 pounds of gold confiscated from pagan temples
Citizens of city exempt from taxation
-Plebs (common citizens) number 80,000
-given “bread and circuses” (free entertainment and rations of wheat, wine, bacon, oil and pork)
-gives city greater status and attracts merchants, traders, and rich foreigners
Elite of society, business, politics and religion flocked to Constantinople
LECTURE # 11
Constantine’s Legacy
- Palace Intrigues -
- The Baptism of Constantine -
- Constantine I vs “The Great” -
- The Line of Succession -
- Theodosias and Christianity –
- The Last Emperor of a
United Empire -
Palace Intrigues
Christianity did not guarantee him earthly harmony
Battle religious factions within the Church
Battle institutionalized corruption throughout the Imperial bureaucracy
Battle barbarian threats and raids across both sides of the frontier
-ie 332 defeated the Goths on the Danube and recruited thousands of Sarmatians
-prepare for war with the Persians (did not break out until after his death)
His generosity lead to economic stresses and difficulties balancing the books
Hot temper often got the best of him
326 death of son Crispus
-eldest son from his first marriage
-brilliant young military officer
-showed great skill in the campaign against Licinius
-his stepmother, the Empress Fausta (Constantine’s second wife), charged him with attempted rape her (trumped up charges)
-two versions why
-a) she is said to have fallen in love with Crispus, and was bitter at having been rejected by him
-b) wanted to eliminate Constantine’s eldest, and very popular, son as a rival to her sons
-open the path “to the purple” for her three sons by Constantine, Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans
-public charges very embarrassing
-Constantine has no choice but to have Crispus executed
326 mysterious death of the Empress Fausta
-scalded to death in her hot bath
-rumour says that Constantine had the doors locked and heat turned up (!)
-two stories why:
-a) Constantine found out the truth, from his mother Helena, and took his revenge
-b) Helena informed Constantine of Fausta’s affair with a palace slave
-a scandal and capital offence
-Helena bitter over death of her favourite grandson
For the rest of his reign their images and names were erased from all coins, monuments and documents
-death of Crispus and Fausta never publicly repented
The Baptism of Constantine
337 prepares for an invasion of Persia
-retaliation for raids against the Roman protectorate of Armenia (buffer state)
-May falls ill in Nicomedia
-realized that he was going to die
-wanted to be baptized in the River Jordan (as Jesus Christ had)
-all knew he would not live that long
-asks Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia to administer the sacramental rite of baptism
-takes off Imperial purple robes and puts on simple white robe of a Christian neophyte
-becomes a full member of the Christian faith on his deathbed (a few days before he died)
-May 22 (Pentecost Sunday) dies in Nicomedia
-last words were “Let there be no doubt in this”
Why wait until deathbed if a devoted Christian all his life (catechumen)
-not uncommon for early Christians to be baptized only late in life
-baptism wipes away original sin and any previous sins
-baptized sinners must do public penance, wearing the “garb of penitence “
-very public and humbling
-excluded from the Church until penance completed
-long and hard to gain penance
-those who die in sin are damned to hell
-humiliating for an Emperor
Newly baptized are cleansed of all sins
-as Emperor (and a hot tempered one!) he knew that he would be “sinning”
-could spend all of his time doing penance
As a “public” Christian, he might have greater criticism from, and less leverage over, various factions in the Church
Publicly converting to one faith could cause the pagans in the Empire further concern
Reflects his desire for peace and harmony in his personal, religious and civil affairs
Constantine’s body carried to Constantinople
-lay in state in imperial robes and jewels
-elaborate sarcophagus is entombed in the mausoleum connected with the Church of the Twelve Apostles
Constantine I vs Constantine “The Great”
Depends on your perspective
-stabilized economy
-stabilized frontiers
-outstanding general
-stabilized the empire
-kind-hearted
-willing to defer to experts on all subjects
-susceptible to flattery (lavish gifts and slow to punish offenders)
-overspend on pet projects
-did not correct taxation problems
-did not clean up the civil service
-lacked firmness of purpose to carry out long-term plans
-volatile temper and prone to rash acts
-rarely backed up threats with actions
-became frustrated with Christian internal politics
-great influence on the form, function, prestige, authority and doctrine of the Christian Church
-persecuted dissenting sects
-established a partnership between Church and State
-duty, as Emperor, was to gain and secure the support of the gods to help Rome prosper
-patronage of Christianity shows his devotion to his sacred duty as Emperor
-the title “The Great” is a reward for outstanding service to the Christian faith, not for his exemplary lifestyle and leadership in general
The Line of Succession
Fausta’s three sons, Constantine II, Constantius II, Constans, plus Gallus and Julian (two sons of Constantine’s half-brother Julius Constantius), groomed for the succession
-create a hereditary monarchy
-hoped that they would all rule together in amity after his death
-it was not to be
Constantius and his brothers slaughter all members of the Imperial Family, except Gallus and Julian
-three brothers divide up the empire between them
-Gallus only 12 and Julian is 6 years old
Constantine II (337-340)
-second son of Constantine
-born February 317 (dates of Constantine I sons’ birth sketchy!)
-proclaimed Caesar March 1
-Consul 320, 321, 324
-337 became ruler of Britain Spain and Gaul on his father’s death (Emperor of the West)
-only 20-21 years old
-340 invaded Italy to overthrow his brother
Constans (battle over possession of Illyricum)
-defeated and killed in an ambush in Aquileia (northern Italy)
Constans (337-350)
-fourth son of Constantine
-born 324
-333 proclaimed Caesar
-337 became Caesar of Italy, Africa and Illyricum on his father’s death (Emperor of the Middle!)
-age 13!
-340 defeated and killed his brother Constantine II during his invasion of Italy
-became Augustus of the West as a result
-343 became the last legitimate Roman Emperor to visit Britain
-quickly became an oppressive tyrant
-350 overthrown and killed in Gaul by the usurper Flavius Magnentius (legions supported him)
-Magnentius, a pagan born in 303, reigns as Emperor of the West from 350-353
-brought many Franks and Alemanni into the Empire as allies (acted as conquerors)
Constantius II (337-360)
-third son of Constantine
-born 323
-324 proclaimed Caesar
-337 became Emperor of the East on his father’s death (age 14!)
-deeply religious man
-attempted to continue his father’s policies of creating harmony among the various sects of the Christian Church
Most of his reign spent battling King Shapor II of Persia (9 battles!) and suppressing usurpers
-351 made his cousin Gallus Caesar in Antioch while he went to oppose Magnentius in the West
-Gallus a harsh, tactless, oppressive and bloody Caesar
-Gallus put down revolts in Palestine and Isauria
-351 Constantius II defeated usurper Flavius Magnentius at the great Battle of Mursa (50,000 soldiers killed)
-Magnentius’ troops defect to Constantius II
-353 Magnentius committs suicide in Gaul
-354 put Gallus to death for plotting against him
-355 appointed his cousin Julian (Gallus’ half-brother) Caesar in Gaul
-360 Julian rebels in Paris
-November 3 Constantius II dies while marching to suppress him
Julian the Apostate (360-63)
-last surviving male descendant of Constantine the Great
-younger brother of Gallus
-lived in Athens devoting himself to literary and philosophical studies
-no practical experience as a ruler, and wanted none
-355 appointed Caesar in Gaul by Constantius II (against his will)
-proves to be a man of action and valor
-wins great victories over the Franks and Alemanni on the Rhine
-restore law and order to ravaged frontier
-his successes made Constantius II jealous (who had no success against Shapor II of Persia)
-Constantius tried to take Julian’s best legions
-legions rebel and acclaim Julian Emperor
-Julian reluctantly agrees
-301 Constantius dies of illness on the way to the Danube, averting civil war
Called the “Apostate” since he renounced Christianity and “championed” the ancient gods
-tried to re-introduce “Patriotic Paganism” and Ares (the God of War) worship in opposition to Christianity (failed)
-hit in the groin with a javelin in Persia
-dieing words “Take your fill, Nazarene!”
So ends the line of Constantine the Great
Flavius Jovianus (363-364)
-Julian had no successor
-army chose an old soldier, Jovian
-made peace with Persia
-died of illness 6 months into his reign
Valentinian and Valens (364-378)
-army chooses an experienced soldier, Flavius
Valentinianus (Valentinian) as emperor
-born 321 in Pannonia
-realized Empire too large for one man to rule
-became Augustus of the West
-made his brother, Flavius Julius Valens (Valens) Augustus of the East
-one Empire, but permanently divided
-Valentinian rules with justice and moderation
-religious toleration for all
-defeated the Germans along the Rhine and Danube
-explosive temper in the face of opposition
-375 died of apoplexy while yelling at an
officer
-Valens proved to be a feeble and indecisive ruler
-lost control of Armenia to Shapor II of Persia
-faced an invasion of the Goths in the Balkans
-attacked before Gratian, the Emperor of the West, could arrive with reinforcements
-378 Battle of Adrianople fought on August 9
-Valens killed and army totally destroyed
Gratian (367-383)& Valentinian II (367-392)
-359 born Flavius Gratianus
-eldest son of Valentinian
-recognized by the army as his successor and Augustus of the West
-immediately names his half-brother Valentinian II co-Emperor (4 years old!)
-both faced many plots and intrigues during their first year in power
-starts his reign well and listens to wise councilors
-Gratian the first Emperor to not grant privileges to pagan religions
-non-Christians upset by this
-Christians grow more intolerant of other religions
-faced an invasion of the Alemanni on the Rhine, and the disaster of the Goths at Adrianople on the Danube
-379 appoint Theodosias Emperor of the East to replace Valens
-Gratian loses interest in ruling well and turns to a life of leisure and amusement
-earns the contempt of his soldiers
-382 the Army of Britain rebels against Gratian and declares their general Maximus (a Spaniard) Emperor
-383 Maximus’ army invades Gaul
-Gratian’s troops in Gaul refuse to take part in a civil war
-Gratian flees to Lyon, where his own troops assassinate him
Magnus Maximus (Emperor of the West 383-388)
-nothing to fear from Gratian’a co-Emperor Valentinian II
-19 years old and run by his mother Justina, Valentinian’s second wife
-living in style in Milan
-sends an embassy to Theodosias in order to make peace and avoid blame for Gratian’s death
-conferred as third Augustus, with control of Britain, Spain and Gaul
-agrees to leave Valentinian II as Augustus of Italy, Africa and western Illyria
-soon breaks the treaty
Theodosius I the “Great” (379-395)
-son of a great officer (Count Theodosias)
-33 years old when “raised to the purple”
-born in Spain in 347
-last Emperor to rule a united Empire
-a shrewd, cautious planner
-devout, pious Christian
-baptized early in his reign (during a serious illness)
Theodosias and Christianity
-February 27, 380 Christianity made the official State Religion
-bigoted supporter of the Nicene Creed
-supported pro-Nicene Creed bishops and opposed Arian teachings
-severely opposed all non-“catholic” sects within Christianity
-issued 18 edicts against heretics during his reign (some heretics put to death)
January 10, 381 ordered all churches to be turned over to “Catholic” bishops, as he defined them
-called a council of 150 bishops to confirm his policies and appoint Nectarius bishop of Constantinople
-was at first lenient towards pagans
-later banned divination and opposed sacrifices
-did not close temples, but allowed fanatics to destroy them, or petition to stay open under strict conditions
-later in 391 he closed all pagan temples and banned all forms of pagan cults
-the pagan persecutions begin!
The Last Emperor of a United Empire
382 arranges a truce with the Goths (made them “federates”) and stabilizes to Balkans
-lets Goths settle within the Empire in Thrace
-Germanization of the Roman army
383 made Maximus the third Augustus to avoid a costly civil war
-Civil war might tempt Goths to break their treaty
-justice and honour demanded revenge for Gratian’s murder (wait for the right time)
-386 signs a treaty with Persia that partitioned Armenia (wins peace in the East)
386 Maximus invades Italy
-Valentinian II, his sister and mother, Justina, flee to the court of Theodosias
-Theodosias marries Valentinian II’s sister, Aelia Flavia Flacilla
-387 invades Italy and destroys Maximus’ army and restores Valentinian II to power
-388 executes Maximus
388 Justina dies and (the weak) Valentinian II reigns under Theodosias’ guidance
-Thoedosias appointed a Frank Officer, Arbogast, Valentinian II’s Master of Soldiers
-392 Arbogast and Valentinian II argue
-Valentinian II commits suicide/murdered
-Arbogast puts a puppet Emperor, Eugenius, on the throne as Emperor of the West
394 Theodosias has Arbogast and Eugenius murdered
-makes his own son, Honorius (394-423) Augustus of the West
-January 17, 395 Theodosias dies in Milan
-Honorius’ brother, Arcadius (395-408) becomes Augustus of the East
-Empire is permanently partitioned, East and West
The Roman Empire has evolved from Augustus’
Pax Romana to Constantine’s Pax Vobiscum
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