Learnogma.files.wordpress.com



AP Environmental Science Exam Study GuideRevised 20152517775354330Table of ContentsContents TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u Key to Passing the APES Exam PAGEREF _Toc479684991 \h 4Themes & Topic Outline PAGEREF _Toc479684992 \h 8Topic Outline PAGEREF _Toc479684993 \h 9Air Pollution PAGEREF _Toc479684994 \h 15Water Quality Tests PAGEREF _Toc479684995 \h 16Biomes of the World PAGEREF _Toc479684996 \h 17Types of Tree Cutting PAGEREF _Toc479684997 \h 18Laws PAGEREF _Toc479684998 \h 19International Treaties and Protocols PAGEREF _Toc479684999 \h 22Major Environmental Events PAGEREF _Toc479685000 \h 23Symbiosis PAGEREF _Toc479685001 \h 25Soils PAGEREF _Toc479685002 \h 26Biogeochemical Cycles PAGEREF _Toc479685003 \h 27Dimensional Analysis PAGEREF _Toc479685004 \h 29Dimensional Analysis Practice PAGEREF _Toc479685005 \h 30Math Basics and Review PAGEREF _Toc479685006 \h 31Basic Math Review PAGEREF _Toc479685007 \h 33Appendix A: The Metric System PAGEREF _Toc479685008 \h 35Appendix B: Energy Units and Terms PAGEREF _Toc479685009 \h 37Appendix C: Mrs. Harris’s Formula Sheet PAGEREF _Toc479685010 \h 39Appendix D: I Must Have That Formula PAGEREF _Toc479685011 \h 41Appendix E: 145+ Ways to Go APE! PAGEREF _Toc479685012 \h 45Appendix F: Flowery & Vague Phrases to Avoid PAGEREF _Toc479685013 \h 51Key to Passing the APES ExamAbout the Exam:The exam is three hours long, 90 minutes for 100 multiple choice questions and 90 minutes for four (4) free response questions. The multiple choice section is worth 60% of your score and the free response makes up the remaining 40%. The number of questions on each topic is provided below. Bring a wristwatch to carefully monitor your time. You may not use a calculator for this exam. The numbers used in the math section have been rounded off to help speed the calculation process.The multiple choice questions are scored by a machine soon after the exam in mid-May. In early June, the free response questions are scored by college professors and highly qualified high school teachers at the AP Reading. The reading takes about seven days. The first day is devoted to helping the readers learn and adjusted the scoring rubric established by the question leader and table leaders for each question. This ensures that each student is graded as fairly as possible. The rest of the time is spent actually grading the exams.Three years of AP Environmental Science multiple choice questions have been released, 1998 (the first year), 2003, and 2008 and available online. You can study the previous exams online. Feel free to study the previous exams for knowledge.Succeeding on the Multiple Choice QuestionsThe multiple choice questions cover a broad range of topics, therefore nothing is going to succeed more than a solid background in the subject. Students will be tested on their ability to recall and understand material learned in the course. There may be several questions that ask you to solve math problems, don’t worry these are fairly easy if you have taken the time to learn the types of math problems asked of this course. Below are some general test-taking skills that should help you on this section.Read each question carefully. This is as much a reading test as it is a science exam. You will have an average of 54 seconds for each multiple choice question, one hundred questions in ninety minutes.To ensure that you get the maximum number correct, it is important to at least see every question. Some of the questions at the end of the test might be very easy for you to answer. You just have to make sure you get to them in the time allotted. If you try to answer an early question that takes a long time to reason out, you may not even get to read the questions at the end of the exam. To guarantee the highest number of correct answers, start by reading the whole test and answering only the questions that you know the answer to immediately or with a minimum of thought. Go all the way to question number 100, even though you probably are skipping quite a few. Now you can be reasonably sure that all your answers are correct. Remember the 54 seconds per question. Time saved here can be used later to answer the questions that are more difficult.Use a scoring system for the questions you skip, give them a plus (+) if you know you can answer them and a minus (–) if you can’t answer them. Trust me, while you are working through the exam you brain will be churning away and some of those minus questions will become clear to you. Make a note to yourself so you remember how to answer that question later, don’t try to hunt for the question now. Some students prefer using Y and NNow go back and answer skipped questions that you marked with a plus. Go through the whole test again doing this. Be very careful that your responses on the answer sheet match the number of the question you are answering.Finally go through the test again, now concentrating on the questions that you are not totally sure of (the minus questions). Force yourself to move through twenty questions each ten minutes and the full one-hundred questions in fifty minutes.? Now make a second pass concentrating on the "Y" questions only. Do not spend any time on the "N" questions. If you don’t know the correct answer see if some key piece of knowledge will allow you eliminate two or three of the choices. Complete this pass in forty minutes.? Now make your third pass. Focus only on the "N" questions. Attempt to eliminate at least two choices. If you can, then make an intelligent guess. If not, leave it blank.? You have only ten minutes, so make it count!? Before time expires, count the number that you have answered. You should answer at least sixty (60) questions.Free Response Questions (FRQ) HintsOverview of the types of questions:One of the four questions will involve the Analysis of a Data Set - similar to the "dishwasher" or "fossil fuel plant" questions. (Calculators not allowed)One of the questions will be a Document-Based question. You will have to read a document and answer questions based on that information as well as your general knowledge.The last two questions are Synthesis and Evaluation. One of these questions will require you to set up an experiment to show some particular effect.Each question is graded on a 10-point scale. Usually the grading rubric is set up to contain slightly more than 10 points (e.g., 11-13). However, you can only earn a maximum of 10 points on any one question.Things To Do:Read all the questions first, before you attempt to answer them. Start with the question you find the easiest first, many times while answering one question, you will recall answers to other questions. Before you begin to answer any question, carefully reread the question. Be sure to answer the question(s) asked and only those questions; and answer all parts of the question. If you are given a choice of parts to answer, choose carefully.?It is best if you can answer the question parts in the order called for and label them "a", "b", "c", etc. as they are labeled in the question. But if you cannot answer one part, be sure to answer later parts in the question. You can always answer the earlier parts later and you don’t need to save space. AND be sure to label the parts. The questions are in a separate exam booklet from the answer booklet. You may write in the question booklet, but that booklet will be returned to you after the exam. It is a great place to make notes, outline your answer or do your calculations. Only answers written on the answer sheet will be graded.Outline the answer to avoid confusion and disorganization. Pay close attention to the verbs used in the directions, such as describe, explain, compare, give evidence for, graph, calculate, etc., and be sure to follow those directions. Thinking ahead helps to avoid scratch outs, asterisks, skipping around and rambling.Write the essay. Outlines and diagrams, no matter how elaborate and accurate, are not essays, and will not get you much credit, if any, by themselves. Exceptions, if you are asked as a part of an essay on a laboratory to calculate a number, this does not require that you write an essay, but be sure to show how you got your answer. Show formulas used, and the values inserted into those formulas. Also be sure to show all units. If asked to draw a diagram, be sure to label the components carefully and correctly.Define and/or explain any terms you use. Say something about each of the important terms that you use. Rarely would the exam ask for a list of buzzwords.?Write clearly and neatly. If the grader can’t read the answer because of penmanship, then you will more than likely receive a Zero (0) for the question.Go into detail that is on the subject and to the point. Be sure to include the obvious (for example, "light is necessary for photosynthesis").? Answer the question thoroughly.If you cannot remember a word exactly, take a shot at it - get as close as you can. Even if you don't remember the name of the concept, describe the concept.Use a ballpoint pen with dark black ink.Remember that no detail is too small to be included as long as it is to the point. Be sure to include the obvious - most points are given for the basics anyway.Carefully label your diagrams (otherwise they get no points). Place them in the text at the appropriate place, not attached at the end.Widen your margins a little. This will make the essay easier for most folks to read.Bring a watch to the exam so you can pace yourself. You have four essays to answer with about 22 minutes for each.Understand that the exam is written to be hard. The national average for the essay section will be about 50% correct (i.e., 5/10). It is very likely that you will not know everything, this is expected, but it is very likely that you do know something about each essay, so relax and do the best you can. Write thorough answers.The AP Exam may include what are called synthesis and conceptual questions. These questions may ask you to indicate the relationship between two or more concepts. If you do not know the relationship between the concepts, at least tell what you do know about them individually.****If you are asked to design or describe an experiment, be sure to include the following:hypothesis and/or predictions identify the independent variable - what treatments will you apply identify the dependent variable - what will you measure identify several variables to be controlled (very important) describe the organism/materials/apparatus to be used describe what you will actually do describe how you will actually take and record data describe how the data will be graphed and analyzed state how you will draw a conclusion (compare results to hypothesis and predictions) Your experimental design needs to be at least theoretically possible and it is very important that your conclusions/predictions be consistent with the principles involved and with the way you set up the experiment. Include a graph of the following:set up the graph with the independent variable along the x-axis and the dependent variable along the y-axis mark off axes in equal (proportional) increments and label with proper units plot points and attempt to sketch in the curve (line) if more than one curve is plotted, write a label on each curve (this is better than a legend) label each axis give your graph an appropriate title (what is it showing?) Things Not To Do:Do not waste time on background information or a long introduction unless the question calls for historical development or historical significance. Answer the question.Don't ramble. Get to the point; don't shoot the bull. Say what you know and go on to the next question. You can always come back later and add information if you remember something.Only use black ballpoint pens. Don't use felt tip pens -they leak through the paper and make both sides hard to read. Do not obliterate information you want to delete. One or two lines drawn through the word(s) should be sufficient. Don't write more than a very few words in the margin. Don't write sloppily. Is easier for the grader to miss an important word when he/she cannot read your handwriting.Don't panic or get angry because you are unfamiliar with the question. You probably have read or heard something about the subject - be calm and think.Don't worry about spelling every word perfectly or using exact grammar. These are not a part of the standards the graders use. It is important for you to know, however, that very poor spelling and grammar will hurt your chances.There is no need to say the same thing twice. While introductory paragraphs may be important in English class, saying, "Process A is controlled by x, y, and z" and then writing a paragraph each on A, X, Y, and Z is a waste of valuable time. This also goes for restating the question. Don't restate it, just answer it.If given a choice of two or three topics to write about, understand that only the first one(s) you write about will count. You must make a choice and stick with it. If you decide that your first choice was a bad one, then cross out that part of the answer so the reader knows clearly which part you wish to be considered for credit.Don't leave questions blank. Remember that each point you earn on an essay question is the equivalent of two correct multiple-choice questions, and there is no penalty for a wrong guess, bad spelling or bad grammar. Make an effort on every question! Don't Quit!Additional CommentsGet to the pointBe concise. Be precise.Don't waste time adding any additional information. Credit is only given for information requested.Give examples whenever you can, but still be concise.You cannot list items in an outline form. Use normal sentence structure to give a list of items. Always use complete sentences and good penmanship. If they can't read it, they can't grade it.For questions involving calculations, calculators are not allowed. You can get credit for setting up a problem correctly and showing all work including correct units. You receive no credit for the correct answer only.Themes & Topic OutlineThe ThemesThe six themes, which provide a foundation for the structure of the AP Environmental Science (APES) course are: Science is a process. Science is a method of learning more about the world.Science constantly changes the way we understand the world.Energy conservation underlies all ecological processes.Energy cannot be created; it must come from somewhere.As energy flows through systems, at each step more of it becomes unusable.The Earth itself is one interconnected system.Natural systems change over time and space.Biogeochemical systems vary in ability to recover from disturbances.Humans alter natural systems.Humans have had an impact on the environment for millions of years.Technology and population growth have enabled humans to increase both the rate and scale of their impact on the environment.Environmental problems have a cultural and social context.Understand the role of cultural, social, and economic factors is vital to the development of solutions.Human survival depends on developing practices that will result in sustainable systems. A suitable combination of conservation and development is required.Management of common resources is ic OutlineI. Earth Systems and Resources (10 – 15%)A. Earth Science Conceptsgeological time scaleplate tectonicsearthquakesvolcanismseasonssolar intensitylatitudeB. The Atmospherecompositionstructureweather and climateatmospheric circulation and the Coriolis Effectatmosphere-ocean interactionsENSO (El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation)C. Global Water Resources and Usefreshwater/saltwaterocean circulationagricultural, industrial and domestic usesurface and groundwater issuesglobal problemsconservation D. Soil and Soil Dynamicsrock cycleformationcompositionphysical and chemical propertiesmain soil typeserosion and other soil problemssoil conservationII. The Living World (10 – 15%)A. Ecosystem Structurebiological populations and communitiesecological nichesinteractions among specieskeystone speciesspecies diversity and edge effectsmajor terrestrial and aquatic biomesB. Energy Flowphotosynthesis and cellular respirationfood webs and trophic levelsecological pyramidsC. Ecosystem Diversitybiodiversitynatural selectionecosystem servicesD. Natural Ecosystem Changesclimate shiftsspecies movementecological successionE. Natural Biogeochemical Cyclescarbonnitrogenphosphorussulfurwaterconservation of matterIII. Population (10 – 15%)A. Population Biology Conceptspopulation ecologycarrying capacityreproductive strategiessurvivorshipB. Human Populationshuman population dynamicshistorical population sizesdistributionfertility ratesgrowth rates and doubling timesdemographic transitionage-structure diagramspopulation sizestrategies for sustainabilitycase studiesnational policiesimpacts of population growthhungerdiseaseeconomic effectsresource usehabitat destructionIV. Land and water Use (10 – 15%)A. AgricultureFeeding a growing populationHuman nutritional needstypes of agricultureGreen Revolutiongenetic engineering and crop productiondeforestizationirrigationsustainable agricultureControlling pestTypes of pesticidescost and benefits of pesticides useintegrated pest management (IPM)relevant lawsB. ForestryTree plantationsold growth forestsforest firesforest managementnational forestC. Rangelandsovergrazingdeforestationdesertificationrangeland managementfederal rangelandsD. Other Land UseUrban land developmentPlanned developmentSuburban sprawlUrbanizationTransportation infrastructureFederal highway systemCanals and channelsRoadless areasEcosystem impacts.Public and federal landsManagementWilderness areasNational parksWildlife refugesForestsWetlands Land conservation options.PreservationRemediationMitigationRestoration Sustainable land-use strategies.E. MiningMineral formationsExtractionGlobal reservesRelevant laws and treaties.F. FishingFishing techniquesOverfishingAquacultureRelevant laws and treaties.G. Global EconomicsGlobalizationWorld bankTragedy of the CommonsRelevant laws and treaties.V. Energy Resources and Consumption (10 – 15%)A. Energy ConceptsEnergy formsPowerUnitsConversionsLaws of ThermodynamicsB. Energy ConsumptionHistoryIndustrial RevolutionExponential growthEnergy crisisPresent global energy useFuture energy needsC. Fossil Fuel Resources and UseFormation of coal, oil, and natural gasExtraction/purification methodsWorld reserves and global demandSynfuelsEnvironmental advantages/disadvantages of sourcesD. Nuclear EnergyNuclear fission processesNuclear fuelElectricity productionNuclear reactor typesEnvironmental advantages/disadvantagesSafety issuesRadiation and human healthRadioactive wastesNuclear fusionE. Hydroelectric PowerDamsFlood controlSalmonSiltingOther impactsF. Energy ConservationEnergy efficiencyCAF? standardsHybrid electric vehiclesMass transitG. Renewable EnergySolar energySolar electricityHydrogen fuel cellsBiomassWind energySmall-scale hydroelectricOcean waves and tidal energyGeothermalEnvironmental advantages/disadvantagesVI. Pollution (25 – 30%)A. Pollution TypesAir pollutionSources – primary and secondaryMajor air pollutantsMeasurement unitsSmogAcid deposition – causes and effectsHeat islands and temperature inversionsIndoor air pollutionRemediation and reduction strategiesClean Air Act and other relevant lawsNoise pollutionSourcesEffectsControl measuresWater pollutionTypesSources, causes, and effectsCultural eutrophicationGroundwater pollutionMaintaining water qualityWater purificationSewage treatment/septic systemsClean Water Act and other relevant lawsSolid WasteTypesDisposalReduction B. Impacts on the Environment and Human HealthHazards to human healthEnvironmental risk analysisAcute and chronic effectsDose-response relationshipsAir pollutantsSmoking and other riskHazardous chemicals in the environmentTypes of hazardous wasteTreatment/disposal of hazardous wasteCleanup of contaminated sitesBiomagnificationRelevant lawsC. Economics ImpactsCost-benefit analysisExternalitiesMarginal costssustainabilityVII. Global Change (10 – 15%)A. Stratospheric OzoneFormation of stratospheric ozoneUltraviolet radiationCauses of ozone depletionEffects of ozone depletionStrategies for reducing ozone depletionRelevant laws and treatiesB. Global WarmingGreenhouse gases and the greenhouse effectImpacts and consequences of global warmingReducing climate changeRelevant laws and treatiesLoss of BiodiversityC. Loss of Biodiversity1. Loss of Biodiversity due to:a. Habitat lossb. Overusec. Pollutiond. Introduced speciese. endangered and extinct species2. Maintenance through conservation3. Relevant laws and treatiesAir PollutionPrimary PollutantSourceSecondary PollutantCOIncomplete combustion of fossil fuelsN/ACO2Combustion of fossil fuels, aerobic respirationHCO3 (partly responsible for acidification of the oceans)SO2Combustion of sulfur containing fossil fuels (bituminous, lignite), smelting oreSO3, SO42- saltsNOxHigh heat from combustion engines cause nitrogen and oxygen from the atmosphere to combine: N2 + O2→NOHNO3, NO3- saltsVOC’sIndustrial solvents, gases, gas leaks, industrial by-productsPAN’sParticulate Matter (PM), DustCombustion of fossil fuels and other organic material, aerosols, industrial processes, volcanoes, includes metals N/ANaturally occurring and man-made processesUV radiation, lightning, industrial processes with electrical arcing such as laser printers and copiers O3 (Ozone) TypeCauseEnvironmental EffectHuman Health EffectINDOOR AIRAsbestosInsulation, ceiling and floor tilesLung cancer, lung diseases, asbestosisCarbon Monoxide (CO)FormaldehydeRadonWater Quality Tests *There is a card game/sort for thisTypeWhat the test measuresEnvironmental Effect of poor/low resultsComments/SourcesBiochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)Amount of dissolved O2 needed to break down organic matterFish kills, loss of biodiversity Gauge effectiveness of wastewater treatment plant Coliform Bacteria (E.Coli)Sanitary quality of food/waterFecal coliform present indicates that water is not properly cleaned or there is leak somewherePOOPDissolved Oxygen (DO)Amount of oxygen that can be dissolved or carriedLow DO leads to fish kills as some fish are more sensitive than othersLow DO is caused by too much decomposition/ breakdown in the water Nitrates (NO3-)Amount of nitratesHigh levels cause eutrophication which can lead to fish kills; algal bloomsCaused by runoff of fertilizerspHAcidity (low = acid; high = base/alkaline) Too high acid can bleach coral; lead to habitat destruction“Ocean acidification”; caused by CO2 increases (high acid)PhosphateAmount of phosphateHigh levels cause algal bloomsHuman waste, industrial waste, fertilizer, algal blooms, runoff SalinitySaltiness – fresh water is <0.05%; salt water is >3.5%Damages crops, degrades drinking water (if over-pumped)Important in ocean circulationThermalTemperatureFish kills, some animals are more sensitive than others; causes low DOCan come from industrial sources or urbanizationTurbidityCloudiness or murkinessFish kills, reduces growth rates, can prevent egg/larvae developmentSoil erosion, runoffBiomes of the WorldBiome Precipitation(mm/in)TemperatureRangeLocationCommentsForestRain ForestTropicalTemperateDeciduousBoreal (Taiga, Coniferous)TundraArticAlpineDesertPolarTemperateTropicalMountainsGrasslandShortTallChaparralIce53086003429000 of Tree CuttingTypeDescriptionEnvironmental EffectCommentClear-cutRemoving all trees in the areaLoss of biodiversity of trees, loss of shelter for animals and loss of animal biodiversity, increased erosionIncreased erosion can cause increase turbidity and other issues in near-by steamsSelectiveRemoving only the mature or defective treesEncourages growth of remaining trees; same as clear-cut“Weeding” is an example of selective tree cuttingShelterwoodCutting some trees while keeping some to “shelter” new growthTree damage, soil compaction, soil erosion, allows for invasive speciesAllows in more lightSeed TreeSimilar to shelterwood; only a few widely spaced residual trees are maintained as sources for seedsSame as shelterwoodBest trees are kept to “seed”Strip or Strip CuttingClearcutting of a relatively thin stripLess loss of biodiversity loss, but still some of the same effects as above LawsAreaLawDescriptionEffectGeneralNational Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1969Environmental Impact Assessments must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be startedStarted the Council on Environmental Council (CEQ); see EnergyEnergy Policy and Conservation Act, 1975Responded to the 1973 oil crisis by creating a policy for energy supply and demand and efficiency Created fuel economy standards and minimum energy requirements for consumer products (think EnergyStar appliances) EnergyEnergy Policy Act, 1992, 2005Updated from 1992; addressed energy efficiency including natural gas, alternative fuels, electric cars, radioactive waste, coal and renewable sources Tax incentives and loan guarantees for energy production; increases the amount of ethanol in gasoline fuel Water QualitySafe Drinking Water Act, 1974Set standards for drinking water quality and oversight for state and local government agencies Created drinking water “maximum contaminant levels” Water QualityClean Water Act, 1972“Maintain the chemical, physical, and biological intergrity of the nation’s waters by preventing point and non-point pollution sources… including wetlands” Aimed to make the waters “fishable and swimmable”; started permitting Water QualityOcean Dumping Act, 1972“Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972” (MPRSA)Regulate intentional disposal of materials and authorize related research Air QualityClean Air Act, 1990Updated from Air Pollution Control Act of 1955; put into place regulations for stationary (industrial) and mobile pollution sources Addressed acid rain, ozone depletion, toxic air pollution and permittingResources and Solid Waste ManagementSolid Waste Disposal Act, 1965First federal effort to improve waste disposal technology Regulated landfillsToxic SubstancesNuclear Waste Policy Act, 1982Determined regulations for research, development and disposal of high-level radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel Amended in 1987 to use Yucca Mountain as a location for radioactive storage; however, this was rejected in 2010 Toxic SubstancesComprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLIS Superfund), 1980Federal law designed to clean up sites contaminated with hazardous substances as well as define pollutants and contaminantsInitiated cleanup of hazardous waste sites after the Love Canal disaster; provided help with funding for cleanup Pesticides Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Control Act (FIFRA), 1972Set up regulations and registrations for pesticides and their use Also included provisions for sale of pesticides Wildlife ConservationLacey Act. 1900Prohibits trade in wildlife, fish, and plants that have been illegally taken, possessed, transported, or soldAmended in 2008 to include some provisions for logging practices Wildlife ConservationMigratory Bird Treaty Act, 1918Protected migratory birds from being hunted and/or habitat destructionWildlife ConservationFur Seal Act, 1966US Fish & Wildlife Service statue to prevent fur from being transported, possessed or sold Wildlife ConservationMarine Mammal Protection Act, 1972NOAA Fisheries; to prevent fish from becoming endangered Conservation plansWildlife ConservationEndangered Species Act, 1973Established a policy for protecting species that are in danger of extinction after the near-extinction of the bison Land Use and ConservationTaylor Grazing Act, 1934Provides regulation of grazing on the public lands to improve rangeland conditions and regulate their use Land Use and ConservationWilderness Act, 1964Protect federal wilderness as public landsNational parks!Land Use and ConservationSoil and Water Conservation Act, 1977Requires a plan for soil and water conservation for public landsLand Use and ConservationSurface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, 1977Grew out of a concern for strip mining; requires permitting, land restrictions, inspections, and standards for the industryOtherOtherInternational Treaties and ProtocolsInternational LawDescriptionEffectCommentsMontreal ProtocolYear: 1987Protects ozone layerPhased out CFCs and aerosols in consumer productsKyoto ProtocolYear: 1992 at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)Requires reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissionsEmissions trading, more conversations about regulationsUS has NOT signed it because many major developing nations such as India and China have not signed it! CITES1973Conservation on International Trading of Endangered SpeciesRegulated trade internationallyBasel Convention (movements of hazardous waste)UN 1989Disposal costs of hazardous wastes were expensive, so people were unethically transferringPrevented trade of hazardous waste from developed countries to less developed countriesInternational Whaling Commission Prohibited whalingIssued a moratorium on commercial whaling in 1986Sponsored by the USRio Earth Summit1992 and 2012UN event to discuss climate changeSupported UNFCCC and Agenda 21No laws created, just a conference to discuss Agenda 211992 (after Rio)Promoted all of the premises of environmental science-protected species diversity-reduction of air pollution-water scarcityNon-binding, voluntary agreement Define MORATORIUM: A moratorium is a delay or suspension of an activity or a law. Usually STATE bans, although can be larger (see whaling moratorium above) Name at least 3 current environmental science MORATORIUMS:Virginia’s Uranium Mining Moratorium2010 US Deepwater Horizon Drilling 6-month Moratorium Coal mining moratorium in WyomingFracking moratorium in New YorkMajor Environmental EventsEventYear(s)/LocationProblemEnvironmental ImpactBhopal, India“Bhopal Disaster” or “Bhopal Gas Tragedy”Dec 1984 in IndiaPesticide plant leaked and released methyl isocyanate gas; >10000 deathsWorld’s worst industrial disaster, gas cloud, drinking water affectedChernobyl1986, UkraineCatastrophic nuclear disaster from power surgeExplosion of fire released large quantities of radioactive particles into the air, 31 deaths and linked to deformities and cancerCuyahoga River1969 (actually happened several times but this was most important), OhioMost polluted river in all of the US from industrial waste “River that caught fire” – Resulted in the Clean Water Act which made water “fishable and swimmable” and the creation of the EPAExxon Valdez1989, AlaskaSpilled 260,000-750,000 barrels of crude oil (largest until the Deepwater Horizon)Habitat loss ? Led to the creation of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990Kissimmee River1954, FloridaDredged the canal which led to more problems because the water just flowed fasterDredging keeps water ways navigable Lake Erie1960s-1970s, Great LakesVery polluted due to industrial runoff; bacteria-laden beaches and dead fish everywhereDDT (pesticides) in fish ? Cleanup from 1979-present; okay now due to Clean Water Act (CWA)Love Canal1984-2004; Niagara Falls, NYNeighborhood that became polluted from toxic waste from chemical company that purchased old school in residential areaEveryone was relocated/evacuated; created CERCLIS Superfund program Santa Barbara1969, CaliforniaBlow out on Union Oil’s offshore oil field; spilled up to 10,000 barrelsKilled marine life, helped lead to environmental legislation such as CWASt. James Bay“James Bay Project”1974, CanadaHydroelectric developments/dams along the bayCaused mercury pollution, local climate changes, water flow problems, possibility of increased seismic activity, migration routes of organismsThree Mile Island1979, PennsylvaniaPartial nuclear meltdown of 2 nuclear reactorsRadioactive wasteFukushima Daiichi 2011, JapanNuclear disaster caused by tsunami/9.0 magnitude earthquakeContaminated water, displacement of individuals, radioactive waste, triggered the industry to put in place stricter regulations and safety protocols, especially in areas near tectonic boundaries SymbiosisTypeDescriptionExampleCommentsCommensalism+/neutralOne organisms benefits without affecting the otherCattle egret & cattle: cattle stir up bugs and egrets eat themMutualism+/+ “true symbiosis” Both species benefitBees get nectar from the flowers, they carry pollen from flower to flower. (Pollination) Parasitism +/-One organism benefits at the expense of anotherSea lampray suctions the fish and eventually kills the fish Parasite/Host relationshipRelated to SymbiosisCompetitionWhen multiple organisms seek the same limited resourceZebra mussels and quagga mussels *Invasive speciesPredator – Prey Remember – bunnies take over the world!!! Individuals of 1 species (predator) hunt, capture, kill, and/or consume individuals of another speciesRabbits and wolvesSoilsHorizonsDescriptionCommentsOLeaf LitterFreshly fallen and partially decomposed organic materialContains bacteria, fungi, worms, insects that help with the decompositionATop soilBSub soilCParent MaterialEEluviatedBiogeochemical CyclesNameComponentsCycle FlowMan’s InfluenceCarbonNitrogenOxygenPhosphateSulfurWaterRock CycleDimensional AnalysisDimensional Analysis PracticePractice Problems: Show your work!261 g = _________ kg 3 days = _________ seconds9474 mm = _________ cm1 year = _________ minutes175 lb = _________ kg (2.2 lb = 1 kg)4.65 km = _________ m22.4 kg/L = _________ kg/mL 25 m/s = _________ miles/hourHow many centimeters are there in 6 feet? (1 inch = 2.54 cm) Travelling at 65 miles per hour, how many feet can you travel in 22 minutes? (1 mile = 5280 feet) Math Basics and ReviewShow ALL of your workShow ALL of your unitsBe proficient at unit manipulation, also called dimensional analysis, factor label, or train tracks. This is one of the most important math skills, because you will have to fit the numbers with units together through multiplication and division to get desired results. Here is an example: A farmer started with 5 goats. He traded all of his goats for sheep at an exchange rate of 3 sheep for 1 goat. He then traded his sheep for pigs at a rate of 1 sheep for 2 pigs. Next, he traded his pigs for canaries. For every three pigs he received 27 canaries. He then sold all the canaries for a rate of $3.25 per canary. How much money did the farmer make?5 goats X 3 sheep X 2 pigs X 27 canaries X $3.25 = $877.50 1 goat 1 sheep 3 pigs 1 canaryAdd, subtract, multiply, and divide comfortably without a calculator. Remember to show the proper placement of numbersDevelop good “math sense” or “math literacy”. The answers should make sense. If you calculate a cost of $50 billion per gallon of water, does that seem right?Know simple conversion factors such as the number of days in a year (365), the hours in a day (24), the US population (310 million), and the world population (7 billion).Know and be able to convert within the metric system Understand common statistical terms. The mean is the mathematical average. The median is the 50th percentile, which is the middle value in the distribution of numbers when ranked in increasing order. The mode is the number that occurs most frequently in the distribution.Be comfortable working with negative numbers. Going from -8 °C to +2 °C is a 10° change.Be able to calculate percentages. Example 80/200 = 40/100 = 0.4 = 40%Put very large or very small numbers into scientific notation. Often in environmental science we use very large numbers (146,000,000,000 kilograms of biomass = 1.46 X 1011) or very small numbers (7 ppm of Mercury that has contaminated an aquifer = 7 X 108). Being able to convert number into scientific notation and feeling comfortable manipulating them will increase your success on the exam.310,000,000 = 3.1 X 1080.000000000000097 = 9.7 X 10-14Know how to work with scientific notation. Multiplication: add exponents, multiply bases(3 X 103)(4 X 105) = 12 X 108 or 1.2 X 109Division: subtract exponents, divide bases(5.2 X 104) / (2.6 X 102) = 2 X 102Addition: convert both numbers to the same exponent, then add bases; exponents stay the same(3.0 X 106) + (1.4 X 105) = (3.0 X 106) + (.14 X 106) = 3.14 X 106Subtraction: convert both numbers to the same exponent, then subtract bases; exponents stay the same. (2.0 X 103) – (1.0 X 102) = (2.0 X 103) – (0.1 X 103) = 1.9 X 103Know growth rate calculations. Growth rate = [Crude Birth Rate + immigration] – [Crude death rate + emigration] CBR = Crude birth rate = # births per 1,000, per yearCDR = Crude death rate = # deaths per 1,000, per year(CBR-CDR)/10 = percent changeCalculate percent change.The rate of change (percent change, growth rate) from one period to another = [(V final - V initial / V initial] *100 (where V=value)Annual rate of change: take an answer from the previous step and divide by the number of years between past and present values. Example: A particular city has a population of 800,000 in 1990 and a population of 1,500,000 in 2008. Find the growth rate of the population of this city. Growth Rate = (1,500,000 – 800,000)/800,000 * 100 = 87.5% Annual Growth Rate = 87.5%/18 years = 4.86%Know the rule of 70 to predict doubling time. Doubling time = 70/annual growth rate (in %, not a decimal!) Example: If a population is growing at a rate of 4%, the population will double in 17.5 years. (70/4 = 17.5)Be able to calculate half-life. Amount remaining = (Original amount)(0.5)x where x = the number of half-lives. X = time/half-lifeKnow that per capita means per person or per unit of populationGraphing tips: include a title and a key, set consistent increments for axes, and label axesBasic Math ReviewShow your work!Metric Conversions: Use dimensional analysis in order to convert the following problems from one unit to another.10 cm=________MM 6 mm = _________ km1.5 km=_______mm8 watts=______ MW5.4 mm=_______ cmScientific Notation: Show all your work. Convert the numbers or multiply/divide using scientific notation. One billion=________________Twenty three thousand=________________.0000676=___________________Five hundred billion times thirty five thousand=_______________300 billion divided by 6 thousand=________________PercentagesAn area of forest is 6000 acres. 45% of the area will be developed. How many acres will be preserved as forest area? A natural gas power plant is 60% efficient. If one cubic meter of natural gas provides 1000 BTUs of usable electricity, how many BTU’s of waste heat were produced? If the concentration of mercury in a water supply changes from 70 ppm to 42 ppm in a ten-year period, what is the % change?What is the % change if the concentration of carbon dioxide increases from 14 ppm to 63 ppm?Other How many seconds are in 3 years?_________________If oil use in the US is 22 barrels per capita, how much oil is used in the United States?__________How much oil would be used applying that same figure to per capita global use? ____________Appendix A: The Metric SystemMetric Prefixes:PrefixAbbreviationScientific Notationpicop1 x 10-12nanon1 x 10-9microμ1 x 10-6millim1 x 10-3centic1 x 10-2decid1 x 10-1base unit1 x 10deca1da1 x 101hectoh1 x 102kilok21 x 103megaM1 x 106gigaG1 x 109teraT1 x 10121: in US will see deka2: will sometimes see K**The following prefixes are not used often: deci, deca and hectoDistanceThe major unit of measurement for distance is the METER, in comparison to our system of measurement, it is approximately 1 yard. The abbreviation for the meter is m. Here are some common units of measurement and their conversion between the two systems.MetricUnited States1 millimeter (mm) = 0.039 in1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm1 centimeter (cm) = 0.39 in1 foot (ft) = 30.48 cm1 meter (m) = 1.09 yards1 yard = 0.091 m1 kilometer (km) = 0.62 mile1 mile = 1.61 kmVolumeThe major unit of measurement for distance is the LITER, in comparison to our system of measurement, it is approximately 1 quart. The abbreviation for the liter is l or L, the lower case was more prevalent until the use of computers, the upper case is more common today but students need to know both. Here are some common units of measurement and their conversion between the two systems.MetricUnited States1 milliliter (mL) = 1 ounce (oz) =1 cup = 8 oz =1 liter (L) = 1.06 quarts (qt)1 pint = 2 cups =1 kiloliter (kL) = 1 quart = 2 pints = 0.95 litersMassgramAreacentimeter squaremeter squarehectareTemperatureCelsius (°C) = 5/9 (°F – 32 °F), by definition, water boils at 100 °C and freezes at 0 °CFahrenheit (°F) = (9/5 °C) + 32 °FKelvin (K) = absolute zero = -273.15 °CRoom Temperature = 72 °F = 23 °CAppendix B: Energy Units and TermsThe numbers here are the actual numbers, for the exam numbers are rounded for easy calculations as students can not use calculators. For example, 1 kwh = 3413 BTU’s, where as for the exam they use 3400 BTU’s.1 calorie = the amount of heat it takes to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degree Fahrenheit)1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) = the amount of heat it takes to raise one pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit.1 joule = the force of one Newton over 1 meter.1 calorie = 3.968 BTU’s = 4,186 joules.1 BTU = 0.254 calories = 1,055 joules1 therm = 100,000 BTU’s1 quad = 1 quadrillion BTU’s1 watt = 1 watt of energy for one hour = 3.413 BTU’s1 kilowatt (kw) = 1000 watts1 kilowatt hour (kwh) = 1 kilowatt for 1 hour = 3413 Btu’s1 megawatt (Mw) = 1,000,000 watts or 1,000 kilowatts1 gigawatt (Gw) = 1,000,000,000 watts or 1,000,000 kilowatts or 1,000 megawatts1 terawatt (Tw) = 1,000,000,000,000 watts1 horsepower = 0.7457 kilowatts = 2,545 BTU’s1 gallon of gasoline = 125,000 BTU’s1 barrel of crude oil = 25,000,000 BTU’s1 barrel of crude oil = 55 gallons of crude oil1 cubic foot of natural methane gas = 1031 BTU’s1 short of coal = 25,000,000 BTU’sAppendix C: Mrs. Harris’s Formula SheetPopulation:Per capita = per personU.S. Population: 310 millionGlobal Population: 7 billion Doubling time (aka “rule of 70”) = 70/percent growth rate (in % not a decimal!!)Growth rate = (crude birth rate + immigration) – (crude death rate + emigration)CBR = crude birth rate = # of births per 1000 per yearCDR = crude death rate = # of deaths per 1000 per yearPercent change (population) = (CBR-CDR)/10Energy:Watt = joule/sec = volts x ampsCalorie = energy to raise one gram of water by one degree CBTU (British Thermal Unit) = energy to raise one pound of water by one degree FKilowatts x hours = kilowatt hoursEfficiency = Energy out/energy inIf something is 90% efficient, than 10% is lost to HEAT (or in some other way)Basic Formulas:Percent change is the RATE of change from one period to another(Vfinal - Vinitial / Vinitial)*100Annual rate of change (divide percent change by the number of years)Mean (average), median (50th percentile), and mode (number that occurs most frequently)Percentages are over 100! i.e., 80/200 = 40/100 = 0.4 = 40%Half-life = (original amount)(0.5)x, where x is number of half livesConversions: Million = 1 x 106 = Mega (M)Billion = 1 x 109Scientific Notation:Multiplication (add exponents, multiply bases)Division (subtract exponents, divide bases)Addition (covert numbers to the SAME exponent, add bases, exponent stays the same)Subtraction (covert numbers to the SAME exponent, subtract bases, exponent stays the same)Ttera-1012trillion (1,000,000,000,000)Ggiga-109billion (1,000,000,000)Mmega-106million (1,000,000)kkilo-1031000hhecto-102100dadeka-10110base unit (m, g, s, W, etc.)1001ddeci-10-10.1ccenti-10-20.01mmilli-10-30.001?micro-10-6one-millionth (0.0000001)nnano-10-9one-billionth (0.0000000001)Appendix D: I Must Have That Formula Adapted from Kelly BelnickThe Carbon CycleThe different forms and compounds in which carbon atoms are found are considered chemical reservoirs of carbon. These reservoirs include atmospheric carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate (in limestone), natural gas, and organic molecules, to name a few. ?: Plants use carbon dioxide and energy from the sun to form carbohydrates in photosynthesis. The carbohydrates are consumed by other organisms, and are eventually broken down, or “oxidized”. ?: The process of respiration. The chemical representation of how carbohydrates are broken down, or oxidized, thereby releasing energy for use by the consuming organisms. The carbon used and circulated in photosynthesis represents only a tiny portion of the available global carbon. ?Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased by 30% since the 1800’s (industrial revolution). This increase can be explained, primarily, but several human activities. The most significant of these activities is the burning of fossil fuels. ?Nitrogen Cycle Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia or ammonium ion by nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in legume root nodules or in soil, or atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitrogen oxides by lightening. ??Ammonia and Ammonium are oxidized by soil bacteria first to nitrite ions and then to nitrate ions: After plants have taken up nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrate ions, the nitrogen is passed along the food chain. When those plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi take up and use some of the nitrogen from the plant/animal protein and other nitrogen containing molecules. The remaining nitrogen is released as ammonium ions or ammonia gas. Denitrifying bacteria convert some ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate back to nitrogen gas, which returns to the atmosphere. ??Haber-Bosch Process: A technique for making ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen, according to the first equation. To get the reactants, nitrogen gas is liquefied form air and hydrogen gas is obtained chemically from methane (natural gas). First natural gas is treated to remove sulfur-containing compounds; then the present methane is allowed to react with steam. Carbon monoxide, a product of methane reacting with steam, is converted to carbon dioxide, which allows for the additional production of nitrogen gas. ?Air Pollution Formulas:?: Impurities such as pyrite or iron pyrite are found in coal, when we burn coal it interacts with atmospheric oxygen to form iron oxide and sulfur dioxide (a primary air pollutant).?:The primary air pollutant, sulfur dioxide, is oxidized, once in the atmosphere, to sulfur trioxide. ?:Sulfur trioxide dissolves it atmospheric water droplets to form sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is a major component of acid rain. Sulfuric acid is considered a secondary air pollutant?:The generalized representation of sulfur oxides, whether it be sulfur dioxide or sulfur trioxide. The Sulfur oxides are considered primary air pollutants.?: Molecules of nitrogen and atmospheric oxygen combine AT VERY HIGH TEMPERATURES to form nitric oxide, a colorless gas. The high temperatures of natural processes like lightening or those of the combustion chambers of an engine are effective in causing this conversion. Nitric oxide is a primary air pollutant?:Once in the atmosphere, nitric acid reacts with additional oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide, a red-brown toxic gas that causes irritation to the eyes and respiratory system?:Further reaction of nitrogen dioxide with water can produce nitric acid, another component of acid rain ?Photochemical Smog: Nitrogen oxide is an essential ingredient of photochemical smog that is produced during the high temperatures associated with combustion of vehicle’s engines. ??: Initial reaction of nitrogen dioxide with sunlight?: The oxygen atom generated from the initial reaction reacts with atmospheric, diatomic oxygen, to form ozone. This is not the good, protective ozone of the stratosphere, this is the polluting ozone of the lithosphere, which traps heat and contributes to thermal inversion.?This simplified equation represents the key ingredients and products of photochemical smog. Hydrocarbons (including VOC’s), carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides from vehicle exhausts are irradiated by sunlight in the presence of oxygen gas. The resulting reactions produce a potentially dangerous mixture that include other nitrogen oxides, ozone, and irritating organic compounds, as well as carbon dioxide and water vapor. ?Air Pollution Control and Prevention?: Formula that represents the process of “scrubbing” products of industrial combustion processes. Sulfur dioxide gas is removes by using an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide, also called limewater. The sulfur dioxide reacts with the limewater to form solid calcium sulfite. Scrubbers that utilize this “wet” scrubbing method can remove up to 95% of sulfur oxides. ?Another process for scrubbing that utilizes magnesium hydroxide instead of limewater. The sulfur dioxide dissolves in the water and reacts with the magnesium hydroxide to form a salt. The magnesium sulfite that is formed can be isolated and heated to regenerate sulfur dioxide. The recovered sulfur dioxide can be collected and used as a raw material in other commercial processes. ?Acid Rain?: The pH of rainwater is normally slightly acidic, at about 5.6, due mainly to reaction of carbon dioxide with water to form carbonic acid. ?Other natural events can contribute to the acidity of precipitation. Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and lightning produce sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. These gases can react with atmospheric water in much the same way that carbon dioxide does to produce sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid and nitrous acid. ?Ozone Formation and DestructionAs sunlight penetrates into the stratosphere, high-energy UV photons react with oxygen gas molecules, splitting them into individual oxygen atoms. These highly reactive oxygen atoms are examples of free radicals; they quickly enter into chemical reactions that allow them to attain stable arrangements of electrons. In the stratosphere free radicals can combine with oxygen molecules to form ozone. A third molecule, typically nitrogen gas or atmospheric oxygen (represented by M in the equation), carries away excess energy from the reaction but remains unchanged. ?Each ozone molecule formed in the stratosphere can absorb a UV photon with a wavelength of less than 320nm. This energy absorption prevents potentially harmful UV rays from reaching the earth’s surface. The energy also causes the ozone to decomposed, producing an oxygen molecule and an oxygen free radical. These products can then carry on the cycle by replacing ozone in the protective stratospheric layer. ?CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) are highly stable molecules in the troposphere, however, high-energy UV photons in the stratosphere split chlorine radicals from CFC’s by breaking their C-Cl bond. The freed chlorine radicals are very reactive and can participate in a series of reaction that destroy ozone by converting it to diatomic oxygen. Every chlorine radical that participates in the first reaction can later be regenerated. Thus each chlorine radical acts as a catalyst participating in not just one, but also an average of 100,000 ozone –destroying reactions. In doing so, it speeds up ozone destruction but remains unchanged. Appendix E: 145+ Ways to Go APE!Ionizing radiation: enough energy to knock electrons from atoms forming ions, capable of causing cancer (ex gamma-Xrays-UV)High Quality Energy: organized & concentrated, can perform useful work (ex fossil fuel & nuclear)Low Quality Energy: disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to anotherSecond Law of Thermodynamics: when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat)Natural radioactive decay: unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha & beta particlesHalf life: the time it takes for ? the mass of a radioisotope to decayEstimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level: approximately 10 half-livesNuclear Fission: nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutronsNuclear Fusion: 2 isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Expensive, break even point not reached yetOre: a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mineMineral Reserve: identified deposits currently profitable to extractBest solution to Energy shortage: conservation and increase efficiencySurface mining: cheaper & can remove more mineral, less hazardous to workersHumus: organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganismsLeaching: removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwardsIlluviation: deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B)Loam: perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, claySolutions to soil problems: conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic fertilizersParts of the hydrologic cycle: evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltrationAquifer: any water bearing layer in the groundCone of depression: lowering of the water table around a pumping wellSalt water intrusion: near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquiferENSO: El Ni?o Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the S. PacificDuring an El Ni?o year: trade winds weaken & warm water sloshed back to South Atlantic During a Non El Ni?o year: Easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South AmericaEffects of El Ni?o: upwelling decreases disrupting food chains, Northern US has mild winters, SW US has increased rainfall, less Atlantic HurricanesNitrogen fixing: because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteriaAmmonification: decomposers covert organic waste into ammoniaNitrification: ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-)Assimilation: inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteinsDenitrification: bacteria convert ammonia back into NPhosphorus does not circulate as easily as N because: it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate rocksBecause soils contain very little phosphorus: it is a major limiting factor for plant growthExcess phosphorus is added to aquatic ecosystems by: runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer discharge of sewagePhotosynthesis: plants convert atmospheric C (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)Aerobic respiration: oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2Largest reservoirs of C: carbonate rocks first, oceans secondBiotic/abiotic: living & nonliving components of an ecosystemProducer/Autotroph: photosynthetic lifeMajor trophic levels: producers-primary consumer-secondary consumer-tertiary consumerEnergy flow in food webs: only 10% of the usable energy is transferredWhy is only 10% transferred: usable energy lost as heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch preyPrimary succession: development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life (lava)Secondary succession: life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest)Mutualism: symbiotic relationship where both partners benefitCommensalism: symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & the other is unaffectedParasitism: relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the hostBiome: large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animalsCarrying capacity: the number of individuals that can be sustained in an areaR strategist: reproduce early, many small unprotected offspringK strategist: reproduce late, few, cared for offspringNatural selection: organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generationThomas Malthus: said human population cannot continue to increase..consequences will be war, famine & diseaseDoubling time: rule of 70 – 70 divided by the percent growth rateReplacement level fertility: the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing)World Population is: over 7 billion (as of October 2011), United States Population is about 310 millionPreindustrial stage: birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality highTransitional stage: death rate lower, better health care, population grows fastIndustrial stage: decline in birth rate, population growth slowsPostindustrial stage: low birth & death rateAge structure diagrams: (broad base, rapid growth)(narrow base, negative growth)(uniform shape, zero growth)1st & 2nd most populated countries: China & IndiaMost important thing affecting population growth: low status of womenWays to decrease birth rate: family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penaltiesPercent water on Earth by type: 97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwaterSalinization of soil: in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behindWays to conserve water: (agriculture, drip/trickle irrigation) (industry, recycling) (home, use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures)Point v. non point sources: (Point, from specific location such as pipe)(Non-point, from over an area such as runoff)BOD: biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materialsEutrophication: rapid algal growth caused by an excess of N & PHypoxia: when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO drops & the water cannot support lifeMinamata Disease: mental impairments caused by mercuryPrimary air pollutants: produced by humans & nature (CO, CO2, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons, particulates)Secondary pollutants: formed by reaction of primary pollutantsParticulate matter: Source: burning fossil fuels & car exhaust Effects: reduces visibility & respiratory irritationReduction: filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energyNitrogen Oxides:Source: auto exhaustEffects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog & ozone)Equation for acid formation: NO + O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3 Reduction: catalytic converterSulfur oxides: Source: coal burningEffects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plantsEquation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuelCarbon oxides:Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustionEffects: CO binds to hemoglobin reducing bloods ability to carry O, CO2 contributes to global warmingReduction: catalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transitOzone (O3): Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2+UV=NO+O; O+O2=O3, with VOCsEffects: respiratory irritant, plant damageReduction: reduce NO emissions & VOCsIndustrial smog: found in cities that burn large amounts of coalPhotochemical smog: formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC,O)Acid deposition: caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface watersGreenhouse gases: Examples: H2O, CO2, O3, methane (CH4), CFCsEffect: they trap outgoing infrared (heat) energy causing earth to warmEffects of global warming: rising sea level (thermal expansion), extreme weather, droughts (famine), extinctionsOzone depletion caused by: CFC's, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozoneEffects of ozone depletion: increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growthLove Canal, NY: chemicals buried in old canal and school & homes built over it causing birth defects & cancerMunicipal solid waste is mostly: paper and most municipal waste is landfilledSanitary landfill problems and solutions: Leachate – remedied with liner with collection systemmethane gas – remedied by collecting gas and burnvolume of garbage – remedied by compaction and reductionIncineration advantages: volume of waste reduced by 90% & waste heat can be usedIncineration disadvantages: toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride-dioxin), scrubbers & electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposalBest way to solve waste problem: reduce the amounts of waste at the sourceKeystone species: species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than othersIndicator species: species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damagedMost endangered species: have a small range, require large territory or live on an islandIn natural ecosystems, 50-90% of pest species are kept under control by: predators, diseases, parasitesMajor insecticide groups and examples:chlorinated hydrocarbons; ex. DDTorganophosphates; ex. Malathioncarbamates; ex. aldicarbPesticide pros: saves lives from insect transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for farmersPesticide cons: genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnificationNatural pest control: better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractantsElectricity is generated by: using steam to turn a turbine (from water boiled by fossils fuels or nuclear) or falling water to turn a generatorPetroleum forms from: microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat & pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons (FOSSIL fuel)Pros of petroleum: cheap, easily transported, high quality energyCons of petroleum: reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, burning makes CO2Steps in coal formation: (dirtiest, lightest) peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite (cleanest, most dense) Major parts of a nuclear reactor: core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment buildingTwo most serious nuclear accidents: 1. Chernobyl, Ukraine 2. Three Mile Island, PAAlternate energy sources: wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cellsLD50: the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test populationMutagen, Teratogen, Carcinogen: causes hereditary changes, fetus deformities, cancerMultiple use US public land: National Forest & National Resource landsModerately restricted use land: National Wildlife RefugesRestricted Use lands: National Parks, National Wilderness Preservation SystemVolcanoes and Earthquakes occur: at plate boundaries (divergent, spreading, mid-ocean ridges) (convergent, trenches) (transform, sliding, San Andreas)Survivorship CurvesType I: low mortality at birth, survive to old age, and then die (humans, annual plants)Type 11: uniform death rates, subject to predation (insects, birds)Type III: high mortality at birth but long lifespans otherwise (turtles, trees)Density dependent factors: competition, parasitism, predationDensity independent factors: fires, floods, extreme coldBiotic potential: maximum amount of offspring a species can haveEffects of Global Warming: bleaching of coral reefs, animals and plants forced out of their current range, melting glaciers, rising sea level, droughts, spread of infectious diseases and more extreme weather conditions.Exotic species are known as invasive species because they often can grow at an uncontrolled rate because they have no natural predators, disrupt the balance of the ecosystem and have no competition because they kill off many natural inhabitants.Forests regulate climate, control water runoff, produce oxygen and provide food and shelter for many creatures.Clear cutting is bad because it increases soil erosion dramatically, increases nitrate runoff into water bodies, makes it hard for an area to recover, leaves animals no place to live and can lead to extinctions.Selective Cutting: harvesting only mature trees of certain species and size. More expensive but less disruptive to wildlife than clear cutting.Utilitarianism is the belief that something is right if it produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people for the longest time.Conservation is the management of a resource to make certain to produces the greatest benefit to humans in the future.Preservation is the concept that the land should be kept in its natural state- never touched or developed.NIMBY- public protests cause wastes and other pollutants to be dumped in someone else's backyard. Mostly hurts the poor who cannot pay for representation to fight against potential pollution.Range of Tolerance: minimum and maximum levels of conditions in which organisms can survive.1.5 billion people lack access to clean drinking water and 3 billion people lack good sanitation need to prevent communicable diseases from spreading. 75% of water pollution in the US comes from soil erosion, atmospheric deposition and surface run off.95% of water pollution in developing countries come from raw sewage (high population growth without the money for treatment plants)The US uses 77% of all pesticides used in worldThe troposphere contains weather and stratosphere contains the ozone.The atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and a small amount of argon, carbon dioxide, water, salt and dust.Weather moves from west to east across America and winds are named for the direction they come from.Bioaccumulation is the selective absorption and storage of a great variety of moleculesBiomagnification is a continued increase in the concentration of pollutants in higher levels of a food chain.Acute effects are caused by a single exposure to a toxin and results in an immediate health crisis of some sort.Chronic effects are long lasting and can result from a single exposure of a very toxic substance or a continuous exposure to the toxin.Salt water intrusion is the movement of salt water into freshwater aquifers in coastal areas where groundwater is withdrawn faster than it's replenishedWatershed: land surface and groundwater aquifers drained by a particular river system.Forests cover 32% of the land surface, 11% is used for crops and 26% is range and pasture.99% of all the species that ever existed are now extinct but the average rate of extinction as one species per decade.Human have caused extinction rates of hundreds to thousands of species per YEAR. If these trends continue, 1/3 to 2/3 of all current species will be lost by the year 2050. (That is definitely a reason to go APE!!!)REVIEW THESE ONLINE on Quizlet - Appendix F: Flowery & Vague Phrases to Avoid Adapted from J. RodewaldThere are several strategies you can use to help boost your score on the Free Response section of the AP Environmental Science exam. One of those strategies is to avoid the use of vague and “flowery” terms and phrases. These terms and phrases may sound descriptive, but they frequently say little and provide none of the detail needed to earn credit. To avoid them you should try to explain yourself as best as possible using more detail.The following is a listing of these terms and phrases to try to avoid:1. “bad for the environment / planet”2. "cause environmental degradation"3. "cause global warming and pollution"4. “change” without of specifying increase or decrease.)5. “destroy the environment”6. “disrupt the environment”7. “disturb the environment”8. “ecofriendly”9. “good for the environment”10. “greener”11. “global solution”12. “global catastrophe”13. “global cooperation”14. “harm the environment”15. "harmful / dangerous chemicals" (without specifying.)16. "help keep the habitat cleaner"17. “human footprint”18. “human impact”19. “provide incentives” (without specifying)20. "kill all the plants/animals/wildlife"21. "make it illegal" or "the water law" or "the air law" (Without identifying relevant laws.)22. "make it more / less expensive" (When referring to incentives.)23. “mother nature “24. “overconsumption of natural resources”25. “pollute the environment”26. "pollute the water / air / soil" (Without specifying.)27. “restore the environment”28. “repair the damage”29. “save the Earth”30. “save the planet”31. "stop global warming"32. “sustainable” (Without elaboration.)33. “toxins”, “pollution”, “chemicals” & “health effects” (without specifying)34. “________ the habitat” (impact, change, alter)35. “________ the ecology” (destroy, restore, maintain, support, harm, compromise, reinvent…)Flowery & Vague Phrases to avoid on the AP Environmental ExamPutting this list into action:Weak: “Acid deposition hurts forests.”Strong: “Acid deposition can hurt forests in several ways. One way is by reducing the topsoil’s ability to retain vital nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and potassium which are needed by trees.”Weak: “Runoff from farms can reduce water quality and harm the environment.”Strong: “Runoff from farms can reduce surface water quality by introducing nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates. These compounds promote algae growth which can reduce water clarity. Further, when the algae die their decomposition by aerobic bacteria can also reduce dissolved oxygen levels.”Weak: “The pollution from coal power plants causes a lot of environmental degradation.”Strong: “The air pollution from coal power plants includes nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides and mercury which have been linked to several environmental problems including acid deposition and mercury contamination of surface water.”Weak: “Garbage incinerators cause a lot of air pollution.”Strong: “Garbage incinerators generate a variety of different air pollutants including carbon dioxide (CO2), dioxin, particulate matter (PM), heavy metals and sulfur oxides.”Now its your turn. How can you make these stronger?:1. Weak statement: “High levels of poverty are bad for the planet.”2. Weak statement: “Mercury contamination in food can hurt children.”3. Weak statement: “Automobiles make a lot of air pollution which can disrupt the environment.” ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download