LISA NOTE’S



LISA NOTE’S

CHAPTER 13

THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY AND FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS IN PERSONALITY STUDY

KEY CONCEPTS

personality – consistent attributes and behaviour

personology – the study of personality

criteria – principles or standards of judgement

individual differences – differences in characteristics between people

culture – beliefs and values shared by a group

epistemology – fundamental views on knowledge

African – native of the African continent, from Africa

approaches – perspectives (for example, the psychodynamic

approach)

psychodynamic approach – the approach that studies the influence of the

unconscious on behaviour

behaviourist approach – the approach associated with studying the impact of

the environment on observable behaviour

humanistic approach – the approach that studies how personality relates

to each person’s unique experiences and how people find meaning in life

trait approach – the approach that studies how personality is formed

by enduring traits across different situations

cognitive approach – the approach that studies how personality is related

to information processing and thinking

biological – related to genetic and neuro-physical structures

evolutionary – the transfer of personality traits from generation

to generation as a result of the changing history of

the human race

psychosocial – where personality is formed through the context of

social influences

occupational – relating to a career

fundamental view – basic assumptions

structure – organised framework

motivation – desire or drive to achieve a goal

development – stage of growth

adjustment – emotional balance, state of coping

physical – relating to the body

psychological – relating to feelings and emotions

idiographic – relating to the individual as a unique being

nomothetic – emphasising the general nature of behaviour

assumptions – fundamental beliefs

determinants – influential factors

deterministic – relating to definite, dominant causes or influences

heredity – genetic origin

environment – the influences from various surroundings

research – systematic investigation

13.1 Introduction

The study of personality is aimed at explaining the differences between people. It looks at what personality is, why people behave in certain ways, how their personalities develop, and how personality can be studied and assessed. Personology is applied in, amongst other things, assessments for selection, career development and occupational choice. Competency-based models used in the work context are based on various aspects of personality.

The changing nature of work may necessitate the use of more personality measures, as human-resources competencies become sought after not only in technical fields, but even more in the area of personality variables.

The aim of this chapter is to create a scientific understanding of personality study and work-related personality research, summarising various approaches to and determinants of personality, and explaining dimensions and assumptions according to which personality can be studied and researched.

13.2 Approaches to personality in the work context

The psychological schools of thought still influence thinking and practices in psychology. The new South African socio-political order is encouraging social scientists to rethink their theories in explaining and assessing human behaviour. This is already visible in organisational restructuring, management strategies and the composition of workforces. The effects of globalisation will also influence South African ways of thinking and doing.

The various approaches to personality have caused much controversy. However, while there are some irreconcilable differences between the approaches, many have commonalities in concepts and processes. Notably, the concepts from different perspectives all more or less indicate the consistent structure or characteristics in personality. Most approaches also agree on:

• personality as having some structure

• an enduring pattern in personality

• motivating forces in personality

• personality as a developing phenomenon

• the aspect of uniqueness, and similarities in and between personalities.

Personality theory and concepts can be compared and evaluated based on the following criteria:

• comprehensiveness

• simplicity

• empirical support.

13.2.1 Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic theories (depth psychology)

In psychodynamic and psychoanalytic theories the main emphasis is on people’s experience of conflicts because of internal biological drives, unconscious motives, past events and the norms of society. Although heavily influenced by Freud, most writers after him have a more positive view, emphasise a “stronger” self concept (people being more in control of their lives) and the influence of social factors.

13.2.2 Behaviourist or learning theories

Personality is characterised by acquired, observable behaviours or responses as rewarded in the various environments in which people function. Environments and circumstances are the dominant influences on what people become and they may even override basic natural potential.

13.2.3 Humanistic, phenomenological and existential approaches

Human personality and self image are best understood by their subjective existence in, and unique experiences of, reality, as well as the striving towards self-actualisation. In humanistic, phenomenological and existential approaches the person is recognised as an active, unique and free being, and not necessarily controlled by conscious motives and environmental factors.

13.2.4 Trait and type theories

Human behaviour is characterised by enduring and consistent patterns of behaviour described in concepts such as dispositions, dimensions, traits, factors and types. This approach is mainly emphasised in workplace applications, especially in the area of assessment of work competencies. The Five-Factor Model is considered as the most integrative model of personality.

13.2.5 Cognitive and social-cognitive theories

According to cognitive and social-cognitive theories, people are rational and thinking, and form their own personalities and destinies by using cognitive powers to create and change cognitive constructs, processes and schemas about reality. These are called self-created cognitive constructs. With the emphasis today on technology, the cognitive perspectives are more relevant than in earlier days.

The socio-cognitive perspective emphasises self-regulation, cognitive processes and schemas, and perception and memory. Self-image is shaped through relational schemas and self-comparison.

13.2.6 Biological and evolutionary perspectives

In people, as in animals, behaviour is strongly influenced by genetic factors. Biological and evolutionary perspectives study behavioural genetics. In these approaches many contributions come from other traditional personality theories such as inheritance and evolution. Personality and behaviour are seen as a function of evolutionary processes, owing to a process of transfer. However, the impact of the environment on the manifestation of genetic traits is not underestimated.

13.2.7 Psychosocial theories

Psychosocial theories stress the self as a core dimension of personality and personality development, as well as the impact of social factors on personality development. Social-constructionist perspectives focus on the social context of personality. The indigenous psychological movement emphasises the understanding of people within a cultural context.

Social constructionism and narrative psychology present an alternative theoretical approach to scientific behavioural research. In this respect discourse analysis is used as a research technique. People have their own stories to tell about their life.

13.2.8 African and Asian perspectives

In African and Asian cultures there is less emphasis on the individual and more emphasis on the holistic nature of things, on the individual as part of the community, on the interconnectedness of the creation, on the interpersonal nature of personality, on the influence of culture, society and family, and on spiritual values.

African psychology explains personality and personality development as purposeful behaviour, a unitary concept of interdependent physical, mental and spiritual dimensions in harmony with the values of history, ecology, nature and the laws of life. The basic natural ingredient of the human personality is spiritual.

African cultures often use stories and metaphors, through which behaviour is also transferred across generations.

13.2.9 The cultural context of personality

Culture can explain uniqueness and similarities, and how different life roles are expressed. Culture consists of collective norms, values, beliefs, ways of thinking, perceptions and behaviours (particularly those based on past events) that characterise the unique ways in which people do things and which may influence personality and behaviours. Cross-cultural research aims at identifying similarities and differences across various cultural groups. Insensitivity to cultural influences is one of the main reasons for prejudice in human sciences.

The application of psychology in the work context is heavily based on American and European schools of thought, and these assumptions have been influenced to a lesser degree by African or Asian cultures. Because Western models and standards are used

in researching African and Asian behaviour, this may have perpetuated the misunderstanding of Blacks and Asians in Western society.

In Western society, psychology derives from a philosophical and scientific history, which emphasises a positivistic and empirical paradigm of human behaviour. In contrast, Asian and African psychology originates from a metaphysical and spiritual tradition, resulting in a more intuitive and integrated discipline. There is more congruence between Asian and African values than between them and Western values. This is evident from the African and Asian emphasis on the metaphysical and religious aspects, and from their views on humankind’s unity with the universe and their emphasis on family and group relations.

13.3 Defining “personality” and related concepts

Psychologists agree that personality can only be adequately explained if the interaction between characteristics of the person and environment are considered. To define personality in all its dimensions, the following criteria must be emphasised:

• the external, visible and observable physical appearances, behaviour and traits, often referred to as the “mask” (the original meaning of personality)

• possible invisible behaviours, emotions, attitudes, values, thoughts and feelings

• enduring patterns and consistencies, but also the dynamic nature of behaviour, indicating motivation and change

• uniqueness

• wholeness and differentiation in personality, a person being body and mind with all its separate and integrated functions

• the necessity to accept that personality refers to a living human able to adapt to situations.

Allport describes personality as “the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determines his characteristic behaviour and thought.” This definition integrates most of the aspects listed above and can be viewed as being systematic and integrated in nature.

From an interpersonal perspective, personality results from interactions with people. From a work perspective personality might be seen as those attributes that fit the demands of the working environment. Related to personality are the concepts of temperament, character and self.

The term “character” here has a specific meaning, emphasising a person’s emotional orientation and having genetic, physiological or biological connotations. The “self” signifies anything that people themselves, or through others, perceive as belonging to their sense of being a person (describing what is “I”, “me” and “mine”).

13.4 Determinants of personality development

The influences on an individual’s personality can be ascribed to many individual and combined factors. All these factors can be classified into four main categories: hereditary or biological, psychological, social and external. These four categories are all about either hereditary or environmental factors.

13.4.1 Hereditary and biological factors

Genetic influences are related to biological maturation, growth and the changes that occur. The uniqueness of each person can be sought in genetic endowment (especially in physical traits and intellectual capabilities), but also in some acquired traits.

13.4.2 Environmental factors

Environmental factors may be physical, social or psychological. They are important in how genetic potential develops and can affect psychological and social behaviours, and the values, attitudes and beliefs that characterise individuals and groups. Environmental influences have the function of socialising the developing person for adult responsibilities and adult roles in marriage, family life and work.

Regarding family influences, the developing child’s parents, especially the child’s mother, provide the type of psychological and social examples, models and rewards that will either enhance or inhibit healthy personality and career development. Every child in a family may have different experiences, which together with genetic differences may explain personality and behavioural differences.

Regarding social affiliations outside the family, important people, such as friends, often serve as an extension of the family, a place in which the child can explore and extend perceptions of him/herself and the world. In a situation with different values and attitudes, peer involvement may lay the basis for a culture of healthy competition, learning and work.

Cultural membership provides the historical and immediate mega-environment that prescribes certain behaviours or opportunities. Culture will determine how people think and feel, and what they do. The group to which a person belongs may create a legacy of socioeconomic status and roles that relate to entrenched ways of behaving.

13.5 Dimensions and domains of personality and human behaviour

Most theories of personality have a fundamental view of humankind that describes a theorist’s central ideas on those things that are common to all human behaviour and human existence. Allport describes people as unique individuals with unique personality traits and purposeful behaviours. Personality theories use several dimensions to explain personality and personality functioning.

Personality is described in terms of interdependent dimensions, the most important being structure of personality, motivation of behaviour, development and psychological adjustment of personality.

13.5.1 Structure of personality

“Structure” refers to the basic building blocks that constitute personality and how they are organised. Allport, Cattell and Eysenck, for example, used traits as examples of structural concepts. Freud proposed dimensions in three mental structures referred to as the “id”, “ego” and “superego”. Structural concepts partly determine concepts for motivation, development, assessment and research.

13.5.2 Motivation in personality

Motivation or dynamics of behaviour describes why people behave in particular ways and what activates, energises or directs and changes behaviour. Hence, some theories stress internal drives, emotions, motives or needs that consciously or unconsciously create tension and direct behaviour. Others propose that people must be drawn by external forces or goals. Still others believe people want stimulation, while others believe all people are intrinsically motivated and use behaviours in order to satisfy needs.

13.5.3 Personality development

Personality development refers to: growth, maturation and expansion of personality in the physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains; development over time; and influencing factors such as heredity and socio-environmental conditions. Some theorists stress development through progressive, often critical stages, while others describe it as a continuous process.

13.5.4 Personality adjustment and psychological health

In addressing the concepts of structure, motivation and development, most theories also explain personality adjustment, as well as ways to promote adjustment and treat or manage psychological health problems. Adjusted (normal behaviour), as described in personality handbooks, and maladjusted or abnormal behaviour or psychological disorders, as described in sources on psychopathology, are considered by most theorists as two separate types of behaviours. Rogers, for example, associates psychological health with a positive self-concept in relation to success in achieving self-actualisation.

13.5.5 Assessment and research methods

The various perspectives have different preferences for assessment and research methods, which are generally classified as belonging to either clinical or statistical approaches:

• The clinical approach emphasises an intensive analysis of the individual and the uniqueness of behaviour. This approach uses subjective means of assessment and relies strongly on qualitative sources of information (for example, projective techniques and narrative analysis).

• In contrast, the statistical approach emphasises the use of quantitative sources of analysis, such as standardised tests and questionnaires. A combination of approaches and techniques are often used for personality assessment.

13.6 Assumptions and controversies about personality

There are a variety of issues over which personality theorists might differ:

• Some theories postulate that human behaviour can be fully explained and known, while others contend that knowledge of human personality and behaviour can never be complete.

• Personality is mostly explained as a Gestalt, as more than the sum of its separate “parts”. Other approaches use elements of behaviour to explain personality.

• Some theories assume personality is related to a dominant factor such as genetics or environment, while others recognise the influence of multiple factors.

• There is still the question of whether behaviour is caused by specific influences or whether there is merely a relationship between behaviour and certain influences. A definite cause-and-effect relationship is seldom achieved in research.

• An old argument in psychology is whether behaviour is influenced by nature (hereditary, congenital, inborn or natural factors) or by environmental factors.

• The idiographic view asserts that people are unique or “individual”, rather than merely different. According to this view the individual and his/her experiences must be considered as unique even if his/her responses seem the same as those of others in the same situations. In contrast, the nomothetic approach uses objective measures such as psychometric tests to emphasise individual differences and general laws of comparison. The concept of “fit” in psychology promotes the nomothetic idea.

13.7 Utilising personality research in the work context

In the work context there is interest in the reciprocal relationships between personality and occupational behaviours in order to facilitate the best fit between an employee and the work environment. Personality, value patterns and work attitudes formed in early life may have enduring influences in adult occupational behaviours.

A special application of correlation research in the work context is criterion research, in which problems of validity, reliability and restrictedness are special issues. Researchers try to find work performance criteria that are specific to certain jobs but also have universal applications.

In general all types of personality information can be classified as one or more of the following:

• L-data or life data is information from a person’s personal history

• O-data or observer data is information obtained through observations and ratings by people who are knowledgeable about participants

• S-data or self-report data is information obtained from what the respondent verbally tells the researcher

• T-data or test data is information gathered from standardised tests and questionnaires during experiments.

Furnham analysed the following six approaches that are used to research personality in the work context:

• biographical or case-history research

• classic personality theory

• specific personality measures

• analysing the attributes of work environments and employees

• classical organisational and occupational psychology

• longitudinal studies.

Schneider and Hough’s model emphasises three types of moderator variables that may influence the relationship between personality and work performance:

• personal moderator variables

• situational moderator variables

• criterion moderator variables.

13.8 Summary and conclusion

Personality study is an integrative discipline in the study of human behaviour, although not all psychological topics are covered in the study of personality. The variation in personality theory and in constructs may be necessary to reflect the richness of human individuality and cultural diversity in this world.

The older traditional theories, especially Freud’s psychoanalysis, have energised the systematic study of personality. It is also important to acknowledge new emerging and possibly unifying personality theories. Research efforts are still attempting to verify existing personality constructs and to find more valid assessment methods and applications.

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