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A parasitic relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits while the other is harmedMutualism is any relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals mensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. What symbiosis is this? What symbiosis is this? What symbiosis is this?Niche place in nature:?the role of an organism within its natural environment that determines its relations with other organisms and ensures its survival023558500 Habitat- general place where an organism livesTolerance- the ability to survive and reproduce under a range of environmental circumstancesCompetition- organisms compete for limited resourcesCompetitive exclusive principle states that no two species can occupy exactly the same niche in exactly the same habitat at exactly the same time. But resources can be divided or shared.-7620020002500 SharedNot sharedPredator- Prey relationships- affect the size of the population in a community and determine the places prey can live and feedHerbivore-plant relationships- affect the size and distribution of plant population in a community and determine the places certain plants can survive and growKeystone species-changes in the species population this may have dramatic changes in the structure of the communityKeystone species: Bees (Pollinator), bats (Pollinator), sea otter (predator- prey relationship prevents the kelp beds from being devoured by sea urchins)The ecosystem of our planet is subjected to continuous change with several natural communities being formed and replaced over a period. In biology, the entire process in which these new communities come into existence, and eventually get replaced is known as 'ecological succession'. It is further divided into two types - 'primary succession', which begins in an area where there is no soil present initially, and 'secondary succession', which occurs in an area wherein soil is present.Primary Succession DefinitionIn environmental science, 'primary succession' refers to the development of natural communities in a barren habitat with absolutely little or no soil at all. It is most often seen on a newly exposed surface (such as rock exposed by glacial retreat or formed by volcanic eruption) wherein no biotic factors have ever existed. Basically it is the beginning of a gradual growth of an ecosystem which takes several years to complete. In primary succession, species like lichen and algae, which are referred to as the pioneer species, and abiotic factors such as wind and water have a crucial role to play. One of the best examples of primary succession is the growth of pioneering species on soil surface exposed as a result of glacial retreat. When these pioneering species die they are added to Earth, and this forms the base for the growth of new plant species, which eventually result in development of an entire ecosystem.Secondary Succession DefinitionThe second type of ecological succession is the secondary succession, wherein the development of natural communities occurs on a piece of land wherein soil was already present, but natural vegetation was removed by natural or human induced activities. This type of succession is triggered by an event which results in drastic changes in the biotic factors of the said area. In this process the initial succession is disrupted by a particular event, and secondary succession begins with some plant species still existing in the surroundings. One of the best examples is the process wherein wildfire destroys a forest cover, which is eventually replaced by new species of plants. The high nutrition content of soil which facilitates the growth of new plants is attributed to the remains of plants burnt during the wildfire.Difference between Primary Succession and Secondary SuccessionThe most prominent difference between the two happens to be the presence of soil - while primary succession is not dependent on soil, secondary succession is highly dependent on it. One has to take a note of the fact that even though islands formed by volcanic eruptions or rock exposed by glacial retreat do contain disintegrated material of the Earth's crust, it doesn't contain organic matter required to facilitate plant growth - and that explains why only species like lichen and algae grow on it. It is the modification of existing vegetation (including the pioneer species) which forms the base for development of new plant species on this piece of land; and this modification need not be restricted to natural occurrences, such as wildfires, alone, but also includes human activities such as land clearance for agricultural purpose.When a volcano erupts in mid-ocean, lava cools down and results in formation of an island. This is a barren island which has no organic soil to support plant species. Eventually, pioneer species, such as lichen and algae, start colonizing this island (primary succession.) When these species die, they result in development of favorable condition for growth of new plant species (secondary succession.) The growth of new plant species attracts various animal species to this region, who come to this island in search of food. The changes made in the surroundings because of the existing plants and animals, eventually result in conditions favorable for new species of plants as well as animals.There is no questioning the fact that these two attributes of ecological succession - primary and secondary succession, play a crucial role in development of new ecosystems, and thus contribute in maintaining the biodiversity on our planet. The entire phenomenon takes place over several years, owing to which the said ecosystem keeps on changing. To sum it up, ecological succession is a perfectly normal phenomenon wherein several existing species go extinct from a particular area, once in a while, only to be replaced by several new species that are introduced to it. 0000 Primary aquatic succession from a pond to a wet meadowSecondary aquatic succession from beaver to wet meadowBeaver pond, Vermont. Beavers can have tremendous impacts on the ecosystems where they live, as this image shows. What was once a forest has been flooded and the trees have all died, due to a beaver family's damming a stream and creating this pond. With this change, many species of aquatic and wetland species gain new habitat. Eventually, when the beavers move to a different site, their dam will break, the pond will drain, and the slow process of succession will begin on the wet soil left behind. First a meadow will form, then shrubs and pioneer tree species will begin growing, and eventually a mature forest of late successional tree species will develop, decades after the beavers leave. Because of the profound changes they can spur, beavers are sometimes referred to as ecosystem engineers or keystone species, due to the outsized impact of their behavior on local ecosystems. The teeth of beavers, like those of other rodents, keep growing throughout life. Without their remarkable teeth, they would be unable to cut trees and create dams.Abiotic FactorsAbiotic factors are all nonliving components of an ecosystem. These factors include chemical and geological features such as water or lack of water, soil, rocks and minerals. Other abiotic factors include physical components such as the temperature and weather affecting the ecosystem. Biotic FactorsThe biotic factors in an ecosystem include all living things. All plants, animals, fungi, protists and bacteria within an ecosystem make up that system's biotic factors. 0-9144000 Identify all the Abiotic and biotic factors in the rain forest71437513271500Aquatic SystemsSaltwater: global ocean divided into 4 areasAtlanticPacificArcticIndian Freshwater Aquatic life zonesSaltwater life zones (marine life zones)Oceans and estuariesCoastlands and shorelinesCoral reefsMangrove forestsFreshwater life zonesLakesExplain that different types of organisms exist within aquatic systems due to chemistry, geography, light, depth, salinity, and/or temperature.Investigate the chemical factors (pH, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, phosphorous, and salinity) in aquatic systems.Rivers and streamsInland wetlandsMost Aquatic Species Live in Top, Middle, or Bottom Layers of Water (1)Plankton: free floatingPhytoplankton Primary producers for most aquatic food webs Zooplankton Primary and secondary consumers Single-celled to large invertebrates like jellyfishUltraplankton Tiny photosynthetic bacteria6086475190500Explain that different types of organisms exist within aquatic systems due to chemistry, geography, light, depth, salinity, and/or temperatur00Explain that different types of organisms exist within aquatic systems due to chemistry, geography, light, depth, salinity, and/or temperaturMost Aquatic Species Live in Middle, or Bottom Layers of Water (2)Nekton Strong swimmers: fish, turtles, whalesBenthos Bottom dwellers: oysters, sea stars, clams, lobsters, crabsDecomposers Mostly bacteriaKey factors in the distribution of organismsTemperatureDissolved oxygen contentAvailability of foodAvailability of light and nutrients needed for photosynthesis in the euphotic (photic) zone Turbidity: degree of cloudiness in water (Inhibits photosynthesis)Three vertical zones of the open seaEuphotic zone608647594615Investigate the chemical factors (pH, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, phosphorous, and salinity) in aquatic systems.Investigate the chemical factors (pH, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, phosphorous, and salinity) in aquatic systems.PhytoplanktonNutrient levels lowDissolved oxygen levels highBathyal zoneDimly litZooplankton and smaller fishesAbyssal zoneDark and coldHigh levels of nutrientsLittle dissolved oxygenDeposit feedersFilter feedersUpwelling brings nutrients to euphotic zone4467225-25717500Estuaries and coastal wetlands Where rivers meet the sea Seawater mixes with freshwater Very productive ecosystems: high nutrient levelsRiver mouthsInletsBaysSoundsSalt marshes34575758382000Seagrass BedsGrow underwater in shallow areas Support a variety of marine speciesStabilize shorelinesReduce wave impactMangroves46196257810500Along tropical and subtropical coastlines69 different tree species that grow in saltwater Important ecological and economic servicesCoastal aquatic systems maintain water quality by filteringToxic pollutantsExcess plant nutrientsSedimentsAbsorb other pollutants Provide food, timber, fuelwood, and habitatsReduce storm damage and coast erosion518160018097500Intertidal zoneRocky shores Sandy shores: barrier beachesOrganism adaptations necessary to deal with daily salinity and moisture changesImportance of sand dunesMajor threats to marine systems Coastal developmentOverfishingUse of fishing trawlers Runoff of nonpoint source pollutionPoint source pollutionHabitat destructionIntroduction of invasive speciesClimate change from human activitiesPollution of coastal wetlands and estuariesLost of BiodiversityThese regions range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers. Scattered throughout the earth, several are remnants from the Pleistocene glaciation. Many ponds are seasonal, lasting just a couple of months (such as sessile pools) while lakes may exist for hundreds of years or more. Ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they are often isolated from one another and from other water sources like rivers and oceans. Lakes and ponds are divided into three different “zones” which are usually determined by depth and distance from the shoreline.The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond is the littoral zone. This zone is the warmest since it is shallow and can absorb more of the Sun’s heat. It sustains a fairly diverse community, which can include several species of algae (like diatoms), rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes, and amphibians. In the case of the insects, such as dragonflies and midges, only the egg and larvae stages are found in this zone. The vegetation and animals living in the littoral zone are food for other creatures such as turtles, snakes, and ducks.The near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone is the limnetic zone. The limnetic zone is well-lighted (like the littoral zone) and is dominated by plankton, both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Plankton are small organisms that play a crucial role in the food chain. Without aquatic plankton, there would be few living organisms in the world, and certainly no humans. A variety of freshwater fish also occupy this zone.Plankton have short life spans—when they die, they fall into the deep-water part of the lake/pond, the profundal zone. This zone is much colder and denser than the other two. Little light penetrates all the way through the limnetic zone into the profundal zone. The fauna are heterotrophs, meaning that they eat dead organisms and use oxygen for cellular respiration.Temperature varies in ponds and lakes seasonally. During the summer, the temperature can range from 4° C near the bottom to 22° C at the top. During the winter, the temperature at the bottom can be 4° C while the top is 0° C (ice). In between the two layers, there is a narrow zone called the thermocline where the temperature of the water changes rapidly. During the spring and fall seasons, there is a mixing of the top and bottom layers, usually due to winds, which results in a uniform water temperature of around 4° C. This mixing also circulates oxygen throughout the lake. Of course there are many lakes and ponds that do not freeze during the winter, thus the top layer would be a little warmer. ................
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