New AHSGE Science Study Guide - Birmingham City Schools



-New AHSGE Science Study Guide

Standard I: Select appropriate laboratory glassware, balances, time measuring equipment, and optical instruments to conduct an experiment.

FLASK Graduated Cylinders

[pic] [pic]

Flasks- can be used for making solutions Graduated cylinders are use to

or for holding, containing, collecting, or accurately measure liquids

sometimes volumetrically measuring, mixing,

heating, cooling, dissolving,

precipitation, boiling (as in distillation),

or analysis ()

BEAKER COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

[pic] [pic]

Beaker- A beaker is a simple container Compound Microscope-A microscope

for stirring, mixing and heating liquids, they consisting of an objective and an

are commonly used in any laboratory. opposite ends of an adjustable tube

()

MICROSCOPE SLIDE Test Tube

[pic]

Microscope slides are used to view specimen

under a microscope.

PETRI DISH PIPETTE

[pic]

Also known as a dropper

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Standard II: Describe the cell process necessary for achieving homeostasis, including active and passive transport, osmosis, diffusion, exocytosis, and endocytosis.

1. In Biology, when the body or a cell has reached a state of equilibrium (equal) then that means that it is maintaining homeostasis.

2. Active transport is a type of transport that takes place in the cell. Active transport moves substances from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. It requires energy and is aided by transport proteins. In active transport, cells are working against a concentration gradient.

3 Type of Active Transport

a. Sodium Potassium Pump (Protein Pumps)- transports proteins that requires energy to do work.

b. Endocytosis- the movement of substances into to the cell through the vesicles.

c. Exocytosis- the movement of substance out of the cell through the vesicles.

3. Passive transport is a type of transport that takes place in the cell in which substances move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration without the use of energy. Substances move down the concentration gradient.

3 Type of Passive Transport

a. Diffusion- the movement of substances from an area of high to low concentration.

b. Facilitated Diffusion- the movement of substances from an area of high to low concentration with the aid of carrier proteins.

c. Osmosis-the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

*****There are three types of osmotic solutions.

• Isotonic

• Hypotonic

• Hypertonic

Three Types of Osmotic Solutions

|[pic] |If the concentration of solute (salt) is equal on both sides, the water|

| |will move back and forth but it won't have any result on the overall |

| |amount of water on either side. |

| |"ISO" means the same |

|[pic] |The word "HYPO" means less, in this case there are less solute (salt) |

| |molecules outside the cell, since salt sucks, water will move into the |

| |cell. |

| |The cell will gain water and grow larger. In plant cells, the central |

| |vacuoles will fill and the plant becomes stiff and rigid, the cell wall|

| |keeps the plant from bursting |

| |In animal cells, the cell may be in danger of bursting, organelles |

| |called CONTRACTILE VACUOLES will pump water out of the cell to prevent |

| |this. |

|[pic] |The word "HYPER" means more, in this case there are more solute (salt) |

| |molecules outside the cell, which causes the water to be sucked in that|

| |direction. |

| |In plant cells, the central vacuole loses water and the cells shrink, |

| |causing wilting. |

| |In animal cells, the cells also shrink. |

| |In both cases, the cell may die. |

| |This is why it is dangerous to drink sea water - its a myth that |

| |drinking sea water will cause you to go insane, but people marooned at |

| |sea will speed up dehydration (and death) by drinking sea water. |

| |This is also why "salting fields" was a common tactic during war, it |

| |would kill the crops in the field, thus causing food shortages. |

PHOTOSYTNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Standard 3: Identify reactants and products associated with photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and the purposes of these two processes.

There are two processes that are essential to survival in an ecosystem: Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration.

✓ Photosynthesis- the process by which plants take in energy from the sun along with water and carbon dioxide to produce glucose (sugar) and oxygen. This process takes place in chloroplast of the cell. There are three main factors that affect photosynthesis and they are light intensity, water availability, and temperature fluctuation.

Formula: 6CO2 + 2H2O ( C6H12O6 + 6O2

CARBON WATER GLUCOSE OXYGEN

DIOXIDE

✓ Cellular Respiration- the process in which glucose and oxygen are used, carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP is produced. This process takes place in the mitochondria of the cell. The primary purpose of this process is to make chemical energy from glucose molecules.

Formula: C6H12O6 + 6O2 ( 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY

GLUCOSE OXYGEN CARBON WATER ATP

DIOXIDE

NOTE: The left hand side of the formula represents the reactants. The right hand side represents the products. What goes into photosynthesis comes out of cellular respiration.

THE CELL AND ITS ORGANELLES

Standard 4: Describe similarities and differences of cell organelles, using diagrams and tables.

There are two types of organisms, prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

a. Prokaryotes- organism that does not contain a nucleus or membrane bound organelles. But, they do have cytoplasm and cell/plasma membranes. The internal structures of eukaryotes are simple. Ex. bacteria

b. Eukaryotes- organisms that contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles. The internal structures of eukaryotes are complex. Ex. plant and animal cells

********There are two types of Eukaryotic cells: Plant cells and animal cells.

CELL COMPARISON

|Internal Structure |Nucleus Present |Membrane Bound Organelles |

|Eukaryote |Prokaryote |Eukaryote |Prokaryote |Eukaryote |Prokaryote |

|Complex |Simple |Yes |No |Yes |No |

The plant and animal cells share the same organelles except that plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and central (large) vacuole.

[pic][pic]

Cell Organelles

a. Cytoplasm-the liquid inside the cell

b. Cell/Plasma membrane-made of lipids and proteins, it is the boundary of the cell and control what enters and leaves the cell.

c. Nucleus-control center of the cell where the genetic material is found

d. Cell wall-surrounds the plant cell and is made of cellulose

e. Ribosomes-very small organelles that are the sites of protein synthesis.

f. Endoplasmic reticulum- system of tubes in the cytoplasm involved in transporting materials (the rough ER has ribosomes attached and the smooth does not)

g. Golgi Apparatus-involved in packaging and distribution

h. Mitochondria-site of cellular respiration and is the powerhouse of the cell, where ATP is made

i. Lysosomes-stores digestive enzymes

j. Chloroplast-site of photosynthesis, where chlorophyll is made

k. Vacuole-involved in food storage

Organization of Cells

Standard 5: Identify cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems as levels or organization in the biosphere.

The following is the correct way for living structures to be organized:

Molecules>cells>tissues>organs>organ systems>organism>population>community>ecosystem>biosphere

Note: The cell is the least complex of the organization and the ecosystem is the most complex of the organization.

Levels of Organization Chart

|Level of |Explanation |Example |

|Organization | | |

| |the smallest unit of life, a cell is a collection of organelles |Bacteria, Animal & Plant |

|Cell |functioning together | |

|Tissues |a collections of cells working together to perform a specific job |Epithelial & Connective |

|Organs |two or more types of tissues that work together to complete a specific |Heart, Stomach, Brain |

| |task | |

|Organ System |several organs working in unison to achieve a common goal |Digestive, Cardiovascular & |

| | |Respiratory |

|Organism |several organ systems functioning together |Humans, Bird, Frog & Dog |

|Population |groups of individual organisms of the same species working together to |Humans, Bees & Ants |

| |achieve a common goal | |

|Community |A group of plants and animals living (different species) interacting |All the creatures & plants found |

| |with one another in a specific region under relatively similar |in the woods |

| |environmental conditions. | |

|Ecosystem |An ecological community together with its environment, functioning as a|wetlands, oak forest |

| |unit. | |

|Biosphere |The land, water, and air environments in which an organism exists. |All ecosystems |

Example: You may have the following organization:

oak tree>oak forest>, squirrels, deer>forests, animals sunlight, soil, water

Woodlawn high school student> student body>the faculty, staff, and student body>Woodlawn High school and its surroundings, Woodlawn, Eastlake, Avondale and all other communities

This means that this organization represents the organism>population>community>ecosystem

Meiosis and Mitosis

Standard 6: Describe the roles of meiotic and mitotic divisions during reproduction, growth, and repair of cells.

Note: Cells can reproduce either by sexual or asexual reproduction.

There are two types of cell division: Mitosis and Meiosis

a. Mitosis- a type or reproduction in which the cell divides and produces 2 daughter cells (diploid cells) that are identical to the parent cell.(asexual reproduction) (no variation)

b. Meiosis- a type of cell division in which the parent cell will divide twice and produce 4 gametes(sex cells which are haploid) (sexual reproduction- reproducing using a sperm and egg cell) (causes variation and diversity)

Note: Although meiosis and mitosis are two different processes they do share similarities within their stages. One difference in their stages is that crossing over only occurs during meiosis.

The Stages of Meiosis and Mitosis

[pic]

Note: In Meiosis each sex cell will contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell (haploid or n). Once the sperm cell and the egg cell fuse to form the zygote the chromosome number doubles and the resulting cell will be labeled as (diploid or 2n).

[pic]

Note: The diagram below represents Meiosis in Humans because humans have 23 pairs of chromosome which equals 46 total chromosomes.

[pic]

Note: Chromosomes are made up of DNA molecules. DNA has a double helix shape.

The two types of reproduction are sexual and asexual reproduction.

a. sexual reproduction – reproduction using the sperm cell and the egg cell.(Meiosis)

b. asexual reproduction-reproduction between one organism without the use the sperm cell and the egg cell.

4 Types of Asexual Reproduction

o Fission- asexual reproduction in which a organism splits into two equal parts.

o Budding- asexual reproduction in which an organism can grow another organism from the top, bottom, or sides of the organisms body.

o Regeneration- asexual reproduction in which an organism can re-grow missing body parts

o Fragmentation- asexual reproduction in which an can be broken or cut up and those parts will grow into a totally new but identical organism.

Genetics and Heredity

Standard 7: Apply Mendel’s laws to determine phenotypic and genotypic probabilities of offspring.

1. Genetics is the study of heredity.

2. Heredity is the passing of traits from parent to offspring.

3. Genes are subunits of DNA that determines the inherited characteristics (traits) of an individual.

4. Punnett Squares are used to predict the outcome of a genetic cross. Scientists use a punnett square to predict the possible off springs that can be produced between two organisms. It shows the number of individuals that will have a particular gene pair. Each individual square represents ¼ or 25% of the whole square.

Note: Letters are assigned by an individual to represent the various trait or characteristics to displayed using the punnett square. Any letter(s) can represent a trait or characteristic.

• Capital letters(ABCD etc.) represents the dominant genes

• Lower case letters(efghi etc.) represent the recessive genes.

• Gene pairs can either be heterozygous (containing two different genes) or homozygous (containing two same genes).

• Homozygous gene pairs can either be homozygous dominant (ex.BB) or homozygous recessive (ex.qq) .

5. Traits are inherited characteristics.

6. Alleles are the multiple forms of gene. Ex. Tt or TT can represent a person that is tall.

7. Genotypes are the combinations of alleles for a particular trait (homozygous or heterozygous. Ex. The gene pair Bb or BB can represent a person that has brown eyes but Bb is heterozygous and BB is homozygous. So these are the combinations or multiple forms of a gene.

8. Phenotypes are the physical characteristics of an organism that shows how the genes are expressed. Ex. When looking at a gene pair you should be able to tell color, height, sex, etc.

Try This!!!

If T= tall and t = short what will be the possible offspring of two parents in which one parent is heterozygous(Tt) and the other parent is homozygous recessive (tt). Tt x tt

Here is how to work your problem.

[pic] [pic] [pic] [pic]

THIS MEANS:

½ or 50% of the offspring can be tall (Tt)

½ or 50% of the offspring can be short (tt)

In Reference to Phenotypes and Genotypes

Genotype (genes): (How the letters look): ½ or 50% of the offspring can be heterozygous

½ or 50% of the offspring can be homozygous recessive

Phenotype (physical traits or characteristics):

½ or 50% of the offspring can be tall

½ or 50% of the offspring can be short

The Structure and Function of DNA, RNA, and Protein

Standard 8: Identify the structure and function of DNA, RNA, and Protein

DNA

1. What is DNA? DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses

2. Where does DNA come from? It can be found all over an organism in its cells.

3. What does DNA look like? It is the shape of a double helix. DNA molecules consists of two polynucleotide strands coiled around each other in a helical "twisted ladder" structure. The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside of the double helix, and the bases are on the inside, so that a base on one strand points directly toward a base on the second strand. When using the twisted ladder analogy, think of the sugar-phosphate backbones as the two sides of the ladder and the bases in the middle as the rungs of the ladder. In effect, each strand of DNA is one-half of the double helix. The two halves come together to form the double helix structure.

[pic]

4. What is the function/purpose of DNA?

The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.

NOTE: DNA preserves the genetic code from one generation to the next through the process of DNA replication.

DNA replication is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule to form two double-stranded molecules.[1][2] The process of DNA replication is a fundamental process used by all living organisms as it is the basis for biological inheritance. As each DNA strand holds the same genetic information, both strands can serve as templates for the reproduction of the opposite strand.



The Structure and Components of DNA

1. DNA is made up of smaller unit called nucleotides.

2. A nucleotide is a chemical compound that is a structural unit of DNA and RNA

Nucleotides contain three parts:

• a sugar (The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose)

• a phosphate group

• a nitrogen base

DNA Bases

There are 4 nitrogenous bases and they are as follow: Adenine(A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), & Thymine (T)

[pic]

• Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines, that is, they have nitrogen bases that have two rings.

• Thymine (T) and cytosine (C) pyrimidines, that is, they have nitrogen bases with one ring.

DNA Base Pairing

The rule is that adenine (A) forms a base pair with thymine (T), as does guanine (G) with cytosine (C) in DNA. As a consequence of this pairing in DNA, there are always the same number of A and T residues and G and C residues (this is known as Chargaff's rule).

Chargaff's Rules

• Erwin Chargaff discovered that:

– The percentages of guanine [G] and cytosine [C] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA.

– The percentages of adenine [A] and thymine [T] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA.

Ex. Use the chart below to answer the following question.

Question: Which student correctly identified possible percentages of nucleotide bases that could be present in complete sample of DNA?

Hint: Remember Chargaff’s Rule above: A and T will have the same percentages in any sample of DNA and so will G and C.

|Student |Amount of Base DNA % |

| |A |T |G |C |

|1 |25 |15 |25 |15 |

|2 |30 |20 |20 |30 |

|3 |15 |30 |30 |15 |

|4 |15 |15 |40 |40 |

[pic]

Example of DNA Base Pairing

ATCGACG

TAGCTGC

Now try this strand: TTCAGCCT ANSWER: TTCAGCCT

AAGTCGGA

*****This means that these two strands above are complimentary to each other.

RNA

1. What is RNA? Ribonucleic Acid is a nucleic acid that is made from a long chain of nucleotide units.

2. What does RNA look like? It is single stranded which means that it is half of the double helix.

[pic]

3. Where does RNA come from? DNA

4. What is the function/purpose of RNA? There are 3 different types of RNA and each one has its own function.

3 Types of RNA

• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- exist outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm of a cell in structures called ribosomes. Ribosomes are small, granular structures where protein synthesis takes place. Each ribosome is a complex consisting of about 60% ribosomal RNA) and 40% protein.

• Messenger RNA (mRNA)- are the nucleic acids that "record" information from DNA in the cell nucleus and carry it to the ribosomes.

• Transfer RNA (tRNA)- The function of transfer RNAs (tRNA) is to deliver amino acids one by one to protein chains growing at ribosomes.

5. How does RNA differ from DNA?

RNA is very similar to DNA, but differs in a few important structural details: in the cell RNA is usually single stranded, while DNA is usually double stranded. RNA molecules are smaller or shorter than DNA molecules. RNA nucleotides contain ribose while DNA contains deoxyribose (a type of ribose that lacks one oxygen atom), and RNA has the nucleotide uracil rather than thymine which is present in DNA. RNA transports amino acids while DNA is primarily responsible for storing genetic information.

The Structure and Components of RNA

1. RNA is a nucleic acid made from a long chain of nucleotide units.

2. A nucleotide is a chemical compound that is a structural unit of DNA and RNA

Nucleotides contain three parts:

• a sugar (The sugar in RNA is ribose)

• a phosphate group

• a nitrogen base

RNA BASES

There are 4 nitrogenous bases and they are as follow: Adenine(A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), & Uracil (U) (unlike DNA which has thymine instead of uracil)

RNA Base Pairing

RNA can also form base pairs, A pairing with U and G pairing with C.

Try this!!!

ACGCAGT is a DNA nucleotide sequence.

What nucleotide sequence would represent the corresponding portion of DNA? RNA (Remember, DNA and RNA share the same base pairs except one)

Answer: (DNA) ACGCAGT (RNA) ACGCAGT

TGCGTCA UGCGUCA

DNA vs. RNA

|RNA |DNA |

|Single-Stranded |Double-Stranded |

|Has Uracil as a base |Has Thymine as a base |

|Ribose as the sugar |Deoxyribose as the sugar |

|Uses protein-encoding information |Maintains protein-encoding information |

Proteins

1. What are proteins? Proteins are chains of amino acids (building blocks of proteins) and are the basis of structure and function in all living things. They are the receptors that detect chemical signals so that cells can respond to stimuli.

2. What are the functions/purpose of proteins? Some proteins serve as enzymatic catalysts. NOTE: Enzymes and catalysts speeds up the rate of chemical reactions or reduce the activation energy (amount of energy needed) of a chemical reaction. They provide storage for elements like iron. Some proteins are important in structural functions like making or maintaining bones, skin, hair, nails etc. Some proteins are important in the locomotion of cells, movement of materials and transporting hemoglobin for oxygen. They also regulate hormones, control metabolism, and aid in making antibodies to support the immune system.

3. How are proteins linked to DNA and RNA? Proteins are the basis for the major structural components of animal and human tissue. Proteins are encoded by DNA; RNA is transcribed from DNA, and proteins are built on the RNA template by ribosomes (the site of protein synthesis).

The Previous 5 and Current 6 Kingdom Systems

Standard 9: Differentiate between the previous five-kingdom an current six kingdom classification systems.

1. Originally there were five kingdoms. They were as follows: Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Monera, and Protista.

2. Now there are currently six kingdoms. They are as follows: Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protista, Archaebacteria, and Eubacteria.

3. The kingdom monera which are our bacteria-like organisms were subdivided into archaebacteria and eubacteria.

4. Archaebacteria differs from other bacteria in that they have cell membranes that contain lipids (fat molecules) not found in any other organisms. In addition, archaebacteria lack peptidoglycan (substance composed of molecules consisting of sugars that forms a layer outside the plasma membrane of eubacteria) in their cell walls.

5. There are several characteristics of archaebacteria. They are prokaryotic, unicellular, have unique ribosomal RNA (unlike eubacteria), commonly found in harsh environments like underground waters sources, and they are commonly found in anaerobic (without air) environments.

*So, the differences between the 5 kingdom and 6 kingdom system is that the kingdom monera in the 5 kingdom system was broken down into two kingdoms. They are archaebacteria and eubacteria.

Plants

Standard 10: Distinguish between monocots and dicots, angiosperms and gymnosperms, and vascular and nonvascular plants.

Plants can either be multi-cellular or unicellular organisms that make their own food by way of photosynthesis. The cells of plants are eukaryotic. They have cells with cell walls made of cellulose. Plants are often referred to producers or autotrophs.

Two Types of Plants

1. Nonvascular plants- do not contain conducting tubes called xylem and phloem tubes.

2. Vascular plants- plants that contain conducting tubes called xylem and phloem tubes.

• Xylem Tubes transport water and minerals from the roots throughout the plant.

• Phloem tubes transports sugar and starches from the leaves throughout the plant.

Vascular Plants

Vascular plants can either be gymnosperms(conifer) or angiosperms(flowering).

a. gymnosperms- plants that produce naked seeds or seeds that are not enclosed in fruit and has needlelike leaves. These types of plants are mostly pollinated by the wind.

b. Angiosperms- plants that produce flowers and seeds enclosed in a fruit. (ex. Apples)These types of plants are mostly pollinated by insects although wind and water can also play a role.

[pic] Angiosperms or Flowering Plants

-All of the angiosperms reproduce with the use of pollen except the ferns, they reproduce by the use of spores.

-Flowering plants have 4 main parts:

1. Pistil- the female reproductive part of the flower that is made up of the stigma, style ( the neck of the pistil), and the ovary.

2. Stamen- the male reproductive portion of the flower that is made up of the anther (where the pollen is made) and the filament.

3. Sepal- the part of the flower that covers the flower buds.

4. Petal-the bright leaflets that attracts the insects.

[pic]

Two Types of Angiosperms

1. Monocots (monocotolyledonae)- plants that produce seeds with one seed leaf. They also produce flowers with flower parts that are in multiples of three and have long narrow leaves with parallel veins.

2. Dicots (dicotyledonae)- plants that produce seeds with two seed leaves. Most dicots also produce flowers with flower parts in multiples of two, four, or five, and have leaves with branching, or netted, veins.

Note: The word cotyledon means “one seed leaf”.

[pic]

[pic]

|MONOCOTS |DICOTS |

| | |

|Embryo with single cotyledon |Embryo with two cotyledons |

|Pollen with single furrow or pore |Pollen with three furrows or pores |

|Flower parts in multiples of three |Flower parts in multiples of four or five |

|Major leaf veins parallel |Major leaf veins reticulated |

|Stem vacular bundles scattered |Stem vascular bundles in a ring |

In Most Plants

• The sex cells in plants are called gametophytes

• Plants reproduce using pollen grains and an ovary. The pollen grain is the male sex cell (gametophyte) and the ovary is the female sex cell (gametophyte)

• The flower is pollinated because the pollen travels down the style through the pollen tube to the egg.

• The parts of the flower that is not involved in reproduction is the sepal and the petal.

• The cuticle is the waxy layer of the leaf of a plant that covers it to help reduce water loss.

• Water is lost through the pores of the leaf called a stomata and this process is called transpiration.

Nonvascular Plants

• Examples of nonvascular plants are mosses, liverworts, and lichen.

• Water is needed for the sperm to swim in order for the nonvascular plants to become fertilized.

• Nonvascular plants are usually smaller that vascular plants because the nonvascular plants have no transport (conducting) tubes (xylem and phloem).

Animals

Standard 11: Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure, method of fertilization and reproduction, body symmetry, body coverings, and locomotion.

Standard 12: Describe protective adaptations of animals, including mimicry, camouflage, beak type, migration, and hibernation.

Animals Overview

• All animals are multicellular which means that they are made of more than one cell.

• Animal can not make their own food which means that they are heterotrophic.

• Animal cells do not contain chlorophyll, cell walls, cellulose, and they do not go through photosynthesis.

• Animals cells are eukaryotic which means that they have a nucleus and membranes bound organelles.

Two Types of Animals

1. Vertebrates- animals with a backbone like dogs and cats.

a. ectotherms- cold blooded animals

b. endotherms-warm blooded animals

2. Invertebrates- animals without a backbone like worms and snakes.

|Vertebrates |Invertebrates |

|Phyla |Subphyla |Phyla |Subphyla |

| |Fishes |Sponges | |

|Ectotherms |Amphibians |Cnidarians | |

|(cold blooded) |Reptiles |Worms | |

| | |Mollusks | |

|Endotherms |Birds |Arthropods | |

|(warm blooded) |Mammals |Echinoderms | |

Animal Body Symmetry

Note: Animals come in all shapes and sizes. Some animals can be cut into half and you will see that they have the same shapes on the left and right or top and bottom. Other animals can be cut and you will see a different shape no matter how they are cut.

1. Asymmetrical- bodies will have no certain shape they are irregular in shape

2. Radial Symmetry- bodies are arranged around a central point

3. Bilateral Symmetry- both right and left halves of the body are mirrored images of each other (look the same).

Reproduction in Animals

The two types of reproduction are sexual and asexual reproduction.

1. sexual reproduction – reproduction using the sperm cell and the egg cell.(Meiosis)

2 Types of Sexual Reproduction

a. Internal Fertilization- reproduction that requires fertilization inside the body. (Does not require water)

b. External Fertilization-reproduction that requires the fertilization outside the body. (Requires water)

2. asexual reproduction-reproduction between one organism without the use the sperm cell and the egg cell. (Mitosis)

4 Types of Asexual Reproduction

o Fission- asexual reproduction in which a organism splits into two equal parts.

o Budding- asexual reproduction in which an organism can grow another organism from the top, bottom, or sides of the organisms body.

o Regeneration- asexual reproduction in which an organism can re-grow missing body parts

o Fragmentation- asexual reproduction in which an can be broken or cut up and those parts will grow into a totally new but identical organism.

Protective Adaptation in Animals

* Note: There are numerous things that animals must do in order to survive in their environments. Some of those things include making themselves look like things in the environments or changing body colors to blend in to the environment.

1. Adaptation- any characteristic that allows an animal to be able to survive in its environment.

Types of Adaptations

a. Structural-adaptations that involves body shape and color

b. Behavioral- adaptations that involves the need for hibernation and migration in order to get or keep food.

c. Physiological-adaptations that involves the need of an animal to change internally to survive in a new or different environment.

3. Protective Resemblance- an adaptation in which an animal will look like something else in the environment.

Types of Protective Resemblance

a. Mimicry- a type of adaptation that causes an animal to make itself look like another animal or object in order to protect itself from being eaten.

b. Self Mimicry- an adaptation that helps to protect an animal’s most vulnerable body part(s) from predators by having one body part look like a different body part.

c. Aggressive Mimicry- an adaptation that animals use to catch prey. In this type of mimicry they will make themselves look like something that the prey wants.

4. Protective Coloration- an adaptation in which animals will or can change the color of their skin or their coats to blend in to their surroundings.

Types of Protective Coloration

a. Camouflage (Cryptic Coloration)- an adaptation where animals are able to blend into their surroundings by using the same or similar colors as their surroundings.

b. Warning Coloration- a type of adaptation that protects animals that displays colors that will warn predators to keep away.

5. Hibernation- a state of sleep that animals use during cold whether when their metabolism slows down.

6. Estivation- a state of sleep that animals go through during hot weather.

7. Migration- the movement of an animal from one region or climate to another for a specific period of time.

8. Nocturnal- asleep during the day and awake at night

9. Diurnal- awake in the day and asleep at night

The Ecosystem

Standard 13: Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains, food webs, and energy pyramids.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

Note: Biotic and Abiotic factors are two things that can affect the survival of organisms in an ecosystem

1. Abiotic Factors- the nonliving components of an ecosystem ex. wind, water, sun

|Some Abiotic Factors |

|light intensity |

|temperature range |

|type of soil or rock |

|pH level |

|(acidity or alkalinity) |

|water availability |

|dissolved gases |

|level of pollutant |

2. Biotic Factors- the living organisms or their materials that affect an organism in its environment. Ex. Plants and animals

|Some Biotic Factors |

|parasitism |

|disease |

|predation |

Ecological Succession

“Ecological succession” is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. Within any community some species may become less abundant over some time interval, or they may even vanish from the ecosystem altogether. Similarly, over some time interval, other species within the community may become more abundant, or new species may even invade into the community from adjacent ecosystems. This observed change over time in what is living in a particular ecosystem is “ecological succession”.



Note: In order for an ecosystem to survive, energy has to be passed along by the different organisms.

Producers, Consumers, Decomposers

1. Producers-organisms that make their own food using energy form the sun.(Autotrophs)

2. Decomposers- organisms that feed off of dead plant and animal matter. Ex. Maggots mushrooms

3. Consumers- organisms that depends on others for food. (heterotrophs)

3Types of Consumers

• Herbivores- organisms that eat plants only. Also referred to as 1st order or primary consumers

• Omnivores – organisms that eats both plants and animals. Also referred to as 2nd order or secondary consumers.

• Carnivores- organisms that eat meat only and they are also referred to as the tertiary, quaternary, or the top consumers.

Food Chains, Food Webs, & Energy Pyramids

Note: The greatest amount of energy is always contained at the base or the bottom of the food chains, food webs, and energy pyramids.

1. A food chain shows the order in which organisms are being eaten.

Ex. Grass(Rabbit (Fox(Bear

2. A food web shows the possible feeding relationships in and ecosystem.

[pic]

3. An energy pyramid shows the different levels of energy in an ecosystem. The greatest amount of energy is contained at the base of the pyramid.

[pic]



14. Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment, including water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen.

[pic]

Note: The water cycle shows the way that water travels from the ground or earth and back into the atmosphere again in a continuous cycle. Since it is a cycle then you may begin at any point.

• Water can accumulate (gather or fill) in lakes, rivers, and streams.

• Through precipitation (snow, rain, sleet, and hail), water runs into mountains, underground through the soil (percolation) and into lakes, rivers and streams.

• Through surface runoff when the snow melts water can re-enter the cycle.

• Through condensation (changing from a gas or a vapor into a liquid) water enters the water cycle.

• Through transpiration (movement of water from the roots to the outside of the leaf) water evaporates and enters the water cycle.

• Animals also contribute to the water cycle through respiration (breathing) because exhaling gives off water vapors.

Carbon Cycle

Note: Most of the carbon in the atmosphere is in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2).

• Plants take in carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis and once eaten the carbon cycle begins again.

• Plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates (sugars)

• During photosynthesis, carbon is fixed.

• Carbon fixation is the conversion of inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) to organic carbon (sugar).

• Carbon fixation takes place in the leaves pof

• Through cellular respiration, carbon dioxide re-enters the atmosphere by way of plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi.

• Decay by fungi, bacteria, and burning contributes the carbon cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle

[pic]

Note: Nitrogen is important to living organisms because it is used to make amino acids (building blocks of proteins).

• Nitrogen fixation is a process that converts nitrogen gas into ammonia.

• Nitrogen fixing bacteria is bacteria that lives in soil or on the roots (nodules) and can convert nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonia (NH3).

• Once nitrogen has been fixed, other bacteria can change the ammonia into nitrates and nitrites. This process is called nitrification.

• Nitrogen re-enters the atmosphere by way of waste products from organisms.

• Decomposers return nitrogen back into the soil to be used by plants.

Oxygen Cycle

[pic]

Oxygen cycles through Earth’s environment in several forms. It can be dissolved in the air or in water. Plants and animals breathe oxygen and return it to the air and water as carbon dioxide. Through photosynthesis, plans convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates, and oxygen is released. The algae in the oceans and other water bodies replace about 90 percent of all oxygen used on our planet.



[pic]

15. Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native organisms.

Some Land (Terrestrial) Biomes:

|Biome |Water |Temperature |Soil |Plants |Animals |

|Desert |Almost none |hot or cold |poor |sparse - succulents |sparse - insects, |

| | | | |(like cactus), sage |arachnids, reptiles and |

| | | | |brush |birds (often nocturnal) |

|Chaparal (scrub) |dry summer, |hot summer, cool winter |poor |shrubs, some woodland|drought and fire-adapted|

| |rainy winter | | |(like scrub oak) |animals |

|Tundra |dry |cold |permafrost (frozen|lichens and mosses |migrating animals |

| | | |soil) | | |

|Taiga (coniferous |adequate |cool year-round |poor, rocky soil |conifers |many mammals, birds, |

|forest) | | | | |insects, arachnids, etc.|

|Temperate Deciduous |adequate |cool season and warm |fertile soil |deciduous trees |many mammals, birds, |

|Forest | |season | | |reptiles, insects, |

| | | | | |arachnids, etc. |

|Grassland |wet season, dry |warm to hot (often with a|fertile soil |grasses (few or no |many mammals, birds, |

| |season |cold season) | |trees) |insects, arachnids, etc.|

|Tropical rain forest |very wet |always warm |poor, thin soil |many plants |many animals |

|Swamp |very wet |warm |nutrient-rich soil|many plants |many animals |

|Cave (terrestrial) |variable |cool (and dark) |rocks |almost no plants |few animals |

|Biome |Water |Temperature |Soil |Plants |Animals |

16. Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors that affect populations in an ecosystem.

Every population has limiting factors that limit its population size and prevents that species from taking over its range.  Some populations are increasing in size, some are decreasing in size and others are remaining somewhat stable for long periods of time.  Ultimately, even growing populations will stabilize or decrease due to limiting factors. Limiting factors can be classified as density dependent or density independent. 

• The effects of density-dependent factors increase in significance as a population grows. 

• The effect of density-independent factors does not depend on the population size. 

In the natural world, limiting factors like the availability of food, water, shelter and space can change animal and plant populations. Other limiting factors like competition for resources, predation and disease can also impact populations. If any of the limiting factors change, animal and plant populations change, too. Some changes may cause a population to increase.

Note: In nature, populations usually balance themselves. Sometimes when man impacts populations, they can't always reestablish a natural balance.[pic]

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download