The University of Southern Mississippi



Slayings in Neshoba County:

Turning Point

in Criminal Prosecution

Laura King

Individual Exhibit

Senior Division

Process Paper

"Until the killing of black men, black mothers' sons, becomes as important to the rest of the country as the killing of a white mother's son. We who believe in freedom cannot rest until this happens." Ella Baker, 1964

After decades of Jim Crow Justice, in 1964 the tables were turned, with the murders of three Civil Rights workers, in Philadelphia, Mississippi. A turning point in Civil Rights History, the federal government became involved in a statewide search for the bodies, leading to the first federal prosecution of the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan and the first successful jury conviction of white officials, in Mississippi, for crimes against black people.

The struggle for Civil Rights, especially here in Mississippi, has always been an area of interest for me. This is why I am currently planning to attend college to become a professor of African American Studies, so this very sinister moment in our history – a blight on important work being done for voting registration, and with an outcome that turned the tables of criminal prosecution – seemed like a perfect fit.

My research began last summer, when I was visiting my family in Ohio. My former community of Findlay holds dear a Black Heritage Public Library, and the founder gave me full access to the many gems of knowledge there. Additionally, I thoroughly enjoyed increasing my personal library with books purchased from Amazon, as well as borrowing library books, and was fortunate to also access some media sources and oral history interviews. Having completed a National History Day project about James Meredith’s Integration of Ole Miss a few years ago, one can only imagine how excited I was when I had the opportunity to interview him, about my current project, while he was in South Mississippi on a book tour. During the summer I also attempted to interview a former member of the Ku Klux Klan, but the man I found told me that, “there are some things you just don’t talk about.”

Having designed the exhibit in my mind last summer, finally having the chance to construct it was long-anticipated and very exciting. With advice from my art teacher and construction help from my step-dad, I created a cross and fabric, in red and black, to symbolize the Ku Klux Klan. Putting a unique ‘spin’ on the traditional tri-fold, we secured the cross in a turn table, so both sides of text and visuals would be easily accessible to the audience. It was slightly tricky organizing my information on separate panels, but after deliberation on what was necessary, I finally was pleased. To help with the organization, and give background information of the event, I used a timeline. The design of my exhibit made it easier to transport.

Widespread publicity about Freedom Summer garnered national attention to racial violence in the South. Outrage over the Philadelphia murders brought in the FBI, as ordered by President Lyndon B. Johnson, and government commitment with regards to ending Klan brutality. Although it has been a long road to racial equality, policing the police and prosecuting the Klan, the 1968 federal hate crime statute was another step in the journey to justice.

Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources

Documents

Civil Rights Act of 1968. Pub. L. 90-284, 82 Stat. 73. 11 April 1968. 11 Feb. 2013 < >.

This act, one piece of legislation resulting from public enragement about racial violence in the South, includes, “any citizen because he is or has been, or in order to intimidate such citizen or any other citizen from lawfully aiding or encouraging other persons to participate, without discrimination on account of race, color, religion or national origin, in any of the benefits or activities described...”

Johnson, Lyndon B. “Remarks Upon Signing the Civil Rights Act of 1968.” East Room at the White House, Washington, D.C. 4 April, 1968. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. 11 Feb. 2013. .

In this speech, President Johnson references the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965, and laments losing this battle in 1966 and 1967. He referred to the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4, 1968.

Voting Rights Act of 1965. U.S. House - H. CON. RES. 249. August 6, 1965. 11 Feb. 2013. < >.

This important law is a direct result of the efforts during Freedom Summer. It was said that people did not need integrated movie houses or restaurants, because they couldn’t afford those things anyway; what they needed was the right to vote.

Wilkins, Roy. Letter to Senator. January 15, 1968. 11 Feb. 2013. .

In this letter, Roy Wilkins, Chairman of Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, is urging passage of H.R. 2516, civil rights protection act. “This legislation must be enacted if people in America are to retain their faith in legislation as the means for redressing their wrongs.”

Interviews and Oral Histories

Meredith, James. Personal Interview. November 10, 2012.

While he was on a book tour in South Mississippi, I had the opportunity to visit with Mr. Meredith about my topic. He said he was in Africa at the time, but had he been in the United States, he would have not become involved with the Philadelphia Civil Rights Workers murders. After learning so much about Mr. Meredith, it was very interesting to talk with him. He has so much in his brain, that he answers questions very slowly and thoughtfully.

Whitman, Gren. “Mississippi Summer 1964”. Progressive Review. January 14, 2005. 01 Feb. 2013.

One of several oral histories I was able to find, on the Civil Rights Veterans web site, Mr. Whitman recalls the events of Freedom Summer, particularly the slayings in Neshoba County. “Fear cannot be described, only felt. I have been frightened many times in my life in varying degrees, in varying circumstances. And courage is not the absence of fear. Fear is the essence of courage. What are your emotions now, driving with us along a lonely highway in rural Mississippi, in an integrated car? If you are frightened, you are with friends, and you are sane. If you are not afraid, you know nothing about Mississippi.”

Periodicals

“Bogue Chitto Swamp.” Life Magazine July, 1964, Vol. 84, no.2.

This magazine article showed pictures of the seaman searching for the bodies in the swamps. It also gave the reactions of the public at the disappearances at the time.

“Mississippi Girds for its Summer of Discontent.” U.S. News and World Report. June 15, 1964.

While Mississippi is supposed to be known for hospitality, during Freedom Summer, the atmosphere was nothing but tense. The living situation for the volunteers was often inadequate and the white southern racists were nowhere near welcoming of the visitors.

“Neshoba County Sheriff Rainey and Deputy Sheriff Cecil Price in

Courtroom.” Life Magazine December, 1964. Vol. 84, No. 26.

Looking at this picture of Sheriff Rainey and Deputy Price made me learn that even though killing is wrong, some people do not feel remorse for what they have done.

“The Invader.” Newsweek June 29, 1964.

Even though Freedom Summer was supposed to be a peaceful way to take action and gain equal rights, many people, including the media, viewed the students who came to Mississippi as an invasion

Books

Tucker, Shirley. Mississippi From Within. New York, New York: Arco Publishing Company, Inc., 1965.

During the 1960s, the author of this book collected newspaper articles of the Civil Rights movement. She then took all of the articles to show the progression of the movement through the media. This book was one of my most valuable sources.

Winstead, Mary. Back to Mississippi: A Personal Journey Through the Events that Changed Ameria in 1964.New York, NY: Theia Publishing, 2002.

This source was one of my favorites from all of the reading I had done. Not only does it give information on the murders, but it also gives it from the point of few of a young sheltered girl who grew up to realize that she was related to Preacher Killen who had orchestrated the murders.

Secondary Sources

Documents

"Annual Hate Crimes Report Released.” The Federal Bureau of Investigation. December 10, 2012. Web. 19 Feb. 2013. .

This article gave me specific statistics on hate crimes and how violent they become. Hate groups in the United States are on the rise as well as those working to stop the crimes.

Books

Aretha, David. The Civil Rights Movement: Freedom Summer. Greensboro, NC: Morgan Reynolds Publishihng, 2008.

After I checked out this book from my local library, I began to learn about the goals of freedom summer. It not only showed how strongly the blacks wanted the right to vote, but how many young white college students stood alongside them to help fight for equal rights.

Boyd, Herb. We Shall Overcome. Naperville, Illinois: Source Books, Inc., 2004.

I came across this book after I learned that the bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama was a major factor in Michael Schwerner’s decision to join CORE. This source gave me background information on the bombing as well as the aftermath throughout the black community.

Cagin, Seth and Philip Dray. We Are Not Afraid: The Story of Goodman, Schwerner

and Chaney and the Civil Rights Campaign for Mississippi. New York, New: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988.

This very first book I read on the killings was instrumental in my choice in the topic. I knew that from reading this and learning of the terrible murders that it was something that I wanted to teach others about.

Cobb, Charles E., Jr. “On the Road to Freedom: A Guided Tour of the Civil Rights Trail.”

Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2008.

This pamphlet produced by Neshoba County was made to create a better image of the county saying that they had discovered the roots of the racism and that the county has begun to heal.

Dittmer, John. Local People: The Struggle For Civil Rights in Mississippi. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994.

From the very beginning of the planning for Freedom Summer, the parents of the students were concerned about their safety. This book gave me the views of the students and parents as well as the police and government.

Wexler, Sanford. An Eyewitness History of The Civil Rights Movement. New York: Checkmark Book, 1999.

Freedom Summer, at the start of my research, was not an aspect of the Civil Rights Movement that I was very familiar with. This book gave me background information as well as a few facts about the murders of Schwerner, Chaney, and Goodman.

Walter, Mildred Pitts. Mississippi Challenge. New York, NY: Bradbury Press, 1992.

When the FBI and workers of Freedom Summer came to Mississippi, they were shocked at the poverty in the delta. Through this source, I learned about what the volunteers had to live in during the summer of 1964.

Whitehead, Don. Attack on Terror: The FBI vs. The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi. New York, New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1970.

The information in this book not only gave me historical knowledge on the start of the KKK, but also on the murders in Philadelphia. It was very helpful because it gave information on what was going within the FBI and what they were doing to stop the KKK.

Periodicals

“Federal prosecutor who led historic case dies: Know for conviction of Ku Klux

Klansman Ernest Avants.” The Courier. 2 July 2012: A5.

Much of my research took place when I was visiting my aunt in Ohio last summer. We had just been discussing finding evidence of civil rights cases prosecuted after the 1964 Philadelphia murders, and this article appeared in the newspaper the next day. “Lacy was known for his work in the 2003 conviciton of former Ku Klux Klansman Ernest Avants for aiding and abetting the murder of black sharecropper Ben Chester White on federal property.”

Gardiner, Rev. Dr. William. “Reflections on the History of White Supremacy in the

United States.” March, 2009. 11 Feb. 2013.

Reverend Dr. William Gardiner, of Unitarian Universalist Ministries, wrote this comprehensive and well-documented essay on the history of White Supremacy in the United States, from the European Colonization of the 1550s though post-WWII. It was very enlightening and helped me gain a perspective seldom discussed (at least at my level of education). I applied this knowledge to the background portion of my exhibit.

“Hate Goes to School For the Record.” Intelligence Report. Spring, 2000, issue 98:38-

40.

Even in 2000, there was still evidence of strong racial tensions in schools against blacks and Jewish people. Young school children showed signs of hate towards the minorities.

Holthouse, David. “Southern Gothic.” Intelligence Report. Summer, 2007, issue126:

45-53.

During one of my visits to the African-American Heritage Museum, I found this article that I used in support of my thesis. It gave evidence of the indictments of plotting Klan members in 2001.

Jaehnig, K.C. "Freedom Summer." Freedom Summer. February 5, 2002. Web. 22 Feb. 2013. .

Information from this website article was helpful in understanding how the volunteers of Freedom Summer felt as well as giving me quotes from one of the volunteers, Jane Adams.

“Long Road to Justice – Policing the Police and Prosecuting the Klan.” The Leadership

Conference. 11 Feb. 2013 .

The article on this web site was very helpful, in giving a brief description of persecution and how the police had to be “policed” because they were not following the proper code of ethics

Mitchell, Jerry. "Journey To Justice." Clarion Ledger. June 28, 2011. Web. 22 Feb. 2013. .

The author of this article, Jerry Mitchell, not only gives a broad overview of Klan members, but he also took me into the thoughts of Sam Bowers. This article gave me a better understanding of the events of Sam Bower’s life.

Nelson, Stanley. "FBI Invasion of Mississippi in 1964; 35 Agents in Natchez, 10 in Ferriday." The Concordia Sentinel. August 9, 2007. Web. 20 Feb. 2013. .

When I came across this website article, I was thrilled because it not only gave me information on the impact of my topic, but it also completely went with my topic. During the search for the bodies of Schwerner, Chaney, and Goodman, many bodies were found. Two of the bodies were of Henry Dee and Charles Moore. From this article I learned that the killer who was a member of the KKK as well as a police officer was sentenced to trial in 2007.

Potok, Mark. “The Year in Hate and Extremism.” Intelligence Report Spring, 2011, issue141. 17 June 2012. .

This website gave me a view of the spread of hate groups, including the KKK, in the United States. It showed that the highest concentration of hate groups was in the south.

"Rodney King, Motorist Whose Beating by Los Angeles Police Officers Sparked Deadly US Race Riots, Dead at 47." NBC News. Web. 22 Feb. 2013. .

Rodney King shows an impact of my topic because he was a victim of racial violence. He was beaten by cops, but even though all the cops were not convicted, it still shows improvement in the way people view racial crimes.

Video Media

“Inside the New KKK.” Nightline. ABC. WLOX, Biloxi. 25 Oct. 2012.

My NHD mentor brought this astonishing documentary, on a mainstream television news program, to my attention. While it is difficult to imagine the KKK still exists, the members featured in this short presentation believe, as much as ever, that, “All non-whites should be rounded up and sent somewhere else to live.”

Websites

“Hate and Extremism”. Southern Poverty Law Center. Web. 19 Feb. 2013. .

This website not only gives the statistics on hate groups that are still around, but that these groups are actually increasing.

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