Organ Systems - Mrs. Macey's Web Pages
Levels of Organization and Organ Systems
The human body is structured into systems. Recall that cells are the smallest units of life. Cells that are similar in shape and function work together as tissue. The human body has four primary kinds of tissue:
Epithelial tissue – covers and protects the body, organs and body cavities
Connective tissue – provides support and holds the body together
Examples: cartilage, bone, fat and blood
Muscle tissue – contains sheets or bundles of muscle cells to produce movement
Nervous tissue – provides communication between all body structures
Different types of tissues work together to form organs, which carry out particular functions. Examples include, heart, liver, pancreas and stomach.
Organs cannot do all of the necessary work to sustain the body on their own. They must work together with other organs with related functions (physiology) or structures (anatomy). This is referred to as an organ system.
The following is a list of the body’s major organ systems and their functions:
|Organ System |Major Organs |Major Function |
|Digestive |Esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas|Physical and chemical breakdown of food |
|Circulatory |Heart, blood vessels |Transportation of nutrients, gases and waste; defence against |
| | |infection |
|Respiratory |Lungs, trachea, blood vessels |Gas exchange |
|Reproductive |Testes, vas deferens, ovaries, uterus, |Sexual reproduction |
| |fallopian tubes | |
|Excretory |Kidney, bladder, ureter, urethra |Removal of waste |
|Locomotion |Bones, muscles |Movement of body and body parts |
|Endocrine |Pancreas, pituitary gland, adrenal glands |Coordination and chemical regulation of body activities |
|Nervous |Brain, spinal cord, eyes, ears, nose, tongue, |Response to environment; control of body activities |
| |nerves | |
What is Nutrition?
Nutritional science is the study of nutrients and other substances found in foods that affect human health and well-being. A thorough understanding about nutrition enables people to make healthy lifestyle choices. A nutrient is an edible chemical that is broken down by the body. Good nutrition is important because it:
a) Provides the energy we need to carry out all of our metabolic activities.
b) Provides us with the essential raw materials that we need as building blocks for cells, muscles etc…
There are three main categories of nutrients:
1. MACRONUTRIENTS (Macromolecules)
Macromolecules are required by the body in large amounts. These molecules form the structure and carry out the activities of all cells. They are organic molecules that may contain anywhere from dozens to millions of carbon atoms. Because of their size and the intricate shapes that macromolecules can assume, these large molecules are capable of performing a wide variety of complex tasks with great precision and efficiency.
Macromolecules are polymers of smaller units (monomers) linked together.
There are four classes of macromolecules in cells:
i. CARBOHYDRATES (polymers of sugars)
ii. LIPIDS (polymers of fatty acids)
iii. PROTEINS (polymers of amino acids)
iv. NUCLEIC ACIDS (polymers of nucleotides)
Monomers are linked together by covalent bonds. Enzymes are responsible for the building and breaking of macromolecules.
2. MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients are needed by the body small amounts. There are two main classes:
i. Mineral - an inorganic substance (such as copper, iron, calcium or phosphorous) that is needed in all body structures in trace amounts for various functions, such as the transmission of nerve impulses and muscle contractions; cannot be made by the body, therefore must be supplied by foods or supplements
ii. Vitamin – an organic molecule that acts as a catalyst for essential chemical reactions in the body, such as converting fats and carbohydrates into energy; can be fat soluble or water soluble; cannot be made by the body, therefore must be supplied by foods or supplements
3. Special Nutrient
Water is the considered a special nutrient and is required by all living things. Water is the most abundant molecule in any cell (constitutes 70-80% of the human body). It functions to act as a carrier for dissolved molecules inside (intracellular) and outside (extracellular) of the cell, and as a medium for chemical reactions (metabolism). It also functions as a lubricant between organs, tissues and individual cells.
The following properties of water make life possible, as we know it:
a) Remains liquid over wide range of temp (1(C - 99(C)
b) Dissolves most substances involved in living processes such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, amino acids and salts
c) Changes temperature gradually (high specific heat capacity) when heated or cooled so it protects cells from rapid temperature changes and therefore a stable environment
A balanced diet should provide all essential vitamins and minerals. Supplements maybe required for those who are ill, planning to have children, recovering from injury, suffering from digestive problems or choose not to eat an optimal diet.
Canada’s Food guide recommends the following daily servings for a balanced diet:
|Food Group |Grain |Vegetables and Fruit |Milk Products or Substitutes|Meat and Alternatives |
|Daily Servings |5-12 |5-10 |2-4 |2-3 |
Nutritional information about the food you are eating is found on most packaging:
a) Specific amount of food
All the information in the Nutrition Facts table is based on a specific amount of food. The specific amount may be indicated by a phrase such as: a slice, one egg, two cookies, followed by the metric measure (grams, cups, millilitre etc…)
b) % Daily Value
The % Daily Value provides a quick overview of the nutrient profile of the food, allowing product comparisons based on more than one nutrient. It puts nutrients on the same scale (0% - 100% Daily Value). You can quickly identify the strengths and weaknesses of a food product.
c) Calories
Calories are an expression about the amount of energy a food provides. One calorie is measured by the amount of energy it takes to raise 1 mL of water by 1 degree celsius. Foods that provide energy and no other nutrients are called empty calories.
d) Nutrient claims
The Government has rules in place that must be met before a nutrition claim can be made on a label. Examples of nutritional claims include:
Functional foods - those that provide more for your body than just essential nutrients. These benefits include strengthening the immune system, slowing the ageing process, aid digestion (probiotic yoghurt)
Whole foods - contain a natural level of a functional component (antioxidants)
Fortified foods - contain added ingredients (Orange juice - calcium enriched)
Enhanced foods - contain a functional component that has been introduced into the organism from which the food comes – through breeding, feeding or genetic engineering (eggs – omega-3)
e) List of ingredients
The list of ingredients is mandatory and has been on the food product package for many years. All of the ingredients for a food are listed in descending order by weight. The ingredients present in the greatest amount in a product are listed first. The list is also a source of information for people who want to avoid certain ingredients or verify the presence of an ingredient in a food.
Macromolecules
Carbohydrates
A green plants ability to get energy from the Sun and turn CO2 from the air into sugars (carbohydrates) is called photosynthesis and is represented by the chemical equation below:
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Energy (Light) ( C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
Therefore, all carbohydrates come from green plants. Carbohydrates are nutrients based on molecules of sugar; because of this they are called “saccharides” which means “sweet”. All carbohydrates have the general formula C-H2O, in other words they are “carbon-hydrates”. The function of carbohydrates are to act as the primary energy source in cells as they pass through the process of cellular respiration, which is represented by the chemical equation below:
C6H12O6 + 6 02 ( 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (ATP)
In photosynthesis light energy is used to produce food molecules (glucose). In cellular respiration the food molecule (glucose) is broken down and releases energy (in the form of ATP) for the cell to use.
Two important organelles are specialized for energy conversion.
1. Mitochondria (sites for cellular respiration)
2. Chloroplasts (sites for photosynthesis)
After plants produce glucose they can convert it into a variety of other sugar molecules by altering their shape or by bonding them together.
The two main varieties of carbohydrates that we consume are simple sugars such as monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) or disaccharides (sucrose and lactose), and polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates (starch – storage of sugar in plants).
Simple sugars tend to provided short term energy supplies whereas complex carbs a more sustained source of energy.
Fibre is a carbohydrate (cellulose) found in the cell walls of plants, that cannot be digested by humans. It helps to hold water and provide bulk in the large intestine, thus it helps to eliminate our waste.
Current North American guidelines recommend that carbohydrates, especially complex carbohydrates provide 55% to 60% of your daily energy requirements, which should be approximately 130 g/day.
Healthy carbohydrates such as those provided from whole grains, fruits and vegetables are excellent dietary sources of carbohydrates. When your diet is rich in these carbohydrates, your body extracts energy from them, saving protein for muscle building and body repair.
Whole grains are those that include all portions of the grain. Processed grains have had the bran and the germ portion removed. These areas provide a number of essential vitamins and minerals along with some healthy fats and protein. Carbohydrates are processed to alter their taste and to extend shelf-life.
Unhealthy sources of carbohydrates include white bread and pasta, candy, pasteries, soda and any other highly processed or refined foods. These carbs may contribute to weight gain, interfere with weight loss and promote diabetes and heart disease.
Glycogen is a carbohydrate that acts as a storehouse for extra glucose in humans and animals. It is produced in the liver. Excess consumption of carbohydrates can get converted into fat (a long-term energy storage molecule) and may lead to an increase in insulin production.
Celiac disease in an autoimmune response to gluten, a collection of proteins found in grain products.
Lipids
Fats serve as a long-term storage of energy along with providing insulation, acting as hormones and the main component of cell membranes. Current guidelines recommend that dietary fats should supply no more than 30% of your daily energy requirements. There are two main types of fat we consume, triglycerides and cholesterol.
Triglycerides are composed of a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid chains. The fatty acid chains determines the type of triglyceride. The length and bonding can vary from one fatty acid to another.
Saturated Fatty Acids
There are only single bonds between each carbon atom. This organization allows for a linear arrangement of the fatty acid tails, allowing them to pack close together, which explains why saturated fatty acids are solids at room temperature.
These are found in foods such as butter, lard, cheese and meat. In the past, saturated fats have been closely associated with heart disease. More recent evidence suggests that there are other factors to consider when looking at the impact of saturated fats. As a guide, saturated fats should NOT be considered a healthy fat, but if less than 10% of your daily calorie requirements is in the form of saturated fat it will have little impact on risk of cardiovascular disease.
B) Unsaturated Fatty Acids
There is one (monounsaturated) or more (polyunsaturated) double bonds in the carbon chain. This means that not every carbon is bonded to its maximum number of hydrogen atoms. Double bonds produce kinks in the fatty acid chain, consequently, the more double bonds the chain possess, the greater the difficulty for these chains to pack together. This explains why unsaturated fats form liquids at room temperature (oils). These are found in foods such as oils – olive, corn, sunflower etc… avocados or nuts.
Most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids are found in what is called the cis-configuration. These types of fats appear to lower total cholesterol levels.
Unsaturated fats can have their double bonds chemically reduced with hydrogen atoms (a process termed hydrogenation). During this process Trans fats are produced. The resulting molecule creates straighter chains, which are capable of being solids at room temperature, such as margarine. Trans-fats elevate LDL (bad) cholesterol levels and lowers HDL (good) cholesterol levels.
Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are essential fats found mainly in fatty fish. Omega fats are required to build myelin, the protective covering around neurons of our brain cells.
There are two types of cholesterol; about 80% of cholesterol is made by our liver, while the other 20% comes from food:
1. Dietary Cholesterol
• Found in foods containing animal fat - liver, egg yolks, meat, dairy products, shrimp
• Doesn’t normally cause blood cholesterol to increase in most people
2. Blood Cholesterol
• Most of this cholesterol is produced by the liver from the triglycerides consumed
• Two types - HDL and LDL
HDL (good) - High-Density Lipoprotein
• Helps remove cholesterol from body
• To boost HDL - exercise, be smoke-free and maintain healthy body weight
LDL (bad) - Low-Density Lipoprotein
• Clogs arteries because these are deposited on artery walls (plaque), blocks circulation, increases risk of heart attack or stroke
• To lower LDL - cut down on saturated and trans fats, eat more foods containing soluble fibre
Proteins
• Accounts for 50% of the dry weight of cells
• Wide variety of functions in organisms – enzymes, hormones, receptors etc…
• Huge variety of structure – muscles, hair, finger nails etc…
• Each protein has a unique three-dimensional shape
• Always assembled from a common cellular pool of 20 amino acids
• 8 of the 20 amino acids are considered essential amino acids as they cannot be produced by the body, but must be obtained through diet
• Proteins should make-up 10-35% of daily energy requirements (more if doing weight training)
• Animals sources such as beef, poultry, fish and eggs are sources of complete proteins (provide all 8 of the essential amino acids)
• Grains, nuts, seeds and vegetables are incomplete proteins, because they do not provide all the essential amino acids
• Vegetarians attempt to avoid all meat products, although may consume dairy and egg products. Vegans will restrict their diet to foods derived from plants
• Vegetarians and vegans must carefully balance their food intake in order to obtain all eight essential amino acids
An amino acid is composed of a carbon atom (called the alpha carbon) covalently bonded to four different groups:
➢ Amine group (NH2)
➢ Carboxyl group
➢ Hydrogen atom
➢ Side chain shown as “R-group”
(different for all 20 amino acids)
Types of Digestion
All organisms must have some way of obtaining essential nutrients needed to make their own structures and to perform life functions. Organisms that depend on organic molecules manufactured by other living things are called heterotrophs.
Digestion can occur externally or internally. External digestion is thought to be the first type of system to evolve and organisms such as fungi and spiders still rely on it today. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down organic material and then some of the products diffuse (move from an area of high concentration to low concentration) back to the organism.
Internal digestion evolved later, where animals make use of a tube system to digests organic material inside of their body. This method is more efficient as it allows organisms to capture and store their food and control and separate the environments more effectively for the digestive process.
Digestion can also be considered as intracellular or extracellular. Intracellular digestion is the type of digestion in which food particles are taken within cells and subjected to the action of enzymes there. Extracellular digestion is the digestion of food occurring outside of the cells (as in the tube arrangement common in animals).
Types of Digestive Systems
There are three main types of digestive systems:
1. Vacuole System (intracellular)
2. Closed-Tube System (extracellular)
3. Open-Tube System (extracellular)
All of these systems follow the same four steps:
Ingestion – the taking in of nutrients
Physical and Chemical – the breakdown of complex organic molecules (polymers) Breakdown into smaller components (monomers)
Absorption – the transport of digested nutrients to the tissues of the body
Egestion – the removal of waste food materials from the body
1. Vacuole System
Food is digested inside a vacuole formed within the cell. Examples: paramecium and amoeba
2. Closed Tube System
This type of digestive system consists of a “baglike” structure with only one opening. Both ingestion and excretion occur through the same opening.
In the digestive cavity, food is partially broken down by enzyme action and absorbed into cells lining the inside of the "bag". These cells complete the digestion process.
Example: hydra and a planaria
3. Open Tube System
This type of digestive system consists of a tube with two openings. One opening is used to ingest food particles and the other is used to excrete waste. Examples: earthworms and humans. Open tube systems usually require:
1. Specialized mouthparts for biting and tearing food
2. Digestive organs that supply digestive chemicals, aid in the physical breakdown of food, and maximize the surface area for absorption
Ingestion
Ingestion
Digestion is a complex process, which results in food being broken down into its component molecules (monomers). It involves:
1) Mechanical (Physical) Digestion
➢ Physically breaking the food into small pieces (increase surface area) and mixing it with liquids. No energy is released.
2) Chemical Digestion
➢ Digestive enzymes split specific chemical bonds holding the food molecules together.
➢ Molecules must be small enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream and, in turn, enter the cells of the body. This process happened by diffusion.
In humans, the digestion process takes about 24-33 hours and requires passage through an extremely long tube system (alimentary canal), separated into distinct regions that perform specific functions.
|Section |Length |
|Mouth |15 cm |
|Pharynx |15 cm |
|Esophagus |35 cm |
|Stomach |30 cm |
|Duodenum |25 cm |
|Jejunum |2.5 m |
|Ileum |3 m |
|Colon/Large intestine |1.5 m |
|Rectum |15 cm |
Total Length = 8.35 m
The Mouth and Pharynx
Both physical breakdown and chemical digestion occur in the mouth. The teeth and tongue are important for physical digestion and the salivary glands for chemical digestion.
Inside of your mouth, covering the surface of your tongue are tiny projections called papillae, and every one holds hundreds of taste buds.
Taste is closely linked to olfaction (smell); much of what we call the taste of food is actually the aroma. Taste is a combination of sensations – sweet, sour, salty and bitter.
One theory is that taste buds for the different sensations are clustered in specific regions on the surface of the tongue. Can you figure out where these clusters are located?
Sweet Sour Salty Bitter
|Type of Tooth |Number |Function |
|Incisor |8 |Cutting |
|Canine |4 |Tearing |
|Premolars |8 |Grinding |
|Molars |8 |Crushing |
|Wisdom |4 |Crushing |
Human teeth
Each tooth has two divisions, the root and an enamel crown. Enamel, which is formed of calcium compounds, is the hardest substance in the body.
How Chewing Helps Digestion?
|Sugar |Appearance Before Shaking |Appearance After Shaking |
|Loose | | |
|Cube | | |
How did the surface area of the two types of sugar compare?
How does surface area affect the rate of dissolving?
Chemical digestion begins as food is chewed, and it begins to mix with saliva produced by the three salivary glands – parotid, sublingual and submandibular.
Some functions of saliva include:
➢ It wets and lubricates so food can be swallowed easier and begins the dissolving process (required for taste and absorption)
➢ It causes the food particles to stick together to form a food mass, or bolus
➢ It contains a digestive enzyme called ptyalin (or salivary amylase), which breaks down starch into simple carbohydrates
The tongue pushes the food bolus to the back of the throat and against the soft palate, which initiates the automatic swallowing reflex.
The epiglottis prevents food and liquids from entering the lungs during swallowing, while the uvula stops food from entering the nasal cavity.
The Esophagus
No digestion, neither physical nor chemical occurs in the esophagus. It secretes mucin, a lubricant which aids the bolus of food in its journey to the stomach.
The movement of food down the digestive tube is aided by peristalsis.
Peristalsis consists of alternate waves of relaxation and contraction in the muscular walls of the alimentary canal.
Where the esophagus opens into the stomach, there is a ring of muscle called a sphincter.
The cardiac sphincter acts as a valve and controls the passage of food from the esophagus into the stomach.
Heartburn or acid indigestion occurs when stomach acid backs up into the esophagus, burning its lining. Pain is felt in the region of the heart where the esophagus is located, but the condition has nothing to do with the heart.
The movement of food out of the stomach, up the esophagus and out the mouth is called regurgitation.
The Stomach and Intestines
Through the digestive process, macromolecules are broken down into molecules small enough to be absorbed from the intestine and transported to body cells:
|Carbohydrates |( |Monosaccharide (glucose) |
|Proteins |( |Amino Acids |
|Lipids (triglycerides) |( |Fatty Acids and Glycerol |
Hydrolysis is the main process in which food is chemically broken down. During hydrolysis, a water molecule is added at the point where a link occurs between monomers. Hydrolysis occurs at a very slow rate, but is immediately sped-up by enzymes (biological catalysts made of protein).
Enzymes are formed by secretory cells, which can exist singly, in simple sacs or in glands. A gland is a structure made up of a complex system of tubules connected to other areas by ducts. Enzymes are very specific and will only catalyze specific linkages. Many enzymes require the presence of minerals or vitamins in order to function properly.
The Stomach
The stomach is the site for temporarily storage of food and initial protein digestion. Both physical breakdown and chemical digestion occurs here. Physically the stomach has a J-shaped appearance and can hold up to 1.5 L of food.
The stomach has folds or rugae that allow it to expand and contract. When your stomach is empty, your small intestine produces a hormone called ghrelin that travels to your brain to tell you that you are hungry. When your stomach is full (stretched) the hormone leptin is produced by adipose (fat) tissue to signal your brain that you are full.
Food in the stomach is broken down mechanically into smaller particles by the contractions of the muscular stomach walls (oblique muscles). This is referred to as churning.
The food mass is broken down chemically as it is churned and mixed with gastric juice secreted by two types of glands:
1. Pyloric glands
Secrete mucus, which covers the stomach lining and protects it.
2. Gastric glands
Secrete very acidic gastric juice, which has a pH of 1.5 to 2.5. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid (HCl) and the digestive enzyme pepsinogen. When pepsinogen is converted to its active form of pepsin, the breakdown of proteins into their individual amino acids begins. HCl helps the breakdown of all macromolecules.
There are three mechanisms involved in stimulating the flow of gastric juice:
1. The thought, sight, smell, or taste of food stimulates the brain to send messages via nerve impulses
to the gastric glands.
2. Food touching the lining of the stomach.
3. Secretion of the hormone Gastrin caused by stretching of the stomach lining. Gastrin stimulates production of large amounts of gastric juice.
In a typical day 9 litres of fluid pass through the lumen of an adult’s gastrointestinal tract. Only about 2 litres of that volume enters through the mouth. The remaining 7 litres come from body water secreted along with enzymes and mucous.
A common disorder associated with the stomach occurs following the destruction of the cells lining in the stomach. This leads to a peptic ulcer. Until recently, diet and stress were always thought to be the leading cause of ulcer formation. Scientists have now discovered a remarkable organism, Helicobacter pylori, which thrive in the stomach’s formidable environment and are believed to cause most cases of ulcers.
The Small Intestine
Most chemical digestion and almost all absorption of nutrients occur here. After food leaves the stomach, regulated by the pyloric sphincter, it enters the first part of the small intestine called the duodenum. At this stage, the partially digested food is called chyme. The presence of chyme in the small intestine, stimulates secretion of the hormone secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK). When these hormones reach the pancreas and liver they stimulate the production of pancreatic enzymes and bile.
The small intestine itself produces a number of enzymes that continue the chemical digestion process, such as:
➢ Secretes maltase which completes the breakdown of carbohydrates (maltose)
➢ Secretes peptidases which complete the breakdown of proteins
➢ Secretes lactase which breaks down lactose
The Pancreas
➢ Produces sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes stomach acid
➢ Secretes the digestive enzymes lipase (lipids), amylase (carbohydrates) and trypsin (protein)
➢ Produces insulin and glucagon in response to blood-sugar levels
➢ Insulin makes cell membranes more permeable to glucose and increases metabolism to lower blood sugar levels
➢ Glucagon raises blood sugar levels by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen in the liver
➢ Insufficient insulin production can lead to diabetes
The Liver
➢ Produces bile – an emulsifying agent needed for the physical digestion of fats
➢ Bile is stored in the gallbladder
➢ Storage of carbohydrates (glycogen)
➢ Production and storage of vitamins (A, D, E and K)
➢ Process fats – triglycerides, cholesterol
➢ Detoxifies many harmful substances (alcohol)
➢ Excessive damage to liver tissue can lead to the development of scar tissue; a condition called cirrhosis
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Absorption
Peristaltic contraction continue throughout the intestines which has 3 main effects:
1. They squeeze chyme through the intestine moving the bolus along
2. They mix the chyme with digestive enzymes and break down food particles mechanically
3. Bring the intestinal contents into contact with the intestinal wall speeding absorption
During absorption, digested nutrients pass through epithelial cells and enter capillaries or lacteals in structures called villi.
The capillaries act to absorb simple sugars, vitamins, minerals etc… into the circulatory system. Lacteals are part of the lymphatic system and absorb fatty acids and glycerol into tiny vessels.
The small intestine has a number of structural features that increase its surface area for maximum absorption of nutrients:
1. The small intestine is very long
2. Its lining has many folds
3. The lining is covered with millions of finger-like projections called villi, which increase the surface area by as much as 10 times
4. The epithelial cells of the villi that face into the intestinal opening have tiny projections called microvilli that further increase the surface area
Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder of the small intestine that occurs because of a reaction to gluten which is found in wheat products. Exposure to gluten causes the villi of the small intestine to atrophy. This interferes with the absorption of nutrients and water causing diarrhea and fatigue.
Crohn’s disease is a chronic inflammatory disease of the intestines, primarily caused by ulcers in the small and large intestines, but can affect the digestive system anywhere between the mouth and the anus.
The Large Intestine
Undigested and unabsorbed materials pass from the small intestine into the large intestine. No digestion occurs in this portion of the digestive system.
Functions of the large intestine include:
1. Reabsorption of water from the food mass
2. Absorption of vitamins B and K produced by live bacteria in the large intestine
3. Elimination of undigested and indigestible material from the digestive tract (feces) Examples: cellulose from plant cell walls, large quantities of bacteria, bile, mucus and worn-out cells from the digestive tract
Fecal matter is stored in the last part of the large intestine, the rectum, and periodically eliminated, or defecated, through the anus.
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