Counseling with CompassionAmy Monk, M.Ed. - Home
Human Growth & Development Across the LifespanAmy A. MonkLamar UniversitySTUDENT NAME: Amy MonkSECTION NUMBER: C 17Human Growth and Development Final ProjectPrenatal Development:Babies in this stage receive everything they need from their mother in the placenta, which is essential to fetal survival. According to Falkner, Reaser, & NIH (1970), “the placenta plays an important immunological role for the mother and fetus as well, synthesizing immunoglobulins, the natural blood ingredients that can prevent infections”(p.23). Disorders can be passed down through hereditary mechanisms from parent to children, even when the parents don’t have the disorders themselves (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). It is critical for mothers to properly take care of themselves and eat a well balanced diet in order to nutritionally provide for their baby.The prenatal environment consists of the mother’s womb and all of the elements that contribute to the mother’s environment. The mother’s overall health including her nutrition, lifestyle, and other environmental stimuli all play a part affecting the well-being of the growing baby before it is ever born. Development during the gestational period can be divided into three periods including the germinal period (first two weeks), period of the embryo (third through eighth week), and the period of the fetus (ninth week until birth). By the fifth month of prenatal life, the baby’s basic brain structures are formed, and before the baby is born he or she can attend to and decipher rhyming songs from within the womb (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). The brain develops even more when certain stimuli such as light causes the fetus’s head to turn towards the light providing him or her with visual system with light stimulation (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.74). I do not feel that babies can grow spiritually during gestation.The Early Years:So much of how we are shaped occurs in the early years of our life. The major structures of our brain start forming shortly after conception and ultimately shape our personality and behavior, as well as affect how we learn and remember things. Piaget’s Constructivist Theory describes how people come to learn, know, and understand through processes of assimilation and accommodation. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory places emphasis on the impact that ones’ culture or society into which they are born plays on the transmission of knowledge (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Izard’s Differential Emotions Theory concludes that babies’ faces reveal their feelings and argues that “emotions are based on evolution rather than learning and do not require cognitive components” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 116). Whereas Stoufe’s developmental position claims that emotions developed from “undifferentiated responses into more differentiated ones and finally into an integrated emotional repertoire” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 116).More physical and neurological growth and development occurs in the first year of life than during any other life stage (Fowler & Dell, 2006). By a child’s first birthday, their weight is expected to triple and they typically double in length! Everything within the baby grows at rapid rates during this important growing stage, but “certain abilities such as vision, develop faster than others” like problem solving (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.76). Preschool and elementary school give children opportunities for children to develop social skills like learning to play with others, following rules, and get accustom to routines in order to learn. By the time children are six years old, they can typically cooperatively play with other children involving group decisions, role assignments, and fair play; as well as understanding the difference between good and bad behavior, feel empathy for others, and compare themselves to others (Learning Disabilities, 1999). Bronfenbrenner’s biological theory posits that a person’s immediate interactions with people or with the physical environment or with informational sources affect the development of ones personality and cognitive change (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). In the early years, children are shaped by their family, day care or school, friends, church group, and neighborhood. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) point out how individual characteristics influence the effectiveness of the environment allowing things like one’s motivations to affect the impact of learning opportunities in a given context. Researchers John Bowlby and Mary S. Salter Ainsworth suggest that babies create an attachment system that protects them and builds a foundation for later developments (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Infants who are institutionalized show lower rates of secure attachments made with their caregiver. Marcovitch et. al. (1997) study of adopted children from Romanian orphanages and their adoptive mothers reflects common attachment theories about the institutionalization of infants with the notion that these early experiences have long term effects on their development. Vorria, Papaligoura, Sarafidou, Kopakaki, Dunn, Van IJzendoorn, & Kontopoulou (2006) studied the development of adopted children after they had been in institutionalized care and concluded that early residential group care has long-lasting effects on important socio-emotional and cognitive aspects of preschool children’s development (p. 1246). Temperament is one characteristic that would effect development and cause separation anxiety and fear of strangers. Temperament can be explained as an infant’s activity level, degree of fearfulness and irritability, attention persistence, and typical mood (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Broderick & Blewitt (2010) state, “temperament and sensitivity of care interact at several levels to produce attachment security” (p.131). The central and peripheral nervous system helps develop gross motor, fine motor, and cognitive development during the first years of childhood allowing them to communicate and actively play with others. Parker (2011) describes Fowler’s prestage of faith as Stage 0 that occurs during the first preverbal year of life and provides a foundation of basic trust or mistrust on which later faith builds. One year olds can attain object permanence, which is the knowledge that an object continues to exist even when they can’t see it. According to Broderick & Blewitt (2010), “a child must have at least rudimentary capacity to keep the object in mind when it is not present” (p.82). If parents share religion with their infant and use pictures to give their child a mental image of Jesus, or another religious figure, they can remember it at a very young age along with stories that are shared with them. Egocentrism begins to occur in young children around age two and causes them to feel their perspective is shared with everyone else.? Broderick & Blewitt (2010) explain egocentrism as failing to recognize ones’ own subjectivity, therefore trapped in their own perspective. Often times when children are disciplined, they cannot understand why the adults get upset with what they are doing since their mental processes expect that others should view things their way. Toddlers become interested in other children and transition from playing with themselves to playing with others, moving stages in Piaget’s developmental theory when they achieve self-control and willpower (Fowler & Dell, 2006).Broderick & Blewitt (2010) explain it best when they assert, “secure early attachments are said to pave the way for later psychosocial developments” (p. 133). It is essential for infants to bond with their caregivers in order for them to create trust and security, as well as positive attitudes toward self and others. According to attachment theory, the care that a baby receives their first year is key. After a secure attachment is made with a caregiver, the infant can attach emotionally to others. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) also say attachment theory predicts that the security of a child’s attachment influences the child’s cognitive functioning in social contexts, affecting what he learns and remembers (137).Emotional neglect and psychological abuse can have damaging effects that hinder positive growth and development in the years to come. These types of invisible abuse are just as serious and harmful as physical abuse. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) believe “therapies that support the parent can reap rewards for the children and are more effective than those that focus on the child alone (Blackman, 2002).Middle Childhood through Adolescence:According to Feinstein & Bynner (2004), middle childhood provides educational and social experiences that are critical for developmental outcomes since attending school allows children opportunities to learn and develop social skills necessary to their future growth. Puberty seems to affect many areas of development in middle childhood causing noticeable changes, hormonal shifts, and an increase in maturity. According to Broderick & Blewitt (2010), these changes cause a state of instability and anxiety, referred to as frameworklessness, and is triggered by the body changing in appearance, along with the emergence of adult sexual needs and the capacity to reflect on the future and self. Puberty also corresponds with the onset of the adolescent growth spurt involving a “rapid increase in size accompanied by changes in the shape and proportions of the body” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.285). Friends start to emerge and become the most influential factor during the middle childhood years replacing the parents or caretakers that previously held the title. Being apart of an athletic team, social group, and recognized as intelligent all begin to be important in forming ones’ self-concept. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) explain, “the dimensions of importance include academic or scholastic competence, athletic competence, physical appearance, peer acceptance, and behavioral conduct” (p.216). Moral beliefs influence their behavior and play a large role in how children see themselves. High levels of competence and strong social support typically contribute to an overall high level of self-esteem (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Adolescence is a key time period for identity development. Peer groups, significant adults, activities, culture, and school all play influential roles in the development of middle childhood. Intellectually, the brain continues to rapidly grow and various techniques are used for memorizing all of the new information being poured in. Piaget believes active interaction with objects, ideas, and concepts are essential to solving specific problems and to help them move more easily to higher overall stages of cognitive development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Motivation plays a huge role during adolescence. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) discuss how motivation is critical when it comes to metacognitive skills and point out that exceptional intelligence does not appear to be a determining factor in memory skills. It is important for a child’s support system to positively motivate the adolescence to make good choices in hopefully an intrinsic way. According to Broderick & Blewitt (2010), moodiness seems to be strongly associated with changes in peer relationships, parent expectations, and self-concept that often accompany sexual maturation. One’s level of moodiness can be affected by how well they cope with stress during this stage. During adolescence, girls are more susceptible to depression than boys due to social experiences, self-esteem issues, and additional stressors that are placed on girls. One’s self-concept is shaped during this stage by how they compare themselves to others when it comes to their abilities and accomplishments.Between the ages of 5-7, children begin to think more logically, sensible, and sometimes scientifically, as they get better at evaluating their own theories and become capable of formal operational thought allowing logical thoughts to form about abstract contents (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Young children reach the “hallmark of the concrete operational child” as they begin to draw logical conclusions and identify reversible relationships (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.180). This allows children to use memory strategies such as rehearsal, organization, and elaboration as they take in new information.Role models and mentors play a significant role in helping shape children in this impressionable age range. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) recognize that even while peers seem to be the most influential at this stage, parents and teachers also make significant contributions to a child’s self-concept. Role models can clearly influence young children with just their day-to-day actions that show kids how to live. Building a trusting relationship with a child of this age is essential for them to come and seek needed advice from mentors rather than friends. Feinstein & Bynner (2004) believe successful development during middle childhood can provide protection against social exclusion in adult life. This stance makes it even more imperative for parents, significant adults, and teachers to recognize their role in assisting the developmental growth of middle childhood. Spiritual growth during childhood can build a foundation that can continue to grow through the lifespan. According to Day (2010), from an early age, one can “chart development in religious concepts in ways similar to canonical Piagetian studies of development in other domains, and suggest ways in which researchers can begin to approach the study of religious and spiritual development, starting in childhood, and extending across the life cycle” (p.219). Religious judgment reflects cognitive patterns that characterize an individual’s ways of thinking about his or her relationship to the Ultimate, and the rules that govern that relationship (Day, 2010). Young to Middle Adulthood:As Broderick & Blewitt (2010) explain, young adulthood is an extended period of transition involving exploration of potential adult identities and occurs around ages 18-30. Physical development is at its peak around age twenty and begins to decline after one reaches 30. Participating in exercise and eating a healthy diet will help maintain bone strength and keep a variety of physiological systems functioning well (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). The primary physical development for middle-aged women is menopause, and middle-aged men experience a decline in sperm production and testosterone. Different cultures tend to have different event markers identifying someone into adulthood, therefore someone in one country may be considered an adult much younger than someone in another country based on their achievements or age. There are many studies that show adverse childhood experiences can be linked to increased risks of a range of poor psychosocial outcomes later in life; such as negative parent-child relationships are frequently associated to difficulties in adult love relationships (McCarthy & Maughan, 2010). This is the time when many adults enter committed relationships or marriages and should explore their previous relationships in order to better their future ones. Gottman identified criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling as four kinds of negativity that do the most damage to relationships and are highly predictive of divorce (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Schaie’s theory on how adults adjust to environmental demands is based on the belief that shifts occur in cognitive functioning that are “straightforward adaptations to the new demands that adults face at different times of life” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.361). His stages consist of the acquisition stage, achieving stage, responsible stage, reorganization stage, reintegrative stage, and the legacy-leaving stage. The responsibility stage is a time period when one realizes that their choices, decisions, and actions affect others close to them. “Schaie suggests the greater impact of one’s problem solutions leads adults to become more flexible in their thinking and to expand their knowledge and expertise and use those qualities more widely than before” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 361). This is evident when a young couple starts having children and moves from a self-pleasing lifestyle to a more considerate and giving lifestyle when they feel the responsibility given to them.Developmentally, this is a time when adult attachments are formed and romantic partners are able to meet all of the needs of the attachment system (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Erikson believed that intimacy and generativity are necessary to express and develop one’s self and dominates the concerns of adults in their young and middle years (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 381). “According to attachment theory, young children construct cognitive-affective representations or internal working models of their experiences in attachment relationships from infancy onwards; the content and complexity of these models are thought to influence the likelihood that adverse effects of negative early experiences will persist” (McCarthy & Maughan, 2010, p.446). Middle adulthood also includes cognitive changes that impact our memories and ways of thinking. Certain skills like knowledge acquisition, spatial orientation, and inductive reasoning skills improve throughout young adulthood. Cognitive growth causes changes in thinking more efficiently and creatively (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).Emotional and practical support from significant others are still strongly needed during this stage in life despite the diminishing demands for physical caretaking (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Support systems help during difficult times and relieve stress that is often brought on during this stage from work and the demands of family life.Week Five: Late Adulthood:As people enter the late adult stage of life, they continue to change and adapt in new ways. Typically losses outweigh gains during this stage and finding ways to regulate those losses by accepting them and reorganizing the way one functions is seen as effective coping (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Chronic illnesses, such as heart disease and cancer, affect more people in late adulthood and are currently the leading cause of death for people over 45 (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Physical health declines in all areas, especially vision, and many older adults suffer from varying forms of arthritis, stroke, lung disease, or dementia. Cognitively, Broderick & Blewitt (2010) report that processing speed slows and inhibitory functions decline with age. It should also be noted that compensation for loss frequently occurs helping older adults maintain performance relative to younger adults (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.486). Older adults social worlds become much smaller as they lose friends and family to death or proximity, limiting the number of people they socialize with. This is also a stage when they realize their time is limited and want to spend it with those who truly matter like close friends and family members.According to self-determination theory, “the degree to which basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are met substantially determines a person’s sense of well-being and life satisfaction” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.495). Their desires to be in control, aware, and valued are all things that motivate people in this stage of life. When looking at environmental mastery and autonomy, older adults score higher than younger adults and were found to have more positive social relationships and self-acceptance (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Emotionally, older adults handle late life challenges better than expected and have great coping skills. Typically, late adulthood brings on the transition from ending one’s professional career to starting retired life. Atchley’s stages of retirement are commonly experienced in stages described as honeymoon, disenchantment, reorientation, stability, and termination (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Being able to control when you retire and having the financial means to support your lifestyle are two predictors of happiness during this transitional time.Living environments change for many during this stage as they move into nursing homes or in with families for assistance with their daily living. Psychosocial theory suggests life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when people maintain the level of activity they previously had (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Many assisted living facilities offer fun activities to keep residents active and social.Having wisdom has been shown to come from experience, giving older adults a boost in how they manage their problems. Interestingly, “positive emotional experience is maintained, negative emotional experience is reduced, and the complexity of emotional experience is increased” in old age according to Broderick & Blewitt (2010). Older adults are wise when it comes to how they deal with emotions since they have been shown to handle conflict resolution better, practice making positive statements with negative ones, and minimizing negative expressions; possibly causing them to experience happy stages longer. Entering late adulthood physically and mentally fit allows an individual to age successfully according to the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation which has shown that one’s lifestyle prior to old age can have a significant influence on the quality of their life later on (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.514).Summary of Development across the Lifespan:Germinal, embryonic, and fetal are the three stages during prenatal development where a zygote turns into a baby. Emotional bonds, known as attachments, start to form early with caregivers and contribute to successful growth physically and psychologically. The first year of life is a crucial time for establishing and shaping a child’s ability to make healthy attachments in other relationships down the road. Language production and comprehension progresses quickly during the first three years allowing children to respond in short sentences.Cognitive development occurs in Piaget’s stages of sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations causing children to construct their understanding of the world (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Adolescence is typically brought on by puberty causing marked acceleration in weight and height gains, among other obvious and less obvious body changes. Older children in this stage begin to search for their identity and look to friends more than caregivers for the first time. Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development explains processes of interpersonal understanding, skills, and values that affect and individual’s capacity for interpersonal relationships, including friendships (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). It is important for people in all stages to be physically active and eat a healthy diet. The younger years represent a time of extreme physical and mental growth. Physical strength peaks around age 20 as one enters adulthood and begins to establish a committed relationship typically through marriage. Schaie believes that adults take on a new kind of thinking depending on when they face different problems, and different skills are brought to bear on those problems ultimately changing the way we think (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).Human development cannot be studied outside its sociocultural context since culture may be the most important determinant of development. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) report “in both Western and Eastern cultures, people of any age get more selective about who they spend time with if they perceive their remaining time in life to be constrained” (p.499). This is just one example of the role that wisdom can play in the later years of life changing the way they perceive and handle problems as they get older.Faith development is not automatic or assured and can occur differently for every person. Spirituality is one of the ways people construct knowledge and meaning. Day (2009) reports “positive emotions, such as happiness, wonder, awe, and joy, not only are correlated with religiosity and self-described spirituality, but when experienced in concentrated form, even under experimental conditions, and across the adult years, can lead to enhanced openness to transcendence and a spiritual conception of self, relationships, and world” (p.216). Whether or not spiritual development unfolds in a series of linear stages is a matter of some debate and depends on how one defines spirituality (Tisdell & Eric, 2001). It’s important to consider the cultural dimensions of spiritual development. Across cultures, religious involvement is linked with self-esteem and mental and physical well-being. According to Day (2009), religion is highly correlated with a tendency to see forgiveness as an important skill and value in life, and has been seen to reduce depression and anxiety. Intellectual growth continues until becoming stable around age 60, then declines around age 74 (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Broderick & Blewitt (2010) report that emotion regulation seems to improve later in life and negative emotional states end more quickly, leading many to believe older adults have greater control over their emotions than younger adults. “It appears that older people may be wise in the way they deal with emotions: Don’t dwell on sorrow, and make happiness last” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p.501). Final Course Reflection from a Counseling perspective:Learning how humans grow and develop over the lifespan has been fascinating. Development theories are important to explore since they enhance our understanding of human growth. Psychodynamic theories, cognitive development theory, information processing theories, and bioecological theories all believe that human development is shaped by nature and nurture. However, behaviorism and social learning theory take a strong position that nurture is more important than nature. Watson’s classical conditioning theory posits that children can be molded by controlling the stimulus-response associations; therefore relying much more on nurture than nature. Similarly, Skinner believed that children “operate” on their environment and believed that learning could be broken down into smaller tasks and rewards can stimulate further learning, while Bandura believed that children learn by observation and imitation (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Behaviorism and social learning theory ignore the genetic process. I now see the how nurture and nature interact in human development.In order for counselors to best suit therapeutic interventions to help their clients, it is important for them to understand the relationship heredity and one’s environment play. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) stress that “genes can do nothing without environmental input and environmental effects are shaped by genetic constraints” (p.34). Counselors can assist clients in the process of assessing their well-being in components of the Wheel of Wellness and in developing wellness plans to facilitate positive growth and change across the lifespan (Myers, Sweeney, & Witmer, 2000). If our profession is about helping others, we should certainly study all aspects that lead to a life well lived.When dealing with possible abuse of any kind at any age, counselors should consider the dyad of the family as the target of intervention because the goal is to repair or improve a relationship, not just one member’s behavior” (p. 140). When there is a concern for young children, Broderick & Blewitt (2010) suggest several interventions that would be helpful such as providing a voice for the baby and support for the parent, and helping parents “let their children be their teachers” to ultimately teach them to recognize their emotions or help parents recognize their infants’ signals and temperamental styles (p.140-141). Counselors must follow all legal requirements and advocate to protect children from any kind of abuse.Teachers and school counselors in the upper grades will certainly deal with the issue of teen pregnancy. It is important for counselors to understand and encourage proper prenatal care and the benefits that come from identifying problems early on in the pregnancy. Promoting a healthy lifestyle and preparing them to be emotionally supportive parents are some of best things a counselor can do for the baby with expecting parents during the prenatal stage. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) make several explicit recommendations during the early years that would benefit a child down the road. For example, studies have shown that infants do better developmentally when their mother takes a longer maternity leave compared to just six weeks when the baby is born. Solely breastfeeding is also recommended for the first six months of a baby’s life. Parents should respond promptly and consistently giving sensitive responses in order to help regulate their infant’s “uneven hormonal, autonomic, and behavioral states” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 119). Forming secure attachments during this time period will have long lasting positive affects on a child’s future relationships and identity. Before this class, I had no idea how significant bonding is between the caregivers and the baby.During the adolescence years, role models and mentors can assist growth by being consistent and encouraging to them. The level of involvement a teacher shows in an adolescent’s life can influence academic outcomes, show motivation to learn and create positive social connections with others. Knowledge of the extreme changes that occur during this time will also help counselors determine the realms of normal behavior. I believe that having a solid understanding of adolescence will help me to understand students better and assist their parents when dealing with issues that are typical behavior for this age.There are many things we could do during the middle adulthood stage that would help us work towards wellness like participating in marriage counseling, career counseling, and resiliency training. Career counselors can help guide and direct clients into a satisfying job that suits their personality and interests. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) explain that a task for career counselors is to facilitate the development of a new, personally constructed sense of self as a worker (p.397). Counselors working with middle adulthood clients can help teach them to self-assess, self-analyze, and make decisions that will help them grow during these years.Before this course, knew very little about the late adult stage and had never spent a lot of time with the elderly population. I was unaware of their different needs and probably learned the most about human development during this stage. Counselors should recognize the need for people in late adulthood to have a purpose and live an active and healthy lifestyle. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) point out that “the importance of social relationships for well-being is consistent across cultures and that when people feel supported by family and friends they weather life’s difficulties more effectively” (p.464). It is important to keep people in this life stage as active (as possible) as they were in previous life stages. Being proactive in seeking help from professionals during late adulthood it important when depressive symptoms occur. Broderick & Blewitt (2010) report that treatments including psychotherapeutic interventions like cognitive, behavioral, interpersonal, and brief psychodynamic therapies can be effective in treating depression during this life stage. It is also important for family members to recognize symptoms like loss of interest and hopelessness so they can advocate for their loved ones if they do not seek treatment. Not dwelling on problems, but focusing on the positive helps many in late adulthood to live a happy and fulfilled final stage of life. Many of the testimonies I heard from people enjoying this stage of life encouraged me to look further into how counselors could better help and support the elderly population. Their wisdom is inspiring and we can all learn so much for people in this stage of life.References:Broderick, P. & Blewitt, P. (2010)?The life span: Human development for helping professionals. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education.Day, J. (2010). Religion, Spirituality, and Positive Psychology in Adulthood: A Developmental View. Journal Of Adult Development, 17(4), 215-229. Falkner, F., Reaser, G., & National Inst. of Child Health and Human Development (NIH), B. D. (NIH), Bethesda, MD. (1970). Child Health and Human Development: Progress 1963-1970. A Report of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.Feinstein, L., & Bynner, J. (2004). The Importance of Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood for Adulthood Socioeconomic Status, Mental Health, and Problem Behavior. Child Development, (5), 1329.Fowler, J.W. & Dell, M.L. (2006). Stages of faith from infancy through adolescence: Reflections on three decades of faith development theory. The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence, 34-45. Learning Disabilities Association of America (1999). Early identification-social skills milestones. Retrieved from . Marcovitch, S. G., Gold, A., Washington, J., Wasson, C., Krekewich, K., & Handley-Derry, M. (1997). Determinants of behavioral problems in Romanian children adopted in Ontario. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(1), 17–31.McCarthy, G., & Maughan, B. (2010). Negative childhood experiences and adult love relationships: the role of internal working models of attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 12(5), 445-461.Parker, S. (2011). Spirituality in Counseling: A Faith Development Perspective. Journal Of Counseling & Development, 89(1), 112-119.Tisdell, E. J., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, C. H. (2001). Spirituality in Adult and Higher Education. ERIC Digest.Vorria, P., Papaligoura, Z., Sarafidou, J., Kopakaki, M., Dunn, J., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Kontopoulou, A. (2006). The Development of Adopted Children after Institutional Care: A Follow-Up Study. Journal Of Child Psychology And Psychiatry, 47(12), 1246-1253. ................
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