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Ministry of Education and Science of UkraineSumy State UniversityG.?V.?ChulanovaLexicology in theory,practice and testsStudy guide Recommended by the Academic Council of Sumy State University INCLUDEPICTURE "" \* MERGEFORMATINET SumySumy State University 2015УДК 811.111’373(076)ББК 81.432.1-3 C-559Reviewers:Yu.?Zatznyu – Doctor of Philology, Professor, Head of Department of Theory and Practice of Translation in Zaporizhzhya National University;S.?Baranova – Associate Professor of Department of Theory and Practice of Translation, Ph. D. in Philological Sciences of Sumy State University;N.?Ishchenko – Doctor of Philology, Professor, Head of Department of Theory, Practice and Translation of English in National Technical University of Ukraine "Kyiv Polytechnic Institute"Recommended for publication by the Academic Council of Sumy State University as a study guide (the Minutes №?8 of 19.02.2015)C-559Chulanova G.?V. Lexicology in theory, practice and tests : study guide / G.?V.?Chulanova. – Sumy?: Sumy State University, 2015. – 241 p. ISBN 978-966-657-550-3The study guide is focused on developing skills of analyzing of specific language material and adequate interpretation of linguistic facts and phenomena. Its goal is to help students learn the basics of English lexicology, make them acquaint with the most important features of structural and semantic construction of English. The given exercises and tests are intended to enrich the active vocabulary of students, to deepen understanding of linguistic phenomena, to encourage their individual study.The material will be of use for the second-year students with a specialization in "Translation" and to all readers who would like to get some information about the vocabulary of the modern English language, the changes that took place in English lexicology during the period of its historical development.Навчальний пос?бник ор??нтований на розвиток навичок анал?зу конкретного мовного матер?алу та адекватно? ?нтерпретац?? мовних факт?в ? явищ. Його мета – допомогти студентам оволод?ти основами англ?йсько? лексиколог??, ознайомити ?х ?з найважлив?шими особливостями структурно-семантично? побудови англ?йсько? мови. Запропонован? завдання, вправи та тести спрямован? на те, щоб зб?льшити активний вокабуляр студент?в, поглибити розум?ння мовних явищ, заохотити ?х до самост?йного вивчення.Пос?бник буде корисний студентам другого курсу спец?альност? ?Переклад? ? читачам, як? ц?кавляться словниковим ресурсом сучасно? англ?йсько? мови та зм?нами, що в?дбулися в англ?йськ?й лексиколог?? за пер?од ?сторичного розвитку. Матер?ал викладено англ?йською мовою.УДК 811.111’373(076)ББК 81.432.1-3ISBN 978-966-657-550-3? Chulanova G.?V., 2015? Sumy State University, 2015CONTENTSР.INTRODUCTION ……………………………………..5PART 1. THE OBJECT OF LEXICOLOGY………..6The Connection of Lexicology with other Branches of Linguistics………………………………………………..7PART 2. THE DEFINITION OF THE WORD……..10Morphological Structure of English Words …………….12Main Structural Types of Words ………………………..21PART 3. WORD-FORMATION………………………28Affixation…………………………………………………30Conversion………………………………………………36Compounding (Composition)…………………………….43Shortenings……………………………………………….53Reduplication…………………………………………….63Sound and Stress Interchange……………………………65Sound Imitation (Onomatopoeia)………………………...67Blending……………………………………..……………73Back-Formation…………………………………………..73Phrasal Verbs……………………………………………..77PART 4. ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF MODERN ENGLISH VOCABULARY……………….79Borrowings………………………………………………….79Classification of Borrowings……………………………..84International Words………………………………………93Pseudo-International Words……………………………...97Etymological Doublets…………………………………...97Translation-Loans………………………………………...101PART 5. SEMASIOLOGY……………………………..103Change of Meaning………………………………………110Linguistic Metaphor ……………………………………..111Linguistic Metonymy ……………………………………112Broadening and Narrowing of Meaning…………………119Elevation and Degradation……………………………….122Hyperbole and Litote……………………………………..122Semantic Groups of Words……………………………….122Synonyms…………………………………………………122Types of Semantic Components………………………….124Types of Connotations……………………………………125The Dominant Synonym………………………………….126Types of Synonyms………………………………………126Sources of Synonymy ……………………………………127Euphemisms ……………………………………………...131Homonyms ……………………………………………….134Sources of Homonyms……………………………………138Paronyms ………………………………………………...148Antonyms ………………………………………………..151Functional Semantic Classes …………………………….156Qualifiers (Degree Modifiers)……………………………157Responsives (interjections)……………………………….161PART 6. ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY………………..164Ways of Forming Phraseological Units…………………..166Semantic Classification of Phraseological Units………...167Classification of Phraseological Units Based on the Structural Principle……………………………………….173Syntactical Classification of Phraseological Units……….174Proverbs…………………………………………………181Grammatical Structure of Proverbs………………………183PART 7. STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS……………………………………..184Literary-Bookish Words………………………………….184Colloquial Words…………………………………………192PART 8. SOME BASIC PROBLEMS OF DICTIONARY COMPILING………………………….197TESTS……………………………………………………208BASIC LITERATURE………………………………….231SUPPLEMENTARY LITERATURE………………….238INTRODUCTION“Lexicology in theory, practice and tests” is an attempt to supply students with a theoretical and practical appendix to the lecture and seminar course of lexicology studies. The purpose of this book is to aid the teaching process by which a student becomes aware of English Lexicology. The book is intended to acquaint students with the main topics treated and analyzed at seminars in Modern Lexicology (etymology, neology, borrowings, word-formation, semasiology, semantic changes, phraseology, etc.) and meets the requirements of the programme in this subject. The aim of the course is to teach students to be word-conscious, to be able to guess the meaning of words they come across from the meanings of morphemes, to be able to recognise the origin of this or that lexical unit.The book is in 8 parts. It includes 8 theoretical chapters, practical assignments for seminars and independent work and twelve tests. There is also a brief list of recommended literature. The practical assignments are preceded by theoretical notes which contain working definitions of principal concepts. The authors lay stress on the practical aspect of lexicology studies. In most cases, the practical assignments present English words in natural contexts of British and American literature of the 20th - 21st centuries. The material of the book may also be used in teaching a course of the Theory and Practice of Translation.This book does not try to cover everything. The author will be much obliged for any criticism. PART 1. THE OBJECT OF LEXICOLOGYLexicology is the branch of linguistics, it is the study of words. The term lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexis meaning “word, phrase” and logos which denotes “learning, a department of knowledge”. Thus, the literal meaning of the term lexicology is “the science of the word”. Lexicology, its basic task being a study and systematic description of vocabulary in reference to its origin, development and current use, has its own aims and methods of scientific research. It deals with words, morphemes which make up words, variable word-groups and phraseological units. The term vocabulary is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the language possesses.The term word denotes the basic unit of a certain language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment. Consequently a word is a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit at the same time. It is the smallest unit of a language which can stand alone as a complete utterance. The term word-group denotes a group of words which exists in the language as a ready-made unit, has the unity of meaning and of syntactical function, e.?g. the word-group as loose as a goose means “clumsy” and is used in a sentence: He is as loose as a goose - as a predicative.The general study of words and vocabulary, without taking into account the specific features of any particular language, is known as general lexicology. Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (e.?g. English, German, Ukrainian, etc.), i.?e. the study and description of its vocabulary and vocabulary units. Every special lexicology is based on the principles of general lexicology. There are two principal approaches in linguistic science to the study of language material, namely the synchronic (Gr. Syn – “together, with” and chronos – “time”) and the diachronic (Gr. dia – “through”) approach. The synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given time, for example, at the present time. It is special desсriptive lexicology that deals with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time. It studies the functions of words and their specific structure as a characteristic inherent in the system.The diachronic approach in terms of special lexicology deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary as the time goes by. It is special historical lexicology or etymology that deals with the evolution of the vocabulary units of a language in the course of time. This branch of linguistics discusses the origin of various words, their change and development. Lexicology also studies all kinds of semantic groups and semantic relations: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, semantic fields, etc.The theoretical value of lexicology becomes apparent if we take into account that it forms the study of one of the three main aspects of language, i.?e. its vocabulary (the other two being its grammar and sound system). Lexicology came into being to meet the demands of many different branches of applied linguistics, namely of lexicography, information retrieval, standardisation of terminology, literary criticism and especially of foreign language teaching. It helps to stimulate a systematic approach to the facts of vocabulary and an organised comparison of the native and foreign languages. The Connection of Lexicology with Other Branches of LinguisticsThe treatment of words in lexicology cannot be separated from the study of all the other elements in the language system to which words belong. The word is studied in several branches of linguistics and not in lexicology only, and the latter is closely connected with general linguistics, the history of the language, phonetics, stylistics, grammar and such new branches of our science as sociolinguistics, paralinguistics (the study of non-verbal means of communication (gestures, facial expressions, eye-contact, etc.), pragmalinguistics (the branch of linguistics concerned with the relation of speech and its users and the influence of speech upon listeners) and some others.The importance of the connection between lexicology and phonetics can be explained if we take into account that a word is an association of a given group of sounds with a given meaning, so that top is one word, and tip is another. Word-unity is conditioned by a number of phonological features. Phonemes follow each other in a fixed sequence so that pit is different from tip. There is also a close relationship between lexicology and stylistics or, more specifically, linguo-stylistics.Linguo-stylistics deals with the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on the one hand, and with the investigation of each style of language, on the other. A close connection between lexicology and grammar is conditioned by the manifold ties between the objects of their study. Grammar is the study of the grammatical structure of language. It deals with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words and with the patterns after which words are combined into word-groups and sentences. Even isolated words as presented in a dictionary bear a definite relation to the grammatical system of the language because they belong to some part of speech and conform to some lexico-grammatical characteristics of the word class to which they belong. Words seldom occur in isolation. They are arranged in certain patterns conveying the relations between the things they denote, consequently in addition to their lexical meaning they also possess some grammatical meaning. The two kinds of meaning are often interrelated. That is to say, certain grammatical functions and meanings are possible only for the words whose lexical meaning makes them fit for these functions, and, on the other hand, some lexical meanings in some words occur only in definite grammatical functions and forms and in definite grammatical patterns.The ties between lexicology and grammar are particularly strong in the sphere of word-formation which before lexicology became a separate branch of linguistics had even been considered as a part of grammar. The characteristic features of English word-building, the morphological structure of the English word are dependent upon the peculiarity of the English grammatical system. The analytical character of the language is largely responsible for the wide spread of conversion and for the remarkable flexibility of the vocabulary manifest in the ease with which many nonce-words are formed on the spur of the moment.Language is the reality of thought, and thought develops together with the development of society, therefore language and its vocabulary must be studied in the light of social history. A word, through its meaning rendering some notion, is a generalised reflection of reality. The branch of linguistics, dealing with causal relations between the way the language works and develops, on the one hand, and the facts of social life, on the other, is termed sociolinguistics. PART 2. THE DEFINITION OF THE WORDLexicology deals with various lexical units: morphemes, words, variable word-groups and phraseological units. We proceed from the assumption that the word is the basic unit of language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic level of linguistic analysis. The word is a structural and semantic entity within the language system. The modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between the external and the internal structures of the word. By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure (the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes, the root, the suffixes). The internal structure of the word, or its meaning, is referred to as the word’s semantic structure. It is the main aspect of a word.The definition of every basic notion is a very hard task: the definition of a word is one of the most difficult in linguistics because the simplest word has many different aspects. It has a sound form because it is a certain arrangement of phonemes; it has its morphological structure, being also a certain arrangement of morphemes; when used in actual speech, it may occur in different word forms, different syntactic functions and signal various meanings. A few examples will suffice to show that any definition is conditioned by the aims and interests of its author. Thomas Hobbes, one of the great English philosophers, revealed a materialistic approach to the problem of nomination. He wrote that words are not mere sounds but names of matter. The great Russian physiologist I.?P.?Pavlov analyzed the word in connection with his studies of the second signal system, and defined it as a universal signal that can substitute any other signal from the environment in evoking a response in a human organism. One of the latest developments of science and engineering is machine translation. It also deals with words and requires a rigorous definition for them. It runs as follows: a word is a sequence of graphemes which can occur between spaces, or the representation of such a sequence on morphemic level.Within the sphere of linguistics the word has been defined syntactically, semantically, phonologically and by combining various approaches.It has been syntactically defined for instance as “the minimum sentence” by H.?Sweet and much later by L.?Bloomfield as “a minimum free form”. E.?Sapir pays attention to the syntactic and semantic aspects when he calls the word “one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated “meaning”, into which the sentence resolves itself”. The semantic-phonological approach may be illustrated by A.?H.?Gardiner’s definition: “A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its aspect of denoting something which is spoken about”.A word is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone and characterised by positional mobility within a sentence, morphological uninterruptability and semantic integrity. All these criteria are indispensable because they let us to create a basis for the oppositions between the word and the phrase, the word and the phoneme, and the word and the morpheme. Summing up our review of different definitions, we can conclude that they are bound to be strongly dependent upon the line of approach, the aim the scholar has in view. For a comprehensive word theory, consequently, a description seems more appropriate than a definition. The word is the fundamental unit of language. It is a dialectical unity of form and content. The word may be described as the basic speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity.The word as well as any linguistic sign is a two-facet unit possessing both form and content or, more specifically, sound form and meaning. Its content or meaning is not identical to notion, but it may reflect human notions, and in this sense may be thought of as the form of their existence. Concepts fixed in the meaning of words are formed as generalised and approximately correct reflections of reality. When used in actual speech the word undergoes certain modification and functions in one of its forms. The system showing a word in all its word-forms is called its paradigm. The lexical meaning оf а word is the same throughout the paradigm, i.?e. all the word-forms of one and the same word are lexically identical. The grammatical meaning varies from one form to another (cf. to take, takes, took, taking or singer, singer’s, singers, singers’). There are two approaches to the paradigm: (a) as a system of forms of one word it reveals the differences and relationships between them; (b) in abstraction from concrete words it is treated as a pattern on which every word of one part of speech models its forms, thus serving to distinguish one part of speech from another. Cf. the noun paradigm – ( ), -’s, -s, -s’ as distinct from that of the regular verb – ( ) ,-s, -ed1, -ed2, -ing, etc.Morphological Structure of English WordsTaking into account the word-structure, words appear to be divisible into smaller units which are called morphemes. A morpheme can be described as an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. It can’t be devided into smaller meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful language unit.The term morpheme is derived from Gr. morphe “form” + -eme. The Greek suffix -eme has been adopted by linguists to denote the smallest significant or distinctive unit (Cf. phoneme, sememe).Morphemes may be classified: a) from the semantic point of view; b) from the structural point of view. a) Semantically morphemes fall into two classes: root-morphemes and non-root or affixational morphemes. Roots and affixes make two distinct classes of morphemes on account of the different roles they play in word-structure.Roots and affixational morphemes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e. g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, refill, Londoner, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-,-fill, London-, are understood as the lexical centres of the words, as the basic constituent parts without which the words are inconceivable.The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of a word. It has an individual lexical meaning which doesn’t have any other morpheme of the language. It is necessary to remember that the part-of-speech meaning is not found in roots. The root-morpheme is isolated as the morpheme common to a set of words making up a word-cluster, for example, the morpheme teach- in to teach, teacher, teaching, theor- in theory, theorist, theoretical, etc.Non-root morphemes include inflectional morphemes or inflections and affixational morphemes or affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and, consequently, are significant only for the formation of word-forms, whereas affixes are relevant for building various types of stems. A stem is the part of a word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. Affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes: a prefix precedes the root-morpheme, a suffix follows it. Affixes possess the part-of-speech meaning and a generalised lexical meaning.The part of a word, which remains unchanged in all the forms of its paradigm is called a stem: darken in darkens, darkened, darkening. The stem hippie can be found in the words: hippie, hippies, hippie’s, hippies’. The stem job-hop can be found in the words: job-hop, job-hops, job-hopped, job-hopping. Stems have not only the lexical meaning but also grammatical (part-of-speech) meaning, they can be noun stems (girl in the adjective girlish), adjective stems (girlish in the noun girlishness), verb stems (expell in the noun expellee) etc. They differ from words by the absence of inflexions in their structure, they can be used only in the structure of words. Stems, the same as words, can be simple, derived, compound and compound-derived. Stems that coincide with roots are known as simple stems, e. g. trees, reads, etc. Stems that include one or more affixes are called derived stems, e. g. governments, teacher’s, etc. Binary stems comprising two simple or derived stems are called compound stems, e. g. ex-film-star, schoolboy, etc. Compound-derived stems consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion, e. g. middle-of-the-roaders, job-hopper.b) Structurally morphemes can be divided into three types: free morphemes, bound morphemes, semi-free (semi-bound) morphemes (see Table 1).A free morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form. Root-morphemes are free morphemes, for instance, the root-morpheme friend – of the noun friendship is naturally qualified as a free morpheme because it coincides with one of the forms of the noun friend.A bound morpheme occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are, naturally, bound morphemes, for they always make part of a word, e. g. the suffixes -ness, -ship, -ise (-ize), etc., the prefixes un-, dis-, de-, etc. (e. g. readiness, comradeship, to activise; unnatural, to displease, to decipher, etc.).Bound morphemes can be further subdivided into derivational or inflectional. Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change either the semantic meaning or part of speech of the affected word. For instance, in the word happiness, the addition of the bound morpheme -ness to the root happy changes the word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). In the word unkind, un- functions as a derivational morpheme, for it inverts the meaning of the word formed by the root kind.Many root-morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes which always occur in morphemic sequences, i.?e. in combinations with roots or affixes. All unique roots and pseudo-roots are-bound morphemes. Such are the root-morphemes theor- in theory, theoretical, etc., barbar-in barbarism, barbarian, etc., -ceive in conceive, perceive, etc.Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes are morphemes that can function in a morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a free morpheme. For example, the morpheme well and half on the one hand occur as free morphemes that coincide with the stem and the word-form in utterances like sleep well, half an hour, on the other hand they occur as bound morphemes in words like well-known, half-eaten, half-done.Table 1 ?- Structural Types of MorphemesMorphemesfreee.?g. friend- in friendshipbounde.?g. re- in rewritesemi-bound e. g. man-in manmadeMorphemes fall into lexical and grammatical (functional) morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and bound. Free lexical morphemes are roots of words. Free grammatical morphemes are function words: articles, conjunctions and prepositions (the, with, and). Bound lexical morphemes are affixes: prefixes (dis-), suffixes (-ish). Bound grammatical morphemes are inflexions (endings), e. g. -s for the Plural of nouns, -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs, -ing for the Present Participle, -er for the Comparative degree of adjectives (see Table 2). Table 2 ?- Bound morphemesBound morphemesderivationale.?g. happinessinflectionale.?g catsPositional variants of a morpheme are known as allomorphs. Thus the prefix in- (involuntary) can be represented by allomorph il- (illegal), im- (impossible), ir- (irregular).In the second half of the twentieth century the English wordbuilding system was enriched by creating so called splinters which are included in the affixation stock of the Modern English wordbuilding system. Splinters are the result of clipping the beginning or the end of a word and producing a number of new words on the analogy with the primary word-group. For instance, there are many words formed with the help of the splinter mini- (apocopy produced by clipping the word miniature), such as miniplane, minicycle, minicar, miniradio and others. These words denote objects of smaller than normal dimensions. On the analogy with mini- there appeared the splinter maxi- (apocopy produced by clipping the word maximum), such words as maxi-series, maxi-sculpture, maxi-taxi, etc. These splinters are regarded sometimes as prefixes. There are also splinters which are formed by means of apheresis, that is clipping the beginning of a word. The origin of such splinters can be variable, e. g. the splinter burger appeared in English as the result of clipping the German borrowing hamburger (the stem hamburg and the suffix -er). However in English the beginning of the word hamburger was associated with the English word ham, and the end of the word burger got the meaning a bun cut into two parts. On the analogy with the word hamburger quite a number of new words were coined, such as: baconburger, beefburger, cheeseburger, fishburger, etc. In the seventieths of the twentieth century there was a political scandal in the hotel “Watergate” where the Democratic Party of the USA had its pre-election headquarters. Republicans managed to install bugs there and when they were discovered there was a scandal and the ruling American government had to resign. The name “Watergate” acquired the meaning “a political scandal”, “corruption”. Similarly to this word quite a number of other words were formed by using the splinter gate (apheresis of the word Watergate), such as: Irangate, Westlandgate, shuttlegate, milliongate, etc. The splinter gate is added mainly to Proper names: names of people involved in the scandal or a geographical name denoting the place where the scandal occurred. The splinter mobile was formed by clipping the beginning of the word automobile and is used to denote special types of automobiles, such as: snowmobile, tourmobile, etc. The splinter napper was formed by clipping the beginning of the word kidnapper and is used to denote different types of crimes, such as: busnapper, babynapper, dognapper, etc. The splinter aholic (holic) was formed by clipping the beginning of the word alcoholic of Arabian origin where al denoted the koh’l – “powder for staining lids”. The splinter (a)holic means infatuated by the object denoted by the stem of the word, e. g. bookaholic, computerholic, coffeeholic, cheesaholic, workaholic and many others.Splinters can be called pseudomorphemes because they are neither roots nor affixes, they are more or less artificial. Splinters have only one function in English: they serve to alter the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, whereas prefixes and suffixes can also alter the part-of-speech meaning, e. g. the prefix en- and its allomorph em- can form verbs from noun and adjective stems (embody, enable, endanger), post- and pre- can form adjectives from noun stems (pre-election campaign, post-war events), the suffixes -er, -ing, -ment form nouns from verbal stems (teacher, dancing, movement), -ness, -ity are used to form nouns from adjective stems (clannishness, marginality). In the English language of the second half of the twentieth century there developed so called block compounds, that is compound words which have a uniting stress but a split spelling, such as chat show, pinguin suit, etc. Such compound words can be easily mixed up with word-groups of the type stone wall, so called nominative binomials. Such linguistic units serve to denote a notion which is more specific than the notion expressed by the second component and consists of two nouns, the first of which is an attribute to the second one. If we compare a nominative binomial with a compound noun with the structure N+N we shall see that a nominative binomial has no unity of stress. The change of the order of its components will change its lexical meaning, e. g. vid kid is “a kid who is a video fan” while kid vid means “a video-film for kids” or else lamp oil means “oil for lamps” and oil lamp means “a lamp which uses oil for burning”. Among language units we can also mark out word combinations of different structural types of idiomatic and non-idiomatic character, such as the first fiddle, high road and round table. There are also sentences which are studied by grammarians. Thus, we can draw the conclusion that in Modern English the following language units can be defined: morphemes, splinters, words, nominative binomials, non-idiomatic and idiomatic word-combinations, sentences.Exercise 1. Make the morphemic analysis of the following words.post-impressionists, workmanship, outstay, eatable, illustrate, generations, cliff-hangers, courtroom, incredibly, lifelong, obsession, appreciated, in-depth, research, coastal, wonderful, heartstopper, back-of-the-neck, bedclothes, brilliant, descriptions, superbly, read-in-one-day, pedal-to-the-metal crowd-passer, one-sit thriller, hair-raiser, extremely, interesting, exciting, anyone, marvelous, contemporary, accurate.Exercise 2. Classify the stems of the words given below into simple, derived, compound.playwright, sunflower, shockproof, look, blue-eyed, cup, dusty, homeless, extremely, music, drumbeat, teenager, fantastic, table, hilarious, place, grown-up, read, sisterhood, outstanding, novel, booklist, standard, excellence, science-fiction, footstep, visionary, homelessness, bittersweet, everywhere, portrait, indelible, impression, reaffirming, nowadays, horror, convincingly, detailed, acronym, mile. Exercise 3. Classify the morphemes given in bold type from the structural point of view.1. You and I know that soon Uncle Monty will be dead and the Baudelaires will be miserable. 2. They tried the gate themselves and found that it was unlocked. 3. If you ever planning a vocation, you may find if useful to acquire a guidebook. 4. Klaus frowned at the hand-drown map that was attached to the note with another wad of gum. 5. Enclosed you will find a map of the Lucky Smells Lumbermill. 6. During the week that followed, however, the Baudelaires had a wonderful time in their new home. 7. The window curtains somehow made the room even more pathetic, a word which here means “depressing”. 8. But in front of the house was what was truly unusual: a vast, well-kept lawn, dotted with long, thin shrubs in remarkable shapes. 9. Mr. Poe stepped up to the door and rang a doorbell that was one of the loudest the children had ever heard. 10. The dormitory is straight ahead, between the storage shed and the lumbermill itself. 11. And somebody has to slice an enormous length of rope into small, workable pieces. 12. He was in charge of overseeing the orphans’ affairs, so it was he who decided that the children would be placed in the care of a unpleasantness with Count Olaf. 13. Full of drama, full of passion, full of intrigue and heroism. 14. I like it because it is full of suspense and rather adventureful. 15.?Greatest little story of power, intrigue, ambition, disregard, corruption and horror.Exercise 4. Comment on splinters, nominative binomials, block compounds, non-idiomatic and idiomatic word-combinations.telecast, abroadcast, townscape, seascape, allergenic, cardiogenic, mediagenic, Green Berets, a devil’s dozen, table lamp, open heart, a pin drop, a double game, talk show, hobby-horse, a lucky star, a kitchen garden, a trial balloon, a pure coin, the last drop, fashion world, a bitter pill, a mean trick, under-water rocks, a snail’s pace, chicken tracks, a camel’s back, a bookworm, a diamond ring. Main Structural Types of WordsEnglish words are devided into 4 main structural types:– simple words (or root words) have only a root morpheme in their structure. This type is widely represented by a great number of words belonging to the original English stock or to earlier borrowings (house, room, book, street, etc.) and in Modern English has been greatly enlarged by conversion (e. g. hand – to hand, pale – to pale, etc.). There are also some shortenings or contractions, which are created by shortening (contraction), e. g. ad, lab, flu, M.P., etc.– derivatives or derived words consist of a root and one or more affixes. They are produced by the word-building process known as affixation or derivation, e. g. joyful, retell, enlarge, etc. There is an extremely large amount of such words in English vocabulary.– compounds – in which two or more stems are combined into a lexical unit, e. g. classroom, snow-white, forget-me-not. – derivational compounds formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivation. The process of word-building in these seemingly similar words is different: mill-owner is coined by composition, honey-mooner – by derivation from the compound honeymoon. Honeymoon being a compound, honeymooner is a derivative. The ultimate constituents of derivational compounds are: noun stem+noun stem+ -er. The suffix -er is one of the productive suffixes in forming derivational compounds. Another frequent type of derivational compounds are compounds of the type kind-hearted: adjective stem+ noun stem+ -ed. The derivational compounds often become the basis of further derivation.There are two characteristic features of English compounds: a) English compounds have mainly two-stem pattern; b) both components in an English compound are free stems, that is they can be used as words with their individual pound words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of:a) reduplication, e.?g. too-too, and also by means of reduplicating combined with sound interchange, e.?g. tip-top;b) conversion from word-groups, e.?g. to micky-mouse, makeup;c) back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.?g. to fingerprint;d) analogy, e.?g. lie-in, phone-in (on the analogy with sit-in). According to their structure compounds fall into (see Table 3):a) compound words proper which comprise two stems, e. g. to job-hunt, train-sick;b) derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affixes, e. g. ear-minded, hydro-skimmer;c) compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.?g. eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter;d) compound-shortened words, e. g. V-day, motocross. Table 3 ?- Сlassification of compounds according to their structurethree or more stemse. g. wastepaper-basket,newspaper-ownershippropere. g. bookshelf,snowwhite,tip-topshortened stemse. g. T-shirt,motocross,Eurodollarderivationale. g. blue-eyed,cinema-goer,long-leggedCompoundsThere exists a more detailed classification of the structural types of words. The varieties of root morphemes, the positions of affixes as regards the root are taken into account.Simple words.R – stop, now, desk;Rfr – lab (laboratory), pop (popular);Derived words.R + S – realize, dancer;Rfr + S – combo (combination);P + R – depart, subdivision; P + R + S – misinterpretation, disagreeable; Compound words/R + R – time-table, schoolgirl; Rfr + Rfr – smog (smoke + fog), brunch (breakfast + lunch); R + I + R – gasometer, statesman;(R + S) + R – writing – table, safety-belt; R + (R + S) – pen-holder, sky-jumping;R + F + R – stay-at-home, true-to-life;Derivational compounds.13.(R + R) + S – snub-nosed, long-legged.The four types (root words, derived words, compounds and derivational compounds) represent the main structural types of Modern English words. Conversion, derivation and composition are the most productive ways of word-building process. By word-building are understood processes of producing new words from the resources of the language. Various types of word formation in modern English possess different degrees of productivity, some of them are highly productive such as affixation, compounding, shortening, conversion, forming phrasal words others are semi-productive, such as back formation, reduplication, blending, sound imitation and non- productive – sound interchange and change of stress.Exercise 5. Comment on the structural types of the following words.news-stand, cupboard, sun-bleached, true-to-life, long-legged, inhabit, speedometer, lip-read, sky, strong-willed, acceptable, hide-and-seek, combo, snow-white, disagreement, vote-catching, smog, fridge, gasometer, schoolboy, retell, pop, wedding-finger, misinterpretation, zoo, small, light-minded, price, mags, unputdownable, unindentified, person, majority, frightening, generation, neck, ads, gym, Anglo-American, exam Exercise 6 Comment on polysemy and homonymy of affixes in the following words. Translate the words into Ukrainian.decompose, demobilize, decompress, depart, decontrol, degrade, defense; uncomfortable, uncommon, unconditional, unconscious, uncontrollable; discharge, discard, disbud, disbelieve, disbranch, disclose, disafforest, disadvantage, ex-wife, ex-president, exceed, expostulate, exposition, exportation; suborder, subsurface, substratum, substratosphere, substandard, subsoil, substation; boredom, freedom, kingdom; redden, golden, brighten, widen; English, womanish, greyish, stylish; government, development, amusement, abridgement, payment; weekly, monthly, poorly, quickly, slowly, manly; teacher, worker, boiler, Londoner; package, postage, marriage, hostage, breakage.Exercise 7 Comment on the structural types of the words given in bold type.1. Exciting stuff... Brown certainly does have a knack for spinning a suspenseful yarn. 2. Reading this book is like a holiday – an interlude of pleasure... 3. Unbelievable! I read this book like a hungry cat! 4. Crichton’s sci-fi is convincingly detailed. 5. A madcap mixture of Nord, folk spunk and high elegance and definitely its own space. 6. Push aside the velvet curtain to give a glimpse of the glamorous yet barracuda-like world of fashion... 7. A strikingly accurate depiction of the slightly loony worlds of fashion and high-stakes glamour magazines. 8. I automatically began in-depth research about Garmouth and wartime coastal England. 9. If you like tough cop/police work/serial killer/courtroom drama, this is a good one. 10. Life-or-death cliff-hangers, thrilling cat-and-mouse maneuvers, romance, religion, science, murder, mysticism, architecture, and action. 11. I had never seen this side of her before, not ever. 12. Learn your way around loneliness. 13.?Having a baby is like getting a tattoo on your face. 14.?Frankly, pure pleasure is not my cultural paradigm. 15.?For instance, perhaps I could remain totally celibate except for keeping a pair of handsome twenty-five-year-old Italian twin brothers as lovers. 16. I let myself into my tiny little studio, all alone. 17. Sobbing so hard, in fact, that a great lake of tears and snot was spreading before me on the bathroom tiles, a veritable Lake Inferior (if you will) of all my shame and fear and confusion and grief. 18. Thank you, thank you, thank you, thank you for giving me one more month to live. 19. I set the book down in my lap, shaking with relief. 20. Make a map of it. 21. I remember him calling up about that ad. 22. Purely as a matter of principle I wouldn't inflict my sorry, busted-up old self on the lovely, unsullied Giovanni. 23. As I try to speak logically about my missing box of books, the woman looks at me like I'm blowing spit bubbles. 24. I used to think the 109th bead was an emergency spare, like the extra button on a fancy sweater, or the youngest son in a royal family. 25. That double combo sugar-caffeine rush that made the world go round. 26.?This has always been an upscale district. 27. That sounds like an innuendo, but unfortunately it's not. Exercise 8 Comment on the structural types of the compounds given in bold type.1. When I was a kid, my dad and I could drive from the historic district near the Cape Fear River to Wrightsville Beach in ten minutes, but so many stoplights and shopping centers have been added that it can now take an hour, especially on the weekends, when the tourists come flooding in. 2. He was most content while sitting in his den, studying a coin dealer newsletter nicknamed the Greysheet and trying to figure out the next coin he should add to his collection. 3. “But I am a little disappointed that you forgot,” she added, almost as an afterthought. 4. The shrimp shack is in downtown Wilmington, in the historic area that borders the Cape Fear River. 5. A broken rowboat sat near the door. 6. Most of the tables were filled, but I motioned toward one near the jukebox. 7. I set it up on the back porch and emptied out the charcoal dust before hosing off the cobwebs and letting it dry in the sun. 8. As we watched, the rain intensified into a steady downpour, falling diagonally from the sky. 9. Later I took her to see the battleship, but we didn’t stay long. 10. Though I wanted to open it immediately, I waited until we’d lifted off from the runway. 11. It doesn’t sound so far-fetched, right? 12. It wasn’t just her slightly gap-toothed smile, it was the casual way she swiped at a loose strand of hair, the easy way she held herself. 13. She met my gaze without a hint of self-consciousness. 14. Common or garden gold-digger. And she knew her stuff. She’d got her hooks into Jeff all right. 15.?“People call her a scandalmonger”, said Mrs Bantry, “but she isn’t really”. 16. He and her wife occupy a self-contained flat in Yewtree Lodge, though they are moving into their own house at Baydon Heath very shortly. 17. Percival is a mealy-mouthed hypocrite. 18. Though, as I say, I do it with the utmost diffidence because I know I am very old and rather muddle-headed, and I dare say my idea is of no value at all. 19.?The father was an old country doctor – terrifically pig-headed – the complete family tyrant. 20. You’ve no idea, Neele, how tired one gets of the inevitable weed-killer. 21. He asked me to move directly under the hanging lightbulb so he could take a better look. 22. According to my guidebook, the women who modeled for the nymphs were a pair of sisters, two popular burlesque dancers of their day. 23. Outside, the sky was a brilliant red and orange, the purple darkness and the yellow of the smog mixing with the horizon. 24.?The speedometer read eighty-five. 25. It’s my writing-pad. 26.?Why did I feel so overwhelmed with duty, tired of being the primary breadwinner and the housekeeper and the social coordinator and the dog-walker and the wife and the soon-to-be mother, and somewhere in my stolen moments – a writer? 27. I didn’t have to play hide-and-seek anymore. 28. I felt like I was some kind of primitive spring-loaded machine, placed under far more tension than it had ever been built to sustain, about to blast apart at great danger to anyone standing nearby. PART 3. WORD-FORMATIONWord-formation is the process of creating new words from the material available in the word-stock according to certain structural and semantic patterns specific for the given language. Word-formation is that branch of Lexicology which studies the derivative structure of existing words and the patterns on which a language, in this case the English language, builds new words. It is obvious that word-formation proper can deal only with words which are analysable both structurally and semantically. The study of the simple word as such has no place in it. Simple words are very closely connected with word-formation because they serve as the foundation, the basic source of the parent units motivating all types of derived and compound words. Some of the ways of forming words in modern English can be resorted to for the creation of new words whenever the occasion demands – these are called prоduсtive ways of forming words, other ways of forming words cannot now produce new words, and these are mostly termed non-productive or unproductive. For example, affixation has been a productive way of forming words ever since the Old English period; on the other hand, sound-interchange must have been at one time a word-building means but in Modern English its function is actually only to distinguish between different classes and forms of words.Consequently, productivity of word-building ways is considered to be the ability of making new words which all who speak English find no difficulty in understanding, in particular their ability to create what are called occasional words. The term suggests that a speaker coins such words when he needs them; if on another occasion the same word is needed again, he coins it afresh. The following words may serve as illustration: (his) collarless (appearance), a lungful (of smoke), a Dickensish (office), to unlearn (the rules), etc.Three degrees of productivity are distinguished for derivational patterns and individual derivational affixes: l)?highly-productive, 2)?productive or semi-productive and 3)?non-productive.Most linguists consider as the chief processes of English word-formation affixation, conversion and compounding. Besides, these a number of minor ways of forming words such as back-formation, reduplication, sound interchange, distinctive stress, sound imitation, blending, clipping and acronymy are traditionally also referred to word-formation.We proceed from the understanding of word-formation and the classification of word-formation types as found in A.?I.?Smirnitskiy’s book on English Lexicology. Word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. For instance, the noun driver is formed after the pattern v+-er, i.?e. a verbal stem + the noun-forming suffix -er. The meaning of the derived noun driver is related to the meaning of the stem drive- “to direct the course of a vehicle” and the suffix -er meaning “an active agent”: a driver is “one who drives” (a carriage, motorcar, railway engine, etc.). Likewise compounds resulting from two or more stems joined together to form a new word are also built on quite definite structural and semantic patterns and formulas, for instance adjectives of the snow-white type are built according to the formula п+а, etc. It can easily be observed that the meaning of the whole compound is also related to the meanings of the component parts. In conformity with structural types of words described above the following two types of word-formation may be distinguished, word-derivation and word-composition (or compounding). Words created by word-derivation have only one derivational base and one derivational affix, e. g. cleanness (from clean), to overestimate (from to estimate), chairmanship (from chairman), etc. Some derived words have no derivational affixes, because derivation is achieved through conversion, e.?g. to paper (from paper), a fall (from to fall), etc. Words created by word-composition have at least two bases, e.?g. lamp-shade, ice-cold, looking-glass, daydream, speedometer, snow-white, flowerbed, etc.Within the types, further distinction may be made between the ways of forming words. The basic ways of forming words in word-derivatiоn, for instance, are affixation and conversion.AffixationAffixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix or affixes to the stem. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.Suffixation is the most common type of affixation. In suffixation, the affix is added to the end of the base. For example, the suffix-ness is added to the adjective fond to form the noun fondness; the suffix -s is added to the noun car to produce the plural of the noun – cars. In most languages, suffixation is the most widespread form of affixation. In languages such as Turkish and Finnish, it is the only type of affixation.The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another; the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. (e.?g. “educate” is a verb, “education” is a noun, and “music” is a noun, “musicdom” is also a noun).There are different classifications of suffixes: 1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes derive a certain part of speech, therefore one should distinguish noun-forming, adjective-forming, numeral-forming, verb-forming and adverb-forming suffixes.Noun-forming suffixes: -age (bondage, breakage, mileage, vicarage); -ance/-ence (assistance, reference); -ant/-ent (disinfectant, student); -dom (kingdom, officialdom, freedom); -ее (employee); -eer (profiteer);-er (writer, type-writer); -ess (actress, lioness); -hood (manhood); -ing (building, meaning, washing); -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation (rebellion, tension, creation, explanation); -ism/-icism (heroism, criticism); -ist (novelist, communist); -ment (government, nourishment); -ness (tenderness); -ship (friendship); -(i)ty (sonority).Adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble (unbearable, audible, soluble); -al (formal); -ic (poetic); -ical (ethical); -ant/-ent (repentant, dependent); -ary (revolutionary); -ate/-ete (accurate, complete); -ed/-d (wooded); -ful (delightful); -an/-ian (African, Australian); -ish (Irish, reddish, childish); -ive (active); -less (useless); -like (lifelike); -ous/-ious (tremendous, curious); -ly (manly); -some (tiresome); -y (cloudy, dressy).Numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (seventh); -ty (sixty).Verb-forming suffixes: -ate (facilitate); -fy/-ify (terrify, speechify, solidify); -er (glimmer); -en (shorten); -ise/-ize (equalise); -ish (establish).Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly); -ward/-wards (upward, northwards); -wise (likewise).2. Origin of suffixes. From the etymological point of view suffixes are subdivided into two main classes: native and borrowed. By native suffixes we shall mean those that existed in English in the Old English period or were formed from Old English words: -dom, -hood, -lock, -ward, -y, -less, -like, -ship, -th, -ful, -some, -teen, -wise, e. g. childhood, boyhood, freedom, wisdom, etc. The suffixes of foreign origin are classified according to their source into Latin (-able/-ible, -ant/-ent), French (-age, -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency, -ard, -ate, -sy), Greek (-ist, -ism, -ite), etc. It should be kept in mind that many of the borrowed suffixes are international and occur not only in English but in several other European languages as well.3. Productivity. Suffixes are classified into productive (e.?g. -er, -y, -ize, -ness, -less, etc.) and non-productive (e.?g. -th, -hood, -en, -ous, etc.).4. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.?g. noun-forming suffixes can denote: a) the agent of the action, e.?g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student), b) nationality, e.?g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English), c) collectivity, e.?g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry), -ship (readership), -ati (literati), d)?diminutiveness, e.?g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), -ette (kitchenette), e) quality, e.?g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability). 5. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into: a)?suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), -able (flyable), -ment (involvement), b)?suffixes added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless), -ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -ish (childish), c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).Suffixes can be polysemantic, such as: -er can form nouns with the following meanings: agent, doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter). While speaking about suffixes we should also pay attention to compound suffixes which are added to the stem at the same time, such as -ably, -ibly, (terribly, reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt).Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.?g. un-(unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they can be separate words, e.?g. over- (overhead). The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.Prefixes can be classified according to different principles: 1. Origin of prefixes: a) native (Germanic), such as: over-, un-, under-, etc. b) Romanic, such as: in-, de-, ex-, re-, etc. c)?Greek, such as: sym-, hyper-, etc. 2. Semantic classification: a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as : un- (unfree), in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), etc, b)?prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: dis- (disconnect), de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: d), pre- (pre-election), inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student) over- (overdrugging), etc.Exercise 1. Form words with the following affixes. State to what part of speech they belong.un-, over-, under-, -tion, -ment, -ance, -th, -hood, -en, -ous, -er, re-, -y, -ize, -ness, -less, anti-, co-, ex-, extra-, ultra-, -ing, -ion, -pre-, sub-, mis-, -ful, -able, -ish, sub-, -like, -ly, -dom, -ee, -ism, -ist, -ed, -ive, in-, im-, -ibly, inter-, hyper-, non-, -ly, dis-, il-, -al.Exercise 2. Pick out the words with the affixes, analyse them. 1. Between 7.30 and 8.30 every morning except Sundays, Johnnie Butt made the round of the village of Chipping Cleghorn on his bicycle, whistling vociferously through his teeth. 2. He alights at each house or cottage to shove though the letter box such morning papers as had been ordered by the occupants of the house in question from Mr. Totman, stationer, of the High Street. 3. When you turn on your wireless in the evening it will be the Idylls of the King you will hear and not interminable Trollope. 4. But was there a note of wariness – or did he imagine it? 5.?Rather stupid really, you know, but full of cupidity and probably extremely credulous. 6. “No-no, I suppose not”, said Mrs. Bantry doubtfully. 7. “I did not dream it”, said Mrs. Bantry firmly. 8.?So well ordered was her prim spinster’s life that unforeseen telephone calls were a source of vivid. 9. Her herbaceous borders are simply marvelous – they make me green with envy. 10. She went on hopefully. 11. Worn with pain, and weak from the prolonged hardship which I had undergone I was removed, with a great train of wounded sufferers, to the base hospital at Peshavan. 12. I was dispatched, accordingly, in the troopship “Orontes”, and landed a month later on Portsmouth jelly, with my health irretrievably ruined, but with permission from a paternal government to spend the next nine months in attempting to improve it. 13. There I stayed for some time at a private hotel in the Strand, leading a comfortless, meaningless existence, and spending such money as I had, considerably more freely than I ought. 14. I should prefer a man of studious and quiet habits. 15.?I am not strong enough yet to stand much noise or excitement. 16. That’s why I want you to come and help me to find out who did it and unravel the mystery and all that. 17. Colonel Bantry was shooed back into the dining-room rather like a recalcitrant hen. 18. Slack he had never much taken to – an energetic man who belied his name and who accompanied his bustling manner with a good deal of disregard for the feelings of anyone he did not consider important. 19.?She stopped, and made a slight insignificant gesture of helplessness. 20. This statement received more incredulity than any other. 21. “You wish, Aunt Letty, to disguise your intelligent anticipation?” – Patrick reassure her. 22. The only incongruous note was a small silver vase with dead violets in it on the table. 23. Phillipa Haymes was too wooden for Rosalind, her fairness and her impassivity were intensely English. 24. But that may be just prejudice on my part. 25. It is not easy to express the inexpressible, he answered with laugh. 26. “You are to be congratulated”, – I remarked. 27.?Sometimes he spent his days at the laboratory, sometimes in the dissecting-rooms, and occasionally in long walks. 28. He was extraordinarily generous, spontaneous, rather Quixotic. Exercise 3. Translate the following words into Ukrainian paying attention to the difference in their meaning. Behave – misbehave, calculate – miscalculate, watery – waterish, inform – misinform, loving – lovely – lovable, lead – mislead, delightful – delighted, pronounce – mispronounce, pleasant – pleased, agree – disagree, appear – disappear, appoint – disappoint, colourful – coloured, tasty – tasteful, shortened – shortish, starry – starred, bored – boring.Exercise 4. Compare the meanings added by the suffixes to the same roots.centre: central, centralism, centralize, centralization, centring, centric, centrical, centricity, centricalness, centrically, centrally;beauty: beautiful, beautifully, beautify, beautician, beauteous, beauteously, beauteousness, beautification, beautifier;man: manful, manfully, manfulness, mandom, manhood, manlike, manly, mannish, mannishness, manned, manliness;woman: womanly, womanfully, womanize, womanhood, womanish, womanishly, womanishness, womanlike, womanliness;absorb: absorbed, absorbedly, absorbable, absorbency, absorbent, absorption, absorptive, absorptiveness, absorptivity, absorbingly, absorbing.ConversionConversion is one of the most productive ways of modern English word-building. Conversion is sometimes referred to as an affixless way of word-building or zero-affixation. The term conversion first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet “New English Grammar” in 1891. It implies making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech. The new word has a meaning different from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily associated with it. It has also a new paradigm peculiar to its new category as a part of speech. Nurse, nNurse, v-s, plural-s, 3rd person singular-‘s, possessive case-ed, past simple, past participles’, possessive case, plural-ing, present participle, gerundAs soon as a word has crossed the category borderline, the new word automatically acquires all the properties of the new category, so that if it has entered the verb category, it is used in all tense forms, it also develops the forms of the participle and the gerund. Modern English dictionaries present converted pairs as homonyms, as two words. Not every case of noun and verb (or verb and adjective, or adjective and noun) is the result of conversion. There are numerous pairs of words, as drink – to drink, love – to love, work – to work which do not refer to conversion but coincide as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of ending, simplification of stems, etc.). The first cases of conversion, which were registered in the 14th centure, imitated such pairs as love-to love, for they were numerous in the vocabulary and were subconsciously accepted by native speakers as one of the typical language patterns. The two categories of parts of speech affected by conversion are nouns and verbs: a hand – to hand, a face – to face. Nouns are frequently made of verbs, e.?g. He has still plenty of go at his age (go-energy). Converted nouns can denote: a) instant of an action e.?g. a jump, a move, b) process or state e.?g. sleep, walk, c) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.?g. a help, a flirt, a scold, d) object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.?g. a burn, a find, a purchase, e) place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.?g. a drive, a stop, a walk. Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the Singular form and denote momentaneous actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with such verbs as: to have, to get, to take etc., e.?g. to have a try, to give a push, to take a swim. Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings because of that. The meanings of the converted word and of the word from which it was made can be associated. These associations can be classified:The noun is the name of a tool, the verb denotes an action performed by this tool: to nail, to hammer, to pin, to comb, to pencil, to brush. The noun is the name of an animal, the verb denotes an action or aspect of behavior, considered typical of this animal: to dog, to rat, to wolf, to monkey.The noun – the name of a part of the human body, the verb – an action performed by it: to shoulder, to leg, to elbow, to hand. The noun denotes the name of a profession or occupation, the verb – activity typical of it: to nurse, to cook, to maid.The noun – the name of a place and the verb – the process of occupying the place or putting smth. or smb. in it: to room, to place, to cage.The noun – the name of a container, the verb – act of putting smth. within the container: to pocket, to can, to bottle.The noun – the name of a meal, the verb – the process of taking it: to lunch, to supper.The noun – the time, the verb can denote an action performed at this time: to winter, to week-end.The groups given above do not include all the great variety of verbs made from nouns by conversion.Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to yellow, to green, to pale, to cool, etc. In such cases they denote the change of the state, e.?g. to tame (to become or make tame), to clean, to slim, etc.The flexibility of the English vocabulary system makes a word formed by conversion capable of further derivation. For example, to view “to watch television” gives viewable, viewer, viewing.Conversion may be combined with other word-building processes, such as composition. Attributive phrases like black ball, black list, pin point, stone wall form the basis of such firmly established verbs as blackball, blacklist, pinpoint, stonewall. The same pattern is much used in nonce-words such as to my-dear, to my-love, to blue-pencil.“Stone wall” combinations. The problem whether adjectives can be formed by means of conversion from nouns is the subject of many discussions. In Modern English there are a lot of word combinations of the type, e.?g. price rise, wage freeze, steel helmet, sand castle, etc. If the first component of such units is an adjective converted from a noun, combinations of this type are free word-groups typical of English (adjective + noun). This point of view is proved by O.?Yespersen by the following facts: 1. “Stone” denotes some quality of the noun “wall”. 2.?“Stone” stands before the word it modifies, as adjectives in the function of an attribute do in English. 3.?“Stone” is used in the Singular though its meaning in most cases is plural, and adjectives in English have no plural form. 4. There are some cases when the first component is used in the Comparative or the Superlative degree, e.?g. the bottomest end of the scale. 5.?After the first component the pronoun “one” can be used instead of a noun, e.?g. I shall not put on a silk dress, I shall put on a cotton one. However Henry Sweet and some other scientists consider the first component of such units to be a noun in the function of an attribute. There are different semantic relations between the components of “stone wall” combinations. E.?I.?Chapnik classified them into the following groups: 1. time relations, e.?g. evening paper, 2. space relations, e.?g. top floor, 3. relations between the object and the material of which it is made, e.?g. steel helmet, 4. cause relations, e.?g. war orphan, 5.?relations between a part and the whole, e.?g. a crew member, 6.?relations between the object and an action, e.?g. arms production, 7. relations between the agent and an action e.?g. government threat, price rise, 8. relations between the object and its designation, e.?g. reception hall, 9.?the first component denotes the head, organizer of the characterized object, e.?g. Clinton government, Forsyte family, 10. the first component denotes the field of activity of the second component, e.?g. language teacher, psychiatry doctor, 11.?comparative relations, e.?g. moon face, 12. qualitative relations, e.?g. winter apples.Exercise 5. Comment on the examples of converted words. State to what part of speech they belong.1. If people only made prudent marriages, what a stop to population there would be! 2. She is more of a hindrance than a help. 3. We’ve had to slim down our holiday plans. 4.?Mind you,’ he said, “I don't want to keep Negroes out of the hero business, but I'm damned it I want them to corner the market.” 5. Blinded by the steam, he had to fish around for the soap in his bath. 6. The worst of all University snobs are those unfortunates who go to rack and ruin from their desire to ape their betters. 7. I have a good mind to nail down the facts, then hold a press conference of my own and blow the whistle on the CIA. 8. A search of the attic brought some valuable antiques to hand. 9. Your letter is to hand. 10. I paper my room every year. 11.?Who will dust all this furniture? 12. We decided to week-end somewhere in the country. 13. Where is the stop here? 14.?“If anybody oranges me again tonight, I’ll knock his face off”. 15. Mrs. Carmody backed her car. 16. He has nosed out a perfect place for our camping holiday. 17. There are people from around here who could make a pretty decent guess. 18.?Instead of putting your dime right in, you get a dial tone and make your call. 19. He reached for her again and Ollie Weeks said sharply: “Bud! Cool it! 20. His achievements pale into insignificance by the side of her victory. 21.?Ollie agreed, and dropped an empty into the beer cooler. 22. He bears the rough well. 23. The platforms swarmed with office workers, and Dave had to shoulder his way through the crowd. 24.?Down the road, in twos and threes, more people were gathering in for the day of marketing. 25. My thoughts have been much occupied with the ups and downs, the fortunes and misfortunes of married life.Exercise 6. Comment on the examples of converted pairs in the sentences below. State to what part of speech they belong.1. a) My grandmother bottled the juice and canned the pickles. b) My grandmother put the juice in a bottle and the pickles in a can. 2. a) She microwaved her lunch. b) She heated her lunch in the microwave (noun). 3. The doctor eyed my swollen eye. 4. a) The Goreans quickly pointed out that there had already been a hand count in the Florida presidential race, and that Bush himself had signed a law calling for their use in Texas. b) Gore showed no sign of pain or remorse. 5.?a)?And the drama that reached such a fever pitch after the polls closed had begun a good two years earlier, with the first maneuverings in Washington and Texas. b) An auctioneer in a baseball cap sits at a high wooden podium, calling out the styles of furniture in a staccato rhythm, taking about 30?seconds to announce and close a sale. 6. a) Rove instructed his staff to call network officials to complain, then he went before the cameras himself to protest publicly. b) Mr. Bush has not always been in step with his generation, staying distant from the political upheavals of the 1960's that fueled the civil rights movement, the protests (noun) against the Vietnam War and the counterculture. 7. a) The absentee ballots were critical: the Bush camp was counting on them to increase their man's lead because so many came from servicemen abroad, who tended to be Bush supporters. b) Another big reason for all the new affordable technology is the steady increase in computing power that we also see in our homes and offices. 8.?a)?Katherine Harris, the secretary of state and a Republican, announced late Wednesday night that she would not accept petitions to conduct manual recounts from Broward and Palm Beach counties, both of which had voted for Mr. Gore by large margins, to conduct such tallies. b) President-elect Bush inherits a nation whose citizens will be ready to assist him in the conduct of his large responsibilities. 9. a) Laughter seems to signal an attempt to ingratiate oneself: in India, notes Provine, men of lower castes giggle when addressing men of higher castes, but never the other way round. b) A few days ago in Manhattan, Ms. Yrjola was in her apartment in the middle of a high-rise in the middle of everywhere when she could not even get a decent signal (noun) on her handset. 10.?a)?I knifed the bread. b) I bought a new sharp knife. 11.?a)?Sometimes I forget to salt the soup. b) Salt is the main product on the table. 12. a) My sister loves to fiddle. b) Fiddle is my favorite musical instrument. 13. a) Sometimes one just needs a good cry. b) The baby cried all night. 14. a) The guard alerted the general to the attack. b) The enemy attacked before an alert could be sounded. 15. To see an increase in profits we need to increase our productivity. 16. a) And it is hard to imagine that Mr. Bush will not occasionally want his father on the other end of the telephone giving advice. b) They went on to advise the parents that they did not have to allow their children to be interviewed, but if they did, “you have the right to be present.” 17. a) By submerging any bitter feelings and sounding a conciliatory tone, they said, Mr. Gore could help reduce the festering tensions between Republicans and Democrats who cling to the belief that their candidate should rightfully claim the White House. b) I believe things happen for a reason, and I hope the long wait of the last five weeks will heighten a desire to move beyond the bitterness and partisanship of the past. 18. a) This embrace included an emphatic rejection of denial or minimization of the Holocaust. b) The Florida manual recount process is being used to eliminate any possibility of an orderly, rational, and final end to the election, and to deny the protections of the Constitution not only to the parties who brought the case, but to all Americans. 19.?a)?Computer can execute various commands. b) My dad likes to command us. 20. a) We have reached to an extreme turn. b) I had to turn around to hear the conversation of my friends. 21. a) I go up the stairs. b) Everyone has the ups and downs of pounding (Composition)Word-composition is another type of word-building. That is when new words are produced by combining two or more stems. This type of word-building is one of the three most productive types in Modern English; the other two are conversion and affixation. Compounds, though certainly fewer in quantity than derived or root words, still represent one of the most typical and specific features of English word-structure.The structural unity of a compound word depends upon: a)?the unity of stress, b)?solid or hyphenated spelling, c)?semantic unity, d)?unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component), e.?g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.?g. blood-vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.?g. snow-white, sky-blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphenated spelling. Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.?g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break, insofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break. All the more so that there has appeared in Modern English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.?g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change, penguin suit, etc.Classification of English compounds:According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into: a) nouns, such as: baby-moon, globe-trotter, b) adjectives, such as: free-for-all, power-happy, c) verbs, such as: to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck, d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst, e)?prepositions, such as: into, within, f)?numerals, such as: sixty-five. According to their structure compounds are subdivided into: a) compound words proper consisting of simple stems, e.?g. bookshelf, snowwhite, tip-top; b)?derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affixes, e.?g. chain-smoker, ear-minded, hydro-skimmer, c)?compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.?g. wastepaper-basket, newspaper-ownership, eggshell-thin, d)?compound-shortened words, e.?g. T-shirt, motocross, Eurodollar. According to the way components are joined together compounds are divided into neutral, morphological and syntactical (see Table 4). Neutral (or juxtapositional) compounds are formed by joining together two stems without any linking elements, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems, as in blackboard, sunflower, bedroom, shopwindow. There are three subtypes of neutral compounds, depending on the structure of the constituent stems: а) simple neutral compounds consist of simple affixless stems : classroom, school-boy; b) derivational and derived compounds have affixes in their structure: music-lover, blue-eyed, film-goer; c) contracted compounds have a contracted or shortened stem in their structure: TV-set, V-day, H-bag (hand-bag).Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-productive. Here two compounding stems are combined by a linking element: vowels “o” or “i” or the consonant “s”, e.?g. Anglo-Saxon, statesman, craftsman, handiwork. In syntactical compounds we see segments of speech such as articles, prepositions adverbs: good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home.Table 4 ?- Сlassification of compounds ассording to the linking elementsСompoundsneutral e. g. blackboard, sunflower, bedroommorphological e. g. Anglo-Saxon, statesmansyntactic e. g. good-for-nothing, mother-in-lawcontractede. gTV-set,V-daysimple neutral e. g. classroom,school-boyderivational,derived e. g. music-lover,blue-eyed4. According to the correlations of the separate meanings of the constituent parts and the actual meaning of the compound we distinguish three groups (see Table 5):a)?Non-idiomatic compounds. Here the meaning can be described as the sum of their constituent parts: dancing-room, bedroom, class-room.b) Idiomatic compounds. Here one of the components or both has altered its meaning: a blackboard is not necessarily black, football is not a ball but a game, a chatterbox is not a box but a person, and a ladykiller kills no one but is a man who fascinates women.c)?Highly idiomatic compounds whose meaning do not correspond to the separate meanings of their parts. Here the process of deducing the meaning is impossible, we must know the translation of the word: a ladybird is not a bird, but an insect, a tallboy is not a boy but a piece of furniture, a bluestocking is a person.Table 5 ?- Сlassification of compounds ассording to the correlation of meaningСompounds highly idiomatice. g. ladybird,bluestockingidiomatic e. g. blackboard,footballnon-idiomatic e. g. dancing-room, bedroom5. According to the relations between the components compound words fall into: a) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate; these subordinative relations can be different: with comparative relations, e.?g. honey-sweet, with limiting relations, e.?g. knee-deep, with emphatic relations, e.?g. dog-cheap, with objective relations, e.?g. gold-rich, with cause relations, e.?g. love-sick, with space relations, e.?g. top-heavy, with time relations, e.?g. spring-fresh, with subjective relations, e.?g. foot-sore, etc. b)?coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. It includes such compounds when one person (object) has two functions, e.?g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, etc. Such compounds are called “additive”. This group includes also compounds formed by means of reduplication, e.?g. fifty-fifty, no-no, and also compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound interchange) e.?g. criss-cross, walkie-talkie.Exercise 7. Pick out compounds in the following sentences, define their structural type and state to what part of speech they belong. 1. The girl stared at him, dropping a slice of bread-and-butter in her emotions. 2. Then he shows his annoyance if he has not got a fresh handkerchief. 3. Love is only a temporary transient state, which is lost altogether when the man in love turns into a husband. All this is very the same as the spring love-singing with blackbirds. 4. We’ve some plain, blunt things to say and we expect the same kind of answers, not a lot of double-talk. 5. On the dining-room he found a note from his absent-minded wife: “I have gone out...”. 6. If I was a pure do-gooder, my ordinary acts would never be wrong. 7. In the next few days, every time I look at it, the old prayer-book words sprang into my mind. 8. I had planned a special day for Andrew, Jamie and Lisa, and my mother-in-law who was visiting us from England, as she did every day. 9. When they had fallen into a profound sleep, the good-for-nothing rose up, took the stone, came to the door, and, when he wished it to open, it began to creak out: “The guest has stolen the wishing-stone”. 10. It was an experience never-to-be-forgotten; it was a thrill to march in the funeral procession of our then president. 11. There are floor-to-ceiling bookshelves along one wall, pretty porcelain lamps grace two tables, skirted in pale green silk. 12. My father was good-looking, normal, healthy man, and when he was younger he must have sought out female company. 13. In other words, the states in each bloc do not present, in the eyes of the other bloc, that peace-loving character which, according to the Charter, 14 would qualify them for United Nations membership. 15.?But he also made the world because he is a music-lover. 16.?While staying in the house, I witnessed numerous times how badly she treated her mother-in-law. 17. Sheet metalworkers make, install, and maintain many sheet metal components of wind turbines. 18.?Thus, the Father and the Son are here with this life-giving Spirit, who is the consummation of the Triune God and the totality of the Triune God. 19. “Life-or-death cliff-hangers, thrilling cat-and-mouse maneuvers, romance, religion, science, murder, mysticism, architecture, and action. 20. Entirely in its author’s image: direct, unpretentious, chatty, feet-on-the-ground. Sometimes is shockingly so. 21. Hoffman is one of the best pens nowadays following in the bestselling footsteps of Patricia Cornwell, Kathy Reichs and Karin Slaughter. 22. The old shoemaker looked up, and spoke sanely enough. 23. With the skill of a veteran, Mavis swayed out of the path of a pair of long-legged models. 24. The sweater was too big for me, as was the silk T-shirt. 25. For environmental and safety reasons, it is recommended that the TV-set is not left in standby when unused. 26.?She peeled off a glove and threw it deliberately into the wastepaper-basket. 27. Rusty-red siding tracks glowered from deep within tangles of sunflowers and thorny weeds; shards from a hundred broken bottles twinkled in the afternoon sun. 28. Every second house in Floral Heights had a bedroom precisely like this. 29.?When at nine o'clock punctually he went into the classroom, he saw written on the blackboard two large letters - M. S. 30. The blue shoulder V-bag Pru let him carry for her is heavier than he would have thought; she must have packed bricks. 31. Every tool in the history of woodworking has always been dependent on the craftsman who wields it. 32. But Mark looked again at the handiwork on the table before speaking. 33. The vow which Clive had uttered, never to share bread with his mother-in-law, or sleep under the same roof with her, was broken on the very next day. 34. No waste his time with day-to-day routine. 35. In the process the aliveness of here-and-now moments was lost. 36. The sportsman must remove any suite, uniform, or leotard his game is wearing. 37. The copper handicraft units are involved in the production various types of kitchen utensils, metal ornament and other items. 38. The injury panorama was more varied among patients who had gotten caught by the T-bar. 39. The G-man picked up on the New York accent immediately. 40. All the assistants wear long striped ticking aprons, and look like they’re genuine French cheese-maker. 41. But I was the better goalkeeper after each session with Coach Mulqueen. 42. Dr. Van Helsing had taken the key of the hall-door from the bunch. 43. It seemingly had driven the snow-clouds from us, for, with only occasional bursts, the snow fell. 44. He’s a businessman with a former criminal conviction. 45. White-crested waves beat madly on the level sands and rushed up the shelving cliffs, others broke over the piers, and with their spume swept the lanthorns of the lighthouses which rise from the end of either pier of Whitby Harbour. 46. The chart is to read in a counter-clockwise direction. 47. We looked at a special X-ray called a CAT-scan which uses a computer to show things an ordinary X-ray can’t see. 48. Ann put the oilcan down and stood beside it. 49. So finally we decided that we would take it to the Heath, and when we heard a policeman coming, would leave it where he could not fail to find it; we would then seek our way home as quickly as we could.Exercise 8. Define the structural type of compounds in bold type. 1. You have to tamp it good and tight with sandbags so the blast goes against the column and not out into the parking garage around the column. 2. My tongue thinks it has flocked wallpaper, I am biting the inside of my mouth so much. 3. It was such a big cheesebread. 4. Tyler worked part-time as a movie projectionist. 5.?At home, you will sometimes wake up in your dark bed with the terror you have fallen asleep in the booth and missed a changeover. 6.?What I am is a recall campaign coordinator, I tell the single-serving friend sitting next to me, but I am working toward a career as a dishwasher. 7.?Still, everywhere, there is the squint of a five-day headache. 8.?Everyone gets a name tag, and people you have met every Tuesday night for a year, they come at you, handshake hand ready and their eyes on your name tag. 9. Leaving filthy handprint of grease and floor dirt among the wallpaper flowers. 10.?This week, it is little plastic clip that holds the rubber blade on your windshield wipers. 11. I hear Tyler’s words come out of my boss, Mister Boss with his midlife spread and family photo on his desk and his dream about early retirement and winters spent at a trailer-park hookup in some Arizona desert. 12. I smell gasoline on my hands. 13. Do you have nitroglycerin? 14. On a chill-and-drill assignment, you spray the lock on a pay telephone or a parking meter or a newspaper box. 15. From the bus, I can see the floor-to-ceiling windows on the third floor of my office building are blown out, and inside a fireman in a dirty yellow slicker is whacking at a burnt panel in the suspended ceiling. 16. The mechanic calls back over his shoulder, “What’s our best time to date for a cut-and-run?” 17. You take the population of vehicle in the field (A) and multiply it by the probable rate of failure (B), then multiply the result by the average cost of an out-of-court settlement (C). 18. Then add glycerin drop-by-drop with an eye dropper. 19. Three weeks without sleep, and everything becomes an out-of-body experience. 20. I wanted red-and-blue Tuinal bullet capsules, lipstick-red Seconals. 21. Then he told me to watch at one side of the churchyard whilst he would watch at the other.Exercise 9. Сomment on the meanings of the compounds. Discriminate between idiomatic and non-idiomatic compounds.1. I’ve been made a laughing-stock. 2. You will find your shorts in the bottom drawer of the tallboy. 3. She was the greatest chatterbox in the group. 4. He mastered the big new-model tractor-trailers without difficulty. 5. A couple of city policemen chatted together by the entrance. They were ill-at-ease with their assignment. 6. He spoke as if he was all by himself, out in the woods, picking johny-jump-ups... 7. She stopped shouting for a minute, and then the waterworks began. 8.?He was coming back for the dress-rehearsal and the first-night. 9. Ted took a look into the leather shopping-bag on the dresser. 10. “Let’s have a nightcap at Benno’s”, he said. 11.?Lady Veronica made a bee-line for her daughters to assure them of her maternal love. 12. A nail-biting, can’t-put-it-down read ... tightly constructed and thoroughly gripping. 13. A pulse-quickening, brain-teasing adventure. 14. A heart-racing thriller. 15. A pulse-pounding, edge-of-your-seat thriller... 16.?The reader is assaulted by a rich, down-in-the-dirt, up-in-the skies prose full of portents, bold metaphors, great beauty. 17. His best thriller yet ... the action unfolds at an adrenaline-draining pace ... 18. A heart-thumping, stay-up-late novel... wild, unputdownable and outrageous... brilliant. 19. Utterly read-in-one-day, forget-where-you-are-on-the-tube gripping. 20. It’s a one-sit thriller. 21. It is a huge eye-opener, and will make the reader look at cancer in a whole new way. 22. A real back-of-the-neck hair-raiser. 23. Billie Letts has a fresh and engaging voice, and her remarkable heroine, Novalee Nation, leads the reader on a never-to-be-forgotten journey. 24.?Chicago lawyer Turow’s first novel is a genuine, classy, four-star suspense novel. 25. One night, in delirium, I fancied that you were corning to kill me, and early next morning I spent my last farthing on buying a revolver from that good-for-nothing fellow; I did not mean to let you do it. 26. Lady Orkney, her sister-in-law, is come to town on the occasion, and has been to see her, and behaved herself with great humanity. 27. I – ah – I don’t set up to be a lady-killer, but I do own that she’s as devilish fond as she can be. 28. Before we eat, though," someone else said, "we're going to get roaring drunk and play a little touch football. 29. He wouldn't hesitate to use an innocent, either, to trap or blackmail. 30. There are superstitious beliefs that it is unlucky to kill a ladybird and that the verse will make them fly away. 31. A bluestocking is an educated, intellectual woman. 32. But when I look at you, dear lady – your character is so truly angelic; let me kiss your little snow-white hand. 33. Mrs. Westenra has got an idea that sleep-walkers always go out on roofs of houses and along the edges of cliffs. 34. I’m buying a waffle-maker, obviously. 35.?Daredevil clearly has times of doubt and crises of faith. 36.?Volleyball like tennis and a few other sports is a non-contact sport. 37. She went to the door three times after the doorbell has rung and has not found anyone there. 38. I happened to meet a cowboy who was out of the same errand, and made friends with him. 39. Out-of-town shopping centers ruin rural life.ShorteningsIt should be mentioned that the notion of word-formation excludes semantic word-building as well as shortening, sound- and stress-interchange which traditionally are referred to minor ways of word-formation. In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English a lot of new acronyms, abbreviations, blends, initials are formed because the pace of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information for the shortest period of time. There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. Borrowings from other languages became shortened after assimilation in English. Here there is modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.?g. the Latin borrowing fanaticus is shortened to fan on the analogy with native words: man, pan, tan etc.The process of shortening lies in clipping a part of word; the result is a new lexical unit. But this process goes beyond words; many word-groups also become shortened in the process of communication. Therefore, the term “shortening of words” is to be considered as conventional, as it involves the shortening of both words and word-groups. There are two different ways of shortening: contraction (clipping) and abbreviation (initial shortening) (see Table 6). According to the first a new word is made from a syllable of the original word. Clipping is shortening or reducing long words. This is a common phenomon in English which can be proved by the following examples: information is clipped to info, advertisement to advert or ad, influenza to flu, telephone to phone. The classification of clipping:Final clipping (apocope). The omitting of the final part of the word: doc (doctor), mag (magazine), Nick (Nickolas).Initial clipping (apheresis). The omitting of the fore part of the word. plane (airplane), van (caravan), phone (telephone).Medial clipping (syncope). The omitting of the middle part of the word: fancy (fantasy), specs (spectacles), maths (mathematics).Mixed clipping, where the fore and the final parts of the words are clipped: flu (influenza), tec (detective), fridge (refrigerator).The second way consists in making a new word from the initial letters of a word group. The term “abbreviation”, which is now quite widespread, was coined by Bell Laboratories in 1943. Though “initialism” is an older word, attested from 1899 according to the Oxford English Dictionary, it wasn’t widely used until the 1960s. Primarily, the word “initialism” referred to any abbreviation formed of initials, irrespective of pronunciation. Initialisms existed even in the ancient world - for example, SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus) e.?g. SPQR - the official title of the Roman Empire. Abbreviations are subdivided into five groups:Acronyms which are read in accordance within the reading rules as though they were ordinary words: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), UNO (United Nations Organization).Alphabetic abbreviations in which letters get their full alphabetic pronunciation and a full stress: USA, BBC, MP. Alphabetic abbreviations sometimes concern names of famous people: G.B.S. (George Bernard Shaw), B.B. (Brigitte Bardot).Compound abbreviations in which the first constituent is a letter and the second part is a complete word: A-bomb (atomic-bomb), L-driver (learner – driver). In compound abbreviation also may be clipped one or both constituents: Interpol (international police).Graphic abbreviations which can be found in texts for economy of space. They are pronounced as the corresponding unabbreviated words: Mr., Mrs., m (mile), ltd (limited). There are several semantic groups of graphic abbreviations: a) days of the week, e.?g. Mon – Monday, Tue – Tuesday, etc. b) names of months, e.?g. Apr – April, Aug – August, etc. c) names of counties in UK, e.?g. Yorks – Yorkshire, Berks –Berkshire, etc. d) names of states in USA, e.?g. Ala – Alabama, Alas – Alaska, etc. e) names of address, e.?g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., etc. f)?military ranks, e.?g. capt. –captain, col. – colonel, sgt – sergeant, etc. g) scientific degrees, e.?g. B.A. – Bachelor of Arts, D.M. – Doctor of Medicine. (Sometimes in scientific degrees we have abbreviations of Latin origin, e.?g., M.B. – Medicinae Baccalaurus), h) units of time, length, weight, e.?g. f/ft –foot/feet, sec. – second, in. – inch, mg. – milligram, etc. The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.?g. “m” can be read as: male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, “l.p.” can be read as long-playing, low pressure.Latin abbreviations can be read as separate letters or be substituted by the English equivalents: e.?g. (for example), cf. (compare), i.?e. (that is).Abbreviations are widely used in Internet communication: AFAIK - As far as I know; AFK – away from keyboard; CU – see you; F2F – face to face (in person); IMO – in my opinion; PM – private message; POV – point of view, etc. Table 6 ?- Ways of shortening Shorteningcontraction (clipping)abbreviation (initial shortening)final clipping (apocope):e.?g. doc (doctor), mag (magazine)initial clipping (apheresis): e.?g. plane (airplane), phone (telephone)medial clipping (syncope): e.?g. fancy (fantasy), specs (spectacles)mixed clipping:e.?g. flu (influenza), tec (detective)acronyms:e.?g. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization),UNO (United Nations Organization)alphabetic abbreviations:e.?g. USA, G.B.S. (George Bernard Shaw)graphic abbreviations:e. g. Mr., ltd (limited)compound abbreviations:e.?g. A-bomb (atomic-bomb),L-driver (learner - driver)latin abbreviations:e.?g. cf. (compare),i.?e. (that is),e.?g. (for example)Don’t confuse shortening of words in written speech and in the sphere of oral intercourse. Shortening of words in written speech results in graphical abbreviations which are, in fact, signs representing words and word-groups of high frequency of occurrence in various manifestations of human activity.The meaning remains unchanged after shortening. As a result it produces words belonging to the same part of speech as original words. For the most part nouns are influenced by shortening, e.?g. prof is a noun and professor is also a noun. Mostly we can find a shortened word in the vocabulary together with the longer word from which it is derived and usually has the same lexical meaning differing only in emotive charge and stylistic reference. Sometimes shortening affects the spelling of the word, e.?g. “c” can be substituted by “k” before “e” to preserve pronunciation, e.?g. mike (microphone), Coke (coca-cola) etc. The same rule is observed in the following cases: fax (facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer) etc. The final consonants in the shortened forms are substituted by letters characteristic of native English words.Exercise 10. Comment on the formation of the clipped and abbreviated words.1. My job where my boss got on my computer and fiddled with my DOS execute commands. 2. Walter Winterbottom had spent the last few years trying to warn the FA’s bigwigs that his team was falling behind. 3. Martin Peters became one of Ramsey’s most valuable mids. 4. What we’ll do is send Marla’s mom some choco and probably some fruitcakes. 5. It was a letter from my new g.f. from Ohio – just a simple letter. 6. The Intercontinental Cup was jointly organised with CONMEBOL between the Champions League and the Copa Libertadores winners. 7. Because everyone who intends to become a lawyer is usually required by a governing body such a governmental bar licensing agency to pass a bar exam. 8. She left Brindisi on Saturday at five p.m., so you can wait patiently. 9.?Mr. Fogg had to furl his sails and use more steam-power, so as not to get out of his course. 10. He could easily decide whether England is going to win or not, but missed this chance – despite the fact that goalie could make nothing, ball kept his way right to a cross. 11.?Killing Floor is the first book in the internationally pop series about Jack Reacher, hero of the new blockbuster movie starring Tom Cruise. 12. It presents Reacher for the first time, as the tough ex-military cop of no fixed abode: a righter of wrongs, the perfect action hero. 13. Jack Reacher jumps off a bus and walks fourteen miles down a country road into Margrave, Georgia. 14. Stevenson’s voice came over the intercom asking for Roscoe. 15. They emerged from St. Michael’s chester Square. 16. The stereo was still there, the TV was still there. 17. Her shoes were silly T-straps with four-inch heels. 18. Of Nicholas and Cara to the Zoo and the Costume Museum and suitable films by their grandmother. 19. I wrote to the MP about it, said who was going to get the place cleaned up, he said it was the responsibility of the County Council. 20. This product was marked with a manufacturer’s logo. 21. Then they’re trucking it north and west, up to the big cities, LA, Chicago, Detroit. 22. Next to the TV-set was a stereo. 23. He could easily decide whether ham is going to win or not, but missed this chance – despite the fact that goalkeeper could make nothing, ball kept his way right to a cross! 24. Martin Peters became one of Ramsey’s most valuable players when Scholes caught flu. 25. Jenny-May Butler smiled and beamed from the TV into the living room of every home around the country. 26. No CCTV was available to show her last movements. 27. Jack Ruttle trailed slowly behind an HGV along the N69. 28. CCTV showed him taking $30 out of an ATM on O’Connell Street at 3.08 a.m. on a Friday night. 29.?After Sandy Shortt’s no-show he had spent the entire day checking B&Bs. 30. – How did you get my number? – Caller ID. 31.?Foynes was the centre of the aviation world, with air traffic between the US and Europe. 32. My M.O. is gaping void (‘Sex’), coupled with my day job (‘Cash’). 33. The CD was a nice guy. 34. Born in America but educated in the UK, he has spent most of his life shuttling between the two countries. 35. Sure, that means less time watching TV, internet- surfing, going out, or whatever. 36. The photo had been taken the X-mas before last, just six months before he went missing. 37. He looked like he had just walked out of the college that very day, in his jeans and T-shirt. 38.?Anyway, yeah, I can see gaping void being a ‘product’ one day. Books, T-shirts and whatnot. 39.?Their B-plans having been washed away by vodka and tonics years ago. 40. That was not what Mrs. Spencer had said; neither had the child tumbled out of the buggy nor had Matthew done anything astonishing. 41. I expected Mr. Burton to be a wise old man with a head of wild grey hair. 42. Scathach House is the office of Dr. Gregory Burton. 43. Eleven a.m., he tried calling her mobile number for the fifth time. 44. Sure, maybe he’s more inherently talented, more adopt at networking, etc. 45. I’m not just saying that for the usual reason i.?e., because I think your idea will fail. 46.?Why choose to sell a ‘mere product’ (i.?e. chimney pieces)? 47.?Worrying about ‘Commercial vs. Artistic’ is a complete waste of time.Exercise 11. Pick out all the abbreviations from the sentences given below. Comment on their formation. 1. BBC is a British public service broadcasting statutory corporation. 2. MP tends to form parliamentary groups with members of the same political party. 3. UN is an intergovernmental organization created in 1945 to promote international cooperation. 4.?The TUC is a national trade union centre, a federation of trade unions in England and Wales, representing the majority of trade unions. 5. The UK is located in the Western Europe, on the British Islands, including the northern one-six of the island of Ireland. 6. PBS is the most prominent provider of television programs to public television stations in the United States. 7. Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimeters and can hold up to 80 minutes of uncompressed audio. 8. ABC has broadcast many programs that have contributed significantly to American popular culture. 9. ATMs often provide one of the best possible official exchange rates for foreign travellers, and are also widely used for this purpose. 10.?CBC is the oldest existing broadcasting network in Canada, first established in its present form on November 2, 1936. 11. CNN was the first channel to provide 24-hour television news coverage, and the first all-news television channel in the United States. 12. They embraced DVD because it produces superior moving pictures and sound, provides superior data lifespan, and can be interactive. 13.?IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware and software, and offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. 14. The NBC is an American commercial broadcast television and radio network. 15. There are 23,000 local organizations recognized by the National PTA in the United States. 16. The ACT originally consisted of four tests: English, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Natural Sciences. 17.?SA was formerly developed, published, and scored by the Educational Testing Service which still administers the exam. 18.?The Y.C.L. recognizes the Communist Party as the party for socialism in the United States and operates autonomously as the Party's youth wing. 19. In 2012, the Interpol General Secretariat employed a staff of 703 representing 98 member countries.Exercise 12. Comment on the formation of the clipped and abbreviated words.1. NYPD, New York County District Attorney’s Office, for their advice and assistance in matters of investigation. 2. Fortunately, by the time I began college we had been in California long enough to establish residency, I went to UCLA as a journalism major. 3. The camera switched to the CNN anchor. 4. The point is this – it is a terrible thing to say, but if Andrea Cavanaugh had been sexually molested, Rob Westerfield would have been out of prison long ago on DNA evidence. 5. The L. A. Time is probably going to make an offer. 6. Finally we were in Joan’s SUV.7. It’s a previously owned BMW that I bought two years ago, the first decent car I have ever had. 8. No money had been allotted by CIE, the railways company, for repainting. 9. We women are the ones who have to suffer with IVF injections and morning sickness and epidurals and childbirth and C-sections and breastfeeding bleeding nipples. 10. Oh, of course it is – I forgot to look at the caller ID. 11. She is the biggest star in the UK right now. 12.?That was quite a night, Arabella told her reflection in the sitting-room mirror as she savoured a cup of PG Tips. 13. We have found new CCTV evidence. 14. We have mints – a selection box. M&S. 15. She had love to have been here today, but sadly she left London yesterday for a new life in LA. 16.?When Eddie got flu and his mother would not let him out, Foxy Dunne offered to do the chore. 17. The woman handed over her cheque and showed her ID card to reassure them she was genuine, and within seconds she was gone. 18. He washed it down with a can of Coke which tasted too sweet, the bubbles too large, sharp almost. 19. I could hear faint street noises and sometimes music from the apartment of my new next-door neighbor, an aficionado of hard rock who sometimes played his CDs at ear-splitting volume. 20. By midnight she had filled several cardboard boxes with unwanted gifts, unread books, unworn clothes and unwatched DVDs. 21. The skydiver uses the pilot chute to initiate the opening sequence. 22. Britain also buys a liquefied natural gas via a tanker terminal in Kent. 23.?He simply took out full-page ads in the marketing press and waited. Exercise 13. Form clipped and abbreviated words and comment on their formation.1. A small light-emitting diode display activated near the base of the trap. 2. My money order was, and still is, to just have a normal life. 3. The creative director was a nice guy. 4. In five years, all you’ll see are these babies – High Speed Civil Transport. 5.?What does Large Hadrons Collider stand for?’ Langdon asked, trying not to sound nervous. 6.?‘They canceled the Superconducting Super Collider. 7. Ask yourself why the United States Christian Coalition is the most influential lobby against scientific progress in the world. 8. Isn’t antimatter what fuels the United States Ship Enterprise. 9. A kiloton was equal to 1,000 metric tons of trinitrotoluene. 10. And yet the room bristled with high-tech gear – banks of computers, faxes, electronic maps of the Vatican complex, and televisions turned to Cable News Network 11.?Your cameras don’t have Global Positioning System locators on them? 12. The British Broadcasting Corporation run a preliminary story yesterday to mediocre response. 13. ‘That’s the zeta particle’, she said, pointing to a faint track that was almost invisible. 14. His paper. His phone. His electronic mail. 15. The voice on the line was raspy, with a Middle-East accent. 16. Diagramma number one. Diagramma number one. Diagramma number one. All scientific. All conversion. 17.?Langdon buttoned his tweed jacket against the cold. I’m in Australia, he thought. 18.?Perhaps you forget, miss Vetra, as soon as I report your father’s murder, there will be an investigation of CERN. 19.?Langdon had never seen Saint Peter’s from the air. 20.?Why wasn’t I trying to do something more easy for markets to digest id est, cutie-pie greeting cards or whatever. 21.?Some to do with business, some to do with art, et cetera. 22.?Worrying about “Commercial versus Artistic” is a complete waste of time. 23. He squinted at his digital clock. It was 5.18 ante meridiem. ReduplicationReduplication is a morphological process that involves the repetition of all or part of a word. These parts of words are referred to as roots or stems. In full reduplication, the entire word is repeated without any phonetic changes, for example, ‘So I would say that he and Mr DeLay are friends, but not friends-friends, if you will’. This group of reduplicated compounds is called reduplicative compounds proper. Their constituents are identical in their form.The second type is called gradational or partial reduplication. Only a segment is duplicated in partial reduplication. Slang words such as super-duper and razzle-dazzle express extra meaning using partial reduplication. This is identified as partial because the -s from super becomes a -d, and the -r from razzle also becomes a -d, meaning that the whole segment is not copied. The segment that is duplicated may occur at either the beginning or the end of the word. Also we can come across a variation of the root vowel or consonant, e.?g. This shilly-shallying with the question is absurd. This type of word building is greatly simplified in modern English by the vast number of monosyllables: chit-chat, riff-raff, etc. Also one should distinguish rhyme compounds. Here the constituents are joined to rhyme, e.?g. Ronaldinho beats holie-goalie and ball falls into the net behind Poland’s devastated goalkeeper. Morphological processes change the stem of a word in order to adjust its meaning for communicative purposes. Stylistically speaking, most words made by reduplication represent informal groups such as slang and colloquialisms. Some languages use the process largely, some moderately, and some not at all. Exercise 14. Pick out reduplicative compounds, comment on their constituent parts.1. ‘Uh, no worries. I can handle the Oz Full Monty. I mean, not handle-candle, like ‘hands to flesh’ handle’. 2. The first rule of project Mayhem: Don’t ask questions about Project Mayhem. ‘Yeah-Yeah’, he nodded. 3. No, I mean... Do you like him or do you like-him-like-him? 4. Well, between witch work and work-work, I just don't have any time any more. 5. Is he like a businessman-businessman? Or is this like when I used to sell lemonade and call myself a businessman? 6. Although Luke did this awesome dive off the high board, which wasn’t really a dive-dive, it was more like Will Farrell falling out of a plane. 7. There’s a guy who collects fans. These are not sports fans but fans-fans. 8. “I didn’t mean go-somewhere-go-somewhere”, I said, remembering that he surely thought I made a mistake, and after all, last time the two of us had been alone we’d been all over each other. 9. Ronaldinho’s goal-goal falls into the net behind England’s devastated goalkeeper. 10.?She either died or divorced you, so it was a fifty-fifty guess. 11. We kept chasing him, all the way to the end of the block, then into a sort of never-never land where there were a lot of railroad tracks. 12. Mr. Sloane murmured something close to her ear. 13. Burke launched into British social chitchat. 14. He didn’t like me calling him ‘sir’ – we were supposed to be buddy-buddies. 15. The other chair was occupied by a lovely creature, a really tip-top Ambrose McEvoy. 16. Already his name was whispered in connection with the All England ping-pong championship. 17. My cold desire is to hear the boom-boom of your heart. 18. I worry a lot about the bling-bling materialism, the rabid consumerism, that pervades many of our inner-city areas. 19. Last point: going topless on the rampage is an absolute no-no. 20. I think that we will be waving bye bye to them. 21. Frankly speaking I don’t like her new dress, it’s so-so. 22. He was asked to minimize chit-chat and keep the troops moving. 23.?The report is just a lot of corporate flim-flam. 24. But there's really not much time to dilly-dally on the feet. 25. That's fiddle-faddle! 26. Dad's smile was giving Johnny the heebie-jeebies , but he was in too deep to care. 27. You could have approached us without all the hocus-pocus, couldn't you? 28. Dropping out and all the mysticism was really mumbo-jumbo. 29. He tells me he can't be bothered with all that "lovey-dovey" stuff. 30. The little car, driven pell-mell across the fields, pulled up to a stop where the narrow trail up the slope began. 31. He says: "We don't want thousands of people wandering around here, willy-nilly. 32.?Chicago slips effortlessly from stage to screen without losing any of its original razzle-dazzle. Sound and Stress InterchangeBoth sound- and stress-interchange may be considered as ways of forming words only diachronically, because in Modern English not a single word can be coined by changing the root-vowel of a word or by shifting the place of the stress. Sound-interchange as well as stress-interchange indeed has turned into means of distinguishing primarily between words of different parts of speech and as such is rather wide-spread in Modern English, e.?g. to sing – song, to live – life, strong – strength, etc. It also distinguishes between different word-forms, e.?g. man – men, wife – wives, to know – knew, to leave?– left, etc.Sound interchange was productive in Old English and can occur in other Indo-European languages. The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can be the consequence of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language development known to scientists, e.?g. to strike – stroke, to sing – song, etc. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which comes from palatalizing the root vowel because of the front vowel in the syllable following the root (regressive assimilation), e.?g. hot – to heat (hotian), blood – to bleed (blodian), etc. Sound-interchange is divided into two groups: vowel-interchange and consonant-interchange. With the help of vowel-interchange we differentiate parts of speech, e.?g. full – to fill, food – to feed, blood – to bleed, etc. In some cases vowel-interchange is connected with affixation, e.?g. long – length, strong – strength, etc. Intransitive verbs and the corresponding transitive ones with a causative meaning also display vowel-interchange, e.?g. to rise – to raise, to sit – to set, to lie – to lay, to fall – to fell.The type of consonant-interchange typical of Modern English is the interchange of a voiceless fricative consonant in a noun and the corresponding voiced consonant in the corresponding verb, e.?g. use – to use, mouth – to mouth, house – to house, advice – to advise, etc.There are some particular cases of consonant-interchange: [k] – [t∫]: to speak – speech, to break – breach; [s] – [d]: defence – to defend; offence – to offend; [s] – [t]: evidence – evident, importance – important, etc. Consonant-interchange may be connected with vowel-interchange, e.?g. bath – to bathe, breath – to breathe, life – to live, etc.Stress interchange can be mainly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.?g. `accent – to ac`cent. This phenomenon is explained in such way: French verbs and nouns had different structure when they were borrowed into English; verbs had one syllable more than the corresponding nouns. When these borrowings were assimilated in English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable (the second from the end). Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs) and after that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in nouns it was on the first syllable. Therefore we have such pairs in English as: to af`fix –`affix, to con`flict – `conflict, to ex`port –`export, to im`port – `import, to ex`tract – `extract, to con`duct – `conduct, to pre`sent – `present, to con`trast – `contrast, to in`crease – `increase, etc. Because of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed positions.Exercise 15. Give pairs corresponding to the following nouns, verbs and adjectives.Abide, absent, abstract, accent, advice, attribute, bathe, believe, bite, blood, breathe, breed, broad, calve, choose, clothe, conduct, contest, contrast, deep, devise, excuse, export, feed, fill, foot, frequent, gild, glaze, halve, increase, house, knit, live, loose, lose, practise, present, prove, record, relieve, serve, speak, strike, strong, use, wide, worthy, wreathe.Sound Imitation (Onomatopoeia) Onomatopoeia (sound-imitation, echoism) is the notion that implicates an action or a thing by a more or less exact reproduction of a natural sound associated with it (babble, crow, twitter). Words coined by this interesting type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate objects. It is of some interest that sounds produced by the same kind of animal are. They are often represented by quite different sound groups in different languages. For example, English dogs bark (cf. the Ukr. гавкати) or howl (cf. the Ukr. вити). The English cock cries cock-a-doodle-doo (cf. the Ukr. ку-ка-р?-ку). In England ducks quack and frogs croak cf. the Ukr. крякати said about ducks and квакати said about frogs). It is only English and Ukrainian cats who seem capable of mutual understanding when they meet, for English cats mew or miaow (meow). The same can be said about cows: they moo (but also low).Some names of animals and especially of birds and insects are also produced by sound-imitation: crow, cuckoo, humming-bird, whip-poor-will, cricket. There are some semantic groups of words formed with the aid of sound imitation a) sounds produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle, etc. b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter, etc., c)?sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle, etc. The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.?g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children), etc.R. Southey’s poem “How Does the Water Come Down at Lodore” is a classical example of the stylistic possibilities offered by onomatopoeia: the words in it sound an echo of what the poet sees and describes.Here it comes sparkling, And there it flies darkling ...Eddying and whisking,Spouting and frisking, ...And whizzing and hissing, ...And guggling and struggling, ...And bubbling and troubling and doubling,And flapping and rapping and clapping and slapping ...And thumping and pumping and bumping and jumping,And dashing and flashing and splashing and clashing ...And at once and all o'er, with a mighty uproar,And this way the water comes down at Lodore.Exercise 16. Pick out all sound-imitative words from the sentences given below.1. My phone buzzed. I picked it up. 2. All about him black metal pots were boiling and bubbling on huge stoves, and kettles were hissing, and pans were sizzling, and strange iron machines were clanking and spluttering. 3. The car moved through the city, its motor humming in the warm afternoon. 4.?The carriage was clapping along in Central Park, being whooshed at by passing cars. 5. Passenger liners tooted their basso horns. 6. Clap-clap came through the window. 7. Pons puffed reflectively on his pipe. 8. “Peewit”, said a peewit, very remote. 9. He could hear the cheap clock ticking on her mantelpiece. 10. The German machine-guns were tat-tat-tatting at them, and there was a ceaseless swish of bullets. 11. He tip-toed across the porch and gently opened the screen door, remembering that it screeched when yanked. 12. He said something and she giggled. 13. Should we clap our hands during worship? 14. A man had no business to giggle like that and gesticulate and make grimaces. Mopping and mowing,’ she said under her breath. 15. ‘United Metal and Mill is nothing to sneeze at.’ ‘Going to be the toughest fight yet,’ Shewchuk said. 16. If we clap after someone is baptized, have we not put the focus on the one baptized instead of God? 17.?Becky Thatcher had stopped coming to School. Tom had struggled with his pride for a few days, and tried to “whistle her down the wind”, but failed. 18. Voltaire had rashly attacked the whole body of literary critics... This stirred up a hornets' nest and the hornets began to buzz. 19. So, as for Jem Wilson, she could whistle him down the wind. 20.?Goldsborough girls were nothing to sneeze at. 21. Who keeps company with the wolf will learn to howl. 22.?After several minutes, she issued a low hmmm. 23. He beep-beeped at the bicyclist who was trying to cross the road. 24. The clocks struck twice tick-tock… her heart was wrung. 25.?“Vroom-vroom!” He started a motor of his new car. 26.?It was obvious that somebody has come, Lesley ruff-ruffed at the yard. 27. What a drag he is! I hate his blah-blah-blah! 28. Do you hear it? Something is quacking in the basket. 29. I like wah-wah effect on a synthesizer, it will supplement greatly our melody. 30. The cat is meowing, I’ll feed him. 31. "You like being soothed by a murderess?" Cumberland barked at me. 32.?We heard them echo in the mountains. 33. Then the clicking of an alarm clock from beyond a half open door.Exercise 17. Comment on all sound-imitative units used in the sentences below.1. Even with the hundred thousand unfound, though they greatly coveted, the hue and cry went no further than that. 2.?Now to cause laughter to echo from those lavish jungles and frowing crags where formerly rang the cries of pirate's victims; to lay aside pike and cutlass and attack with quip and jollity; to draw one saving titter of mirth from the rusty casque of Romance – this were pleasant to do in the shade of the lemon-trees on that coast that is curved like lips set for smiling. 3. The waves swished along the smooth beach; the parrots screamed in the orange and ceiba-trees; the palms waved their limber fronds foolishly like an awkward chorus at the prima donna's cue to enter. 4.?A native boy dashed down a grass-grown street, shrieking: “Busca el Senor Goodwin. Ha venido un telegrafo por el!” 5. Knots of women with complexions varying from palest olive to deepest brown gathered at street corners and plaintively carolled: “Un telegrafo por Senor Goodwin!” 6. When the meaning of the disturbance became clear to him he placed a hand beside his mouth and shouted: "Hey! Frank!" in such a robustious voice that the feeble clamor of the natives was drowned and silenced. 7.?The long lame gaps in his plays he filled up with hasty words of apology and description and swept on, seeing all that he intended to do so clearly that he esteemed it already done, and turned to me for applause. 8. Then Charlie sighed and tugged his hair. 9. But Charlie babbled on serenely, interrupting the current of pure fancy with samples of horrible sentences that he purposed to use. 10.?An elderly gentleman called away from his lunch put an end to my search by holding the note-paper between finger and thumb and sniffing at it scornfully. 11. “Guess I'd be in a hurry myself,” he muttered, sympathetically, as he piloted her along the crowded deck. 12.?Everybody was in everybody else's way; nor was there one who failed to proclaim it at the top of his lungs. 13. Mr. Thurston gripped tight hold of the gunwale, and as reward for his chivalry had his knuckles rapped sharply by the oar-blade. 14. Well, he drinks his whiskey, plunks down two horseshoe nails, and it's O.K. 15. “Oh, you'll do!” he murmured ecstatically, bending afresh to the oars. 16. When they reached the sand-spit, crowded with heterogeneous piles of merchandise and buzzing with men, she stopped long enough to shake hands with her ferryman. 17. Just then Frona uttered a glad little cry and darted forward. 18. “Oh, you don't remember me!” she chattered. 19. Sir John Morgan, Lafitte and other eminent swashbucklers bombarded and pounded it in the name of Abaddon. 20. The comandante, Don Senor el Coronel Encarnacion Rios, who was loyal to the Ins and suspected Goodwin's devotion to the Outs, hissed: "Aha!" and wrote in his secret memorandum book the accusive fact that Senor Goodwin had on that momentous date received a telegram. 21. A man on the barge leaned over from above and baptized him with crisp and crackling oaths, while the whites and Indians in the canoe laughed derisively. 22. From the yells and screeches that came from the knoll the hobbits guessed that their disappearance had been discovered: Uglúk was probably knocking off a few more heads. 23. Now to cause laughter to echo from those lavish jungles and frowing crags where formerly rang the cries of pirate's victims; to lay aside pike and cutlass and attack with quip and jollity; to draw one saving titter of mirth from the rusty casque of Romance – this were pleasant to do in the shade of the lemon-trees on that coast that is curved like lips set for smiling. 24. The Dyea River as of old roared turbulently down to the sea; but its ancient banks were gored by the feet of many men, and these men labored in surging rows at the dripping tow-lines, and the deep-laden boats followed them as they fought their upward way. 25. For half an hour the pen scratched without stopping. 26. Zip! Splash! She shook the water from her eyes, squirming the while as some of it ran down her warm back. 27.?Mingled with harsh high voices as of birds of prey, and the shrill neighing of horses wild with rage and fear, there came a rending screech, shivering, rising swiftly to a piercing pitch beyond the range of hearing. 28. Iron wheels revolved there endlessly, and hammers thudded. 29. The tall, red, iron-clamped pump-beam rose and fell, and the pumps snored and guttered and shrieked as the first water poured out of the pipe. 30. The “two-circle” and the “circle-and-dot” brands caused endless jangling, while every whipsaw discovered a dozen claimants. 31.?And in her eyes there was always a smiling light, just trembling on the verge of dawn. 32. He heard the whiz of bullets near his head. 33. Birds chattering in the trees. 34. Babies babble before they can talk. 35. What is he buzzing in my ears? 36. The governed will always find something to grumble about. 37. They splashed their hands in the water. 38. “Gung, gung” went the little green frog one day. 39. “Moo, moo” went the little brown cow one day.BlendingBlending may be determined as formation that joins two words that include the letters or sounds they have in common as a connecting element. A blend may be defined as a new lexeme built from two parts or two words (or possibly more words) in such a way that the constituent parts are usually easily identifiable, though in some instances, only one of the elements may be identifiable. According to the prototype phrases with which they can be correlated two types of blends can be distinguished. The first may be named additive, the second – restrictive. Both involve the sliding together not only of sound but of meaning as well. The first, additive type, is transformable into a phrase made of the respective complete stems connected with the conjunction and, e. g.?smog < smoke and fog; ‘a mixture of smoke and fog’. The elements may be synonymous, be included in the same semantic field or at least be a part of the same lexico-grammatical class of words: French+English > Frenglish. Other examples are: brunch < breakfast and lunch, transceiver < transmitter and receiver, crunch <crush and munch, Medicare < medical and care, slimnastics < slimming and gymnastics, cinemadict < cinema and adict.The restrictive type is transformable into an attributive phrase where the first element serves as modifier of the second: cine (matographic pano) rama > Cinerama.Back-FormationIn etymology, back-formation is the process of creating a new lexeme, as a rule by means of removing actual or supposed affixes. The resulting neologism is called a back-formation, a term coined by James Murray in 1889. Back-formation is a word actually formed from, but it seems to be the base of another word. Back-formation or reversion, by which we mean inferring of short word from a long one, is a source of short words in the past and an active derivative process at the present time. The examples are: to edit from editor, to beg from beggar, peddle from peddler. It means the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure. The earliest examples of this type of word creating are the verb to beg that was made from the French borrowing beggar, to burgle from burglar, to cobble from cobbler, to peddle from peddler. In all these cases the verb was made from the noun by subtracting what was falsely associated with the English suffix -er. Latest examples of back-formation are to butle from butler, to baby-sit from baby-sitter, to blood-transfuse from blood-transfusing, to accreditate from accreditation, to bach from bachelor, to collocate from collocation, to enthuse from enthusiasm, to compute from computer, to reminisce from reminiscence, to televise from television, etc.Back-formation differs from clipping – back-formation may change the part of speech or the word’s meaning, while clipping creates shortened words from longer words, but leaves the part of speech or the meaning of the word unchanged. For instance, the noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb resurrect was then backformed hundreds of years later from it by removing the ion suffix. This segmentation of resurrection into resurrect + ion was possible because in English there were some examples of Latinate words in the form of verb and verb+-ion pairs, such as opine/opinion. These became the pattern for many more such pairs, where a verb derived from a Latin supine stem and a noun ending in ion entered the language together, such as insert/insertion, project/projection, emote/emotion, etc.Back-formation may be alike the reanalyses of folk etymologies when it based on a false understanding of the morphology of the longer word. For instance, the singular noun asset is a back-formation from the plural assets. However, assets is primarily not a plural; it is a loan-word from Anglo-Norman asetz (modern French assez). The -s was reanalyzed as a plural suffix. One of the types of back-formation is derivation of verbs from compounds that have either -er or -ing as their last element. Some examples of back-formations from compounds are the verbs beach-comb, house-break, red-bait, tape-record.Exercise 18. Comment on the origin and structure of the words formed through back-formation and blending.1. He spoke with a certain what-is-it in his voice, and I could see that, if not actually disgruntled, he was far from being gruntled, so I tactfully changed the subject. 2. “Mamma might wake and miss me. What are you going to burgle first?” “You’d better go upstairs”, he said, rather sulkily. 3.?Boy! Don’t beg here! Don’t you known this is not allowed here. 4.?Who follow up the sales of painting and burgle the houses of those who buy. 5.?When Emily and Alice accept their first babysitting job, they must learn how to care for their unusual charge, a bulldog jealous of the new human baby in its household. 6. I want to talk like them, dress like them, handwrite like them, and think like them. 7. Why do you so lazy? I ask you to hard-boil some eggs. 8. The room was to air-condition, I had left the curtains open to the night sky, moonlight cast a silvery sheen over everything, bathed the room in a soft radiance. 9. This paper says how to edit technical documents. 10. Otherwise it was usual for vets to euthanase animals with a lethal injection. 11. Private practitioners may euthanize one or two animals a day at most, and some days none at all. 12. When the next one appeared I slewed out, over-steered, spun the wheel back frantically, dived over the sastruga, then over-steered again. 13. You must become familiar with the parts of the syringe and needle and proficient in handling them. 14. Her hair was kempt, her clothing shevelled, and she moved in a gainly way. 15. While we’re at it, and to save each other mail, let’s look at the humorous use of couth and kempt, wordplay on uncouth and ill-kempt. 16. Give me twenty minutes, Harry, and we’ll have brunch. 17. The company badly needed radiotrician. 18. Inside his office intercom buzzed and he pressed the talk button. 19.?She begged me to say nothing to her father. 20. Certain chemicals are easily absorbed into the bloodstream, while others are not. 21.?The pound is the monetary unit of Britain. 22.?There was not a pretty face in sight so I sulked all the way to Dover. 23.?The crowd keeps plying the speaker with questions. 24.?One of the pleasures of being on holiday is the freedom to loaf around without feeling guilty. 25. The police hustled the prisoner into a cell. 26. Salt was hawked about by retail dealers. 27. Funk signifies return of modern jazzmen to earthy roughage of blues, but rephrased with modern techniques. 28. The market situation is difficult to evaluate. 29.?If you expect to gain favours from the king, you will have to grovel before him to show your respect and obedience. 30.?He wrote and edited a new publication. 31. Industry is often considered as a major contributor to smog. 32.?More and more people are shopping on the internet. 33.?Her mini computer has a 16 bit processor. 34. She got an email from her father last week. 35. The intercom announced the departure of Flight BA 531. 36. The investigative journalist recorded the voice of the corrupt leader in his camcorder. 37. A girl electrocuted herself when she got into a bath wearing electric hair curlers 38. She felt a flare of anger within her. 39.?The train chugged through the chunnel as the water had drained off. Phrasal Verbs A phrasal verb is a verb followed by a preposition or an adverb; the combination creates a meaning different from the original verb alone, e.?g.: to get = to obtain: I need to get a new battery for my camera; to get together = to meet: Why don’t we all get together for lunch one day?Phrasal verbs are a part of a large group of verbs called “multi-part” or “multi-word” verbs. The preposition or adverb that is placed after the verb is sometimes called a particle. Phrasal verbs play an important role in English. However, they are mostly used in spoken English and informal texts. They should be avoided in academic writing where such a formal verb as “to postpone” is preferable rather than “to put off”. Phrasal verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive. Transitive phrasal verbs always have an object, e.?g. I made up an excuse. (‘Excuse’ is the object of the verb.) Intransitive phrasal verbs do not have an object, e.?g.: My car broke down.We can differentiate separable or inseparable phrasal verbs. When we deal with separable phrasal verbs, we can put the object between the verb and the preposition, e.?g. I looked the word up in the dictionary. The object is placed after the preposition in inseparable ones, e.?g.: I will look into the matter as soon as possible. In some cases we can put an object in both places, compare: I picked up the book. I picked the book up. But remember if the object is a pronoun, it must be placed between the verb and the preposition, e.?g.: I picked it up. Phrasal verbs may be either non-idiomatic or idiomatic. Non-idiomatic phrasal verbs retain their primary local meaning, whereas in idiomatic phrasal verbs meanings cannot be derived from their constituent parts. Exercise 19. Set off idiomatic and non-idiomatic phrasal verbs. Give their Ukrainian equivalents 1. How can you account for your absence at the meeting? 2.?He was accused of murder. 3. He acted on the tip received from an insider and made a lot of money. 4. These figures don’t add up. 5.?They agree about everything. 6. They don’t always agree on the way children should be raised. 7. He applied for the position of tour guide. 8. He arrived at the airport two hours before the flight. 9. Here I rallied, and had already improved so far as to be able to walk about the wards, and even to bask a little upon the verandah, when I was struck down by enteric fever, that curse of our Indian possessions. 10.?For month my life was despaired of, and when at last I came to myself and become convalescent, I was so weak and emaciated that a medical board determined that not a day should be lost in sending me back to England. 11. I asked him to lunch with me at the Holborn, and we started off together in a hansom. 12. You mustn’t blame me if you don’t get on with him. 13. She reluctantly decided that to go on was the only thing to be done. 14. “Go on,” she cried. “You’re daft. I can never make you out.” 15. I’m thinking of giving up the shop soon. 16. Elliott called me up one morning. 17. I must be getting along. 18. I peeped out – he was putting on his hat with a hasty and uneasy air. 19. They took their seats in the plane and set off. PART 4. ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF MODERN ENGLISH VOCABULARYThe modern English vocabulary falls into two main sets: native words and borrowings. Native words belong to the original English word-stock and are known from the earliest Old English manuscripts. It is customary to subdivide native words into those of the Indo-European stock and those of the common Germanic origin. The former have cognates in the vocabulary of all or most Indo-European languages, whereas the latter have cognates only in Germanic languages. Borrowing words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history. More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). English continues to take in foreign words, but now the quantity of borrowings is not so abundant as it was before. All the more so, English now has become a “giving” language, it has become Lingva franca of the twentieth century.BorrowingsLanguage interrelation over time can result in an important source of new words – borrowing. Borrowing or a loan word is a word or phrase which has been borrowed by one language from another. Partially the words are borrowed because of the historical circumstances which stimulate the borrowing process. Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different including wars, invasions or trade and international cultural and sports relations.In its 15 century long history recorded in written manuscripts the English language happened to come in long and close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian). The great influx of borrowings from these sources can be accounted for by a number of historical causes. Thanks to the great impact of the Roman civilisation Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse was the language of the conquerors who were on the resembling level of social and cultural development and who merged rather easily with the local population in the 9th, 10th and the first half of the 11th century. French (to be more exact its Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system – developed feudalism, it was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century.In the study of the borrowed element in English the main emphasis is usually placed on the Middle English period. Borrowings of later periods became the object of investigation only in recent years. These investigations have shown that the flow of borrowings has been steady and uninterrupted. The greatest number has come from French. They refer to various fields of social-political, scientific and cultural life. A large portion of borrowings (41%) is scientific and technical terms.The number and character of borrowed words dive the possibility to find out about the relations between the peoples, the level of their culture, etc. It is for this reason that borrowings have often been called the milestones of history. Thus if we go through the lists of borrowings in English and arrange them in groups depending on their meaning, we shall be able to obtain much valuable information with regard to England’s contacts with many nations. Some borrowings, however, cannot be explained by the direct impact of certain historical conditions, they do not come along with any new objects or ideas. Such were, for example, the words air, place, brave, gay borrowed from French.The number and character of borrowings do not only depend on the historical conditions, on the nature and length of the contacts, but also on the degree of the genetic and structural proximity of languages concerned. The closer the languages, the deeper and more versatile is the influence. This largely accounts for the well-marked contrast between the French and the Scandinavian impact on the English language. Thus under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, which were closely connected with Old English, some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages (the pronouns they, their, them, for instance); a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native words (they were of the same root and the connection between them was easily seen), e.?g. drop (AS.) – drip (Scand.), true (AS.)-tryst (Scand.); the Scandinavian impact even accelerated to a certain degree the development of the grammatical structure of English.Borrowings come in the language in two ways: through oral speech (by immediate contact between the peoples) and through written speech (by indirect contact through books, etc.). Oral borrowing took place mainly in the early periods of history, whereas in recent times written borrowing gained importance. Words borrowed orally (e.?g. L. inch, mill, street) are as a rule short and they undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption. Written borrowings (e.?g. Fr. communiqué, belles-lettres, na?veté) preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound-form, their assimilation is a long process.Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria for defining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element.Sometimes the pronunciation of the word (strange sounds, sound combinations, position of stress, etc.), its spelling and the correlation between sounds and letters are an indication of the foreign origin of the word. This is the case with waltz (G.), psychology (Gr.), soufflé (Fr.), etc. The initial position of the sounds [v], [dз], [з] or of the letters x, j, z is a sure sign that the word has been borrowed, e.?g. volcano (It.), vase (Fr.), jungle (Hindi), gesture (L.), giant (OFr.), zeal (L.), zero (Fr.), zinc (G.), etc.The morphological structure of the word and its grammatical forms may also bear witness to the word being adopted from another language. Thus the suffixes in the words neurosis (Gr.) and violoncello (It.) betray the foreign origin of the words. The same is true of the irregular plural forms papyra (from papyrus, Gr.), pastorali (from pastorale, It.), beaux (from beau, Fr.), bacteria, (from bacterium, L.) and the like.But some early borrowings have become so thoroughly assimilated that they are unrecognisable without a historical analysis, e.?g. chalk, mile (L.), ill, ugly (Scand.), enemy, car (Fr.), etc. It is essential to analyse the changes that borrowings have undergone in the English language and how they have adapted themselves to its peculiarities. All the changes that borrowed elements undergo may fall into two large groups. On the one hand there are changes specific of borrowed words only. These changes aim at adapting words of foreign origin to the norms of the borrowing language, e.?g. the consonant combinations [pn], [ps], [pt] in the words pneumatics, psychology, Ptolemy of Greek origin were simplified into [n], [s], [t]. The initial [ks] was changed into [z] (as in Gr. xylophone).By analogy with the great majority of nouns that form their plural in -s, borrowings, even very recent ones, have assumed this inflection instead of their original plural endings. The forms Soviets, bolsheviks, kolkhozes, sputniks illustrate the process.Degree of assimilation is determined by the time of the borrowing. The general principle is: the older the borrowing, the more thoroughly it tends to follow normal English habits of accentuation, pronunciation, etc. It is but natural that the majority of early borrowings have acquired full English citizenship and that most English speaking people are surprised at first hearing, that such everyday words as window, chair, dish and so on have not always belonged to their language. Late borrowings often retain their foreign peculiarities. Exercise 1. Explain the etymology of the words in bold type. 1. His anger poured over me like lava. 2. I finished my chops, leaned back in my chair, and lit a cigarette. 3. He took out a long cigar and placed it in his mouth. 4. The robot looked at him impassively out of its faceted eye. 5. On the tray there was a pot of coffee and two cups. 6. “Here’s Len Minogue, he’ll play a polka for us,” he roared, dragging a little man with an accordion, over to the piano. 7. She was dressed in a heavy silk kimono of authentic manufacture. 8. She went into the kitchen and filled a glass with equal portions of vodka and orange juice. 9. I’ve been taking karate lessons, and I gave him a sample. 10. A horde of mosquitoes gathered immediately in the lee of the car. 11. Then they dined at a tiny seafood restaurant. 12. Everyone had to get used to handling dog teams and building igloo shelters. 13. She had left the flat to buy some sandwiches at a delicatessen near Sloane Square. 14.?Myra had potato chips and a dish of tiny pieces of herring and some tomatoes. Classification of BorrowingsBorrowings can be classified in compliance to different criteria: a) according to the degree of assimilation, b)?according to the language from which the word was borrowed. (In this classification only the main languages from which words were borrowed into English are described, such as Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, German and Russian.) Classification of borrowings according the degree of assimilation. Most of the borrowed words adjust themselves to their new environment and get adapted to the norms of the recipient language. They undergo certain changes which gradually erase their proper features and finally they are assimilated.The degree of assimilation of borrowings is determined by the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is. Borrowed words are adjusted in three main areas of the new language system: the phonetic, the grammatical and the semantic. The nature of phonetic adaptation is best shown by comparing Norman French borrowings. The Norman borrowings have for a long time been fully adapted to the phonetic system of the English language. Such words as table, plate, courage bear no phonetic traces of their French origin. Some of the later borrowings sound surprisingly French: matinee, ballet, cafe. In these cases phonetic adaptation is not completed.Grammatical adaptation is based on a complete change of the former paradigm of the borrowed word. Yet, this is also a lasting process. For instance, words phenomenon (pl. phenomena), criterion (pl. criteria) are not fully adopted. Other borrowings have two plural forms – the native and the foreign, e.?g. vacuum (L.) – vacua, vacuums, virtuoso (It.) – virtuosi, virtuosos.By semantic adaptation is meant adjustment to the system of meanings of the vocabulary. When a word is taken over into another language, its semantic structure as a rule undergoes great changes. Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of their meanings. Thus the word timbre that had a number of meanings in French was borrowed into English as a musical term only. The words cargo and cask, highly polysemantic in Spanish, were adopted only in one of their meanings – ‘the goods carried in a ship’, ‘a barrel for holding liquids’ respectively.In the process of its historical development a borrowing sometimes got new meanings that were not to be found in its former semantic structure. For example, the verb move in Modern English has acquired the meanings of ‘propose’, ‘change one’s flat’, ‘mix with people’ and others that the French mouvoir does not possess. As a rule the development of new meanings takes place 50 – 100 years after the word is borrowed.The semantic structure of borrowings changes in other ways as well. Some meanings become more general, others more specialised, etc. For example, the word umbrella, borrowed in the meaning of a ’sunshade’ or ‘parasol’ (from It. ombrella <?ombra – ’shade’) came to denote similar protection from the rain as well.Borrowed words according to the degree of assimilation fall into three groups: а) completely assimilated, b) partially assimilated, c) unassimilated words or pletely assimilated borrowings occur in all layers of older borrowings. They are also called denizens. They follow all morphological, phonetic and orthographic standards e.?g. husband, table, street, take. Being very frequent and stylistically neutral, they may occur as dominant words in synonymic groups. They take an active part in word -formation. The second group containing partially assimilated borrowings can fall into 4 groups. Such words are also called aliens.1. Borrowings that are not assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they are borrowed: sherbet, toreador, sari, sombrero, taiga.2. Borrowings that are not assimilated grammatically, for example nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek which keep their original plural forms crisis – crises, phenomenon – phenomena, genius – genii, bacillus – bacilli.3. Borrowings that are not assimilated phonetically. For example, some of the French words borrowed after 1650 keep the accent on the final syllable. Some words comprise sounds or combinations of sounds that are not standard for the English language: boulevard, foyer, camouflage, bourgeois.4. Borrowings that are not assimilated graphically. This group is quite numerous. Usually such words are from the French origin. In these words the final consonant is not pronounced and they keep a diacritic mark. Some of them have variant spelling: Cliché, na?ve, chateau, troussaeu.The third group is unassimilated borrowed words. They are also called barbarisms. They are words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents: e.?g. coup d’etat, eureka, persona grata, etc. (see Table 7)/Table 7 ?- Сlassification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilationBorrowings partially assimilated(aliens)completely assimilated(denizens)e. g. husband, tableunassimilated (barbarisms)e. g. coup d’etat, eurekanot assimilated grammaticallye. g. crisis – crises,genius – geniinot assimilated semanticallye. g. sherbet, toreadornot assimilated graphicallye. g. cliché, na?venot assimilated phoneticallye. g. boulevard, bourgeoisClassification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed. Romanic borrowings. Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, are such words as: street, port, wall, etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. These borrowings are as a rule called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem. Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are for the most part scientific words. These words were not used as often as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.?g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto, etc. Classical borrowings continue to come in Modern English as well. Mainly they are words formed by means of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are many of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography).French borrowings. The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them appeared in English at the time of the Norman Conquest. French effected not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents were written by French scribes as the local population was chiefly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings: a) words relating to government: administer, empire, state, government; b)?words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle; c) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister; d) words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery; e) words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl; f) words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew. Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mostly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings: a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette, vaudeville; b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre; c) words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau; d) words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine. Italian borrowings. The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the 14-th century, it was the word bank /from the Italian banko - bench/. Italian money-lenders and money-changers sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered losses they turned over their benches, it was called banco rotta from which the English word bankrupt originated. In the 17-th century some geological terms were borrowed: volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At the same time some political terms were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin. But in the main Italian is famous by its impact in music: alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, quintet, opera, operette, libretto. Among the 20-th century Italian borrowings we can mention: gazette, incognitto, autostrada, fiasco, diletante, graffitto, etc. Spanish borrowings. Spanish borrowings came into English mostly through its American variant. There are the following semantic groups of them: a) trade terms: cargo, embargo; b) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera, guitar; c) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, cocoa, banana, ananas, apricot, etc.Germanic borrowings. English belongs to the Germanic group of languages and there are borrowings from Scandinavian, German and Holland languages. Scandinavian borrowings. By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong impact of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. Scandinavians and Englishmen had the similar way of life, their cultural level was the resembling, they had much in common in their literature therefore there were a lot of words in these languages which were almost identical, e.?g. Esyster – sweoster – sister, fiscr – fisc – fish, felagi – felawe – fellow. However there were many words which were different, and some of them came in English, such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window, etc., such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, etc., such verbs as: call, die, guess, get, give, scream and others. Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed, such as: same, both, till, fro, though, and pronominal forms with “th”: they, them, their. German borrowings. There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English. Some of them have classical roots, e.?g. in some geological terms, such as: cobalt, bismuth, zink, quarts, gneiss, wolfram. There are also words denoting objects used in everyday life: iceberg, lobby, rucksack, Kindergarten, etc. In the period of the Second World War and after it such words were borrowed: Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, gestapo, gas chamber Berufsverbot, Volkswagen, etc. Holland borrowings. Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and more than 2000 Holland borrowings were borrowed into English. Most of them are nautical terms and were mostly borrowed in the 14-th century, such as: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.Exercise 2. Classify the borrowings in bold type according to the degree of their assimilation. State from what languages they are borrowed. 1. The walls had been panelled (at cost price) by a good decorator and on them hung engravings of theatrical pictures by Zoffany and de Wilde. 2.?That rate literary phenomenon, a Southern novel with no mildew on its magnolia leaves. Funny, happy, and written with unspectacular precision. 3.?When Mike Noonan's wife dies unexpectedly, the bestselling author suffers from writer's block. Until he is drawn to his summer home, the beautiful lakeside retreat called Sara Laughs. 4. The pair are the epitome of chic, living a glamorous lifestyle and entertaining friends at their house. 5. Henry VIII's invasion of France has gone badly wrong, and a massive French fleet is preparing to sail across the Channel. 6. In the hot and dusty main street the cars were parked nose to the kerb. 7. The breath of an inquisitive dog blew warm and nervous on her neck; she could feel her skin broiling a little in the heat and hear the small exhausted wa-waa of the expiring waves. 8.?Stradlater was a goddamn genius next to Ackley. 9. When it finally gets too much, she can always simply die. 10. This innocent passion for the persons whose photographs appear in the illustrated papers made him seem incredibly na?ve, and she looked at him with tender eyes. 11. She’s a dancer. А ballet and all. She used to practice about two hours every day, right in the middle of the hottest weather and all. 12. If she went into the café on her own, she had to give way to any white person who walked in and let them be served first. 13.?I left a message on her answering machine. 14. He was a big, hulking Indian clad in approved white-man style, with an Eldorado king’s sombrero on his head. 15. She had bought “Le Temps” and “The Saturday Evening Post” for her mother, and as she drank her citronade she opened the latter at the memoirs of a Russian princess, finding the dim conventions of the nineties realer and nearer than the headlines of the French paper. 16.?He still had at fifty-two a very good figure. 17. He kept saying they were too new and bourgeois. 18. It was dark as hell in the foyer, naturally, and naturally I couldn't turn on any lights. 19. “Who are you?” “Battle police,” another officer said. 20. He woke when he heard me in the room and sat up. “Ciao!” –, he said. 21. I arranged with the concierge to make my coffee in the morning. 22. The modest, well-bred, etcetera, English gentleman. 23. “How many corridas you had this year?” Renata asked.Exercise 3. Classify the borrowings in bold type according to the language from which they were borrowed. 1. Improved structural techniques and materials and the quest for greater speed made the biplane configuration obsolete for most purposes by the late 1930s. 2. The hotel was run by a trio of brothers. 3. In Classical music, the most important combination of four instruments in chamber music is the string quartet. 4. It faced into the prevailing wind and a land airdrome could be easily made. 5. They walked past stalls selling huge sprays of crimson, saffron and cobalt flowers. Cobalt is primarily used as the metal, in the preparation of magnetic, wear-resistant and high-strength alloys. 6. They must appeal; a petition too might be started in the last event. 7. Support the keel with timber blocking to take most of the weight of the hull. 8. Also, Dr Vize wants me in Angola as soon as I can get free of the inquest formalities. 9. It was early days but she would have been in the top echelon of players. 10. Her sister was at the window, hanging her head low, a poor figure. 11. Alice dropped her eyes at the odd question. 12. A crowd was waiting at the dock to greet them. 13. Bismuth – a heavy brittle diamagnetic trivalent metallic element. 14. Zink can refer to another name for the cornetto, a Renaissance wind instrument. 15. In fact, he sometimes lurks by one of his bronzes and plays devil's advocate. 16. Entresol – a low story in a building between the ground floor and the floor above. 17. Chateau is a large French country house or castle, often giving its name to wine made in its neighbourhood. 18. The nose wheel is raised backward into front fuselage. 19. Ruling an empire wasn't getting any easier; he rarely had a minute to himself anymore. 20. In her confused state of mind, she had convinced herself that he loved her. 21.?This was also seen on blouses and box pleat skirts. 22.?Albs were originally quite plain, but about the 10th century the custom arose of ornamenting the borders and the cuffs of the sleeves with strips of embroidery, and this became common in the 12th century. 23. The general tenor of her speech was so understandable. 24. Cocoa beans are growed for preparing of a drink. 25. Three sailors stood in the dock. 26. It proved the final blow for the Neptune; the ship slowly keeled over and sank. 27. Bananа is a long curved fruit with yellow skins. 28.?If a man tries to imitate a woman’s voice he does it by speaking in a falsetto voice. 29. Bearing in mind that the company had sold a car with an air-cooled engine since 1948, this was a natural choice for the new four cylinder. International WordsAs the process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of new notions which the loan words serve to express, it is natural that the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of the same origin that occur in several languages as a sequence of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. Expanding global contacts cause the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend on their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary.Such words usually convey concepts which are important in the field of communication (cf. Eng. Telephone, organization, inauguration, industry, Ukr. телефон, орган?зац?я, ?наугурац?я, ?ндустр?я). If it is a noun, it is certain to adopt, sooner or later, a new system of declension; if it is a verb, it will conjugate in accordance to the rules of the recipient language.International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. A large number of names of science are international, e.?g. philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology. There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of the world culture. Thus, for instance, the mankind’s cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the considerable number of Italian words related to architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone (and others names of voices), concert, duet, opera (and others names of pieces of music), piano and many more. It is quite natural that political terms often occur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution, progress, democracy, communism, anti-militarism.The English language also contributed a great number of international words to world languages. Among them the sport terms occupy a prominent position: football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc.Fruits and foodstuff imported from exotic countries frequently transport their names too and, being at the same time imported to many countries, become international: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit.The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of international wordstock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithm, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic code, graph, microelectronics, microminiaturisation, quant, quasars, pulsars, ribosome, etc. All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian and several other languages.The international wordstock is also growing thanks to the influx of exotic borrowed words like anaconda, bungalow, kraal, orang-outang, sari, etc. These come from many different sources.At least some of the Russian words borrowed into English and many other languages and thus international should also be mentioned: balalaika, bolshevik, cosmonaut, czar, intelligentsia, Kremlin, mammoth, sambo, soviet, sputnik, steppe, vodka. Exercise 4. In the sentences given below identify international words and state to what sphere of human activity they belong. 1. But I still lacked the confidence to try to take charge when Vadim seemed particularly out of control. 2. ‘The injection should take effect soon, love,’ he called in. and the doctor said it would make you sleepy.’ 3. The Moroccan frontier is about three miles away and clearly we are here in case the hordes of fellagha sitting on the other side think the coming referendum heralds a return home to Algeria. 4. He is a sadist and delights in the discomfort of others. 5. He didn’t even know if he was going to college. 6. I hold out a ziplock bag containing banana muffins. Becki hesitates, then accept one. 7. The horse remained amazingly calm during what looked a painful procedure. 8. But just like on a battlefield, where the sergeant knew more than the grunt, and the lieutenant more than the sergeant, and so on, the trick of gathering intelligence was to capture higher ranking officers from the other side, debrief them, and then launch a counterstrike. 9. Five dozen fiascos of oxygen he’s had all together, yesterday and to-day, the soak! 10. He came into the barracks like a tornado. 11. It all helps patients to come to terms with what is happening and regain control of their lives. 12. The battle would have a profound effect on the rest of the war. 13. The decision to postpone the referendum on the euro will also mean that the Convention gets an absolutely clear run in the next year. 14. He is a sadist and delights in the discomfort of others. 15. College leavers to find out what they have gone on to do. 16. I hold out a ziplock bag containing banana muffins. 17. Candidates may be required to undergo an adaptation procedure. 18. But just like on a battlefield, where the sergeant knew more than the grunt, and the lieutenant more than the sergeant, and so on, the trick of gathering intelligence was to capture higher ranking officers from the other side, debrief them, and then launch a counterstrike. 19. Her husband, knowing she could not play, shut the piano to avoid a fiasco. 20. Britain is tornado hotspot Britain is five times more likely to be hit by a tornado than the United States, research reveals today. 21. We'll adopt a policy of localism that lets local people choose what's right for their neighborhood. 22.?Industry sector experience provide commercially aware, client focused advice throughout the process. 23. In some units, the idea of creating soviets was discussed. 24.?Elton John has remained a close mentor to Ryan during his move to solo artist. 25. Progress toward nuclear disarmament, which constitutes their primary disarmament objective. 26. Radio crackled into life once more, only for us to discover they had still not turned up at camp.Pseudo-International WordsInternational words should not be confused with pseudo-international words (false cognates, “translator’s false friends”) which have the same origin different semantic structures.Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian paying attention to pseudo-international words.1. “All right, from that perspective, I can buy it. We’ll call social services”, he said. 2. These then are the three men who will have principal control over us during the coming weeks. 3. “I think this could be my salvation from a lunatic asylum which is the alternative if I have to go on publishing wheelbarrow”. 4. We returned to Sully and the two prisoners were paraded in front of Captain Glasser in his office. 5. That left two pages on four-year-old Tika, who’d been shot on a dog bed, and one paragraph on five-month-old ViVi, who’d been suffocated in her crib. 6. Liz laughed, intrigued by the prospect. 7. Phil rattled off a geographic profile of the Harringtons’ known activities and organizations. 8. I wondered what we left behind – a watch or two, a few cents photograph or a magazine and some ammunition. 9. The only thing he didn’t like was the wine list. 10.?Selfishness runs in the family, Liz thought drily.Etymological Doublets Sometimes a word is borrowed twice from the same language. Consequently, we get two different words with different spellings and meanings but historically they come back to one and the same word. Such words are called etymological doublets. In English they fall into some groups. The words shirt and skirt are of the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape differs and yet they are similar and this reflects their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated. They both mean clothing items. Etymological doublets may enter the vocabulary by different roots. Some of these pairs (like shirt and skirt, scabby and shabby) consist of a native word and a borrowed one. Others are represented by two borrowings from different languages which are historically derived from the same root: canal (Latin) – channel (French), captain (Latin) – chieftan (French).Still others were borrowed from the same language twice at different time: travel (Norman. Fr.) – travail (Parisian Fr.), cavalry (Norman. Fr.) – chivalry (Parisian Fr.). A doublet may also include a shortened word and the one from which it was derived: history – story, fanatic – fan, shadow – shade.Etymological hybrids are words whose elements came from different languages, e.?g. eatable (native root + Romanic suffix), distrust (native root + Romanic prefix), beautiful (Romanic root + native suffix), etc.Etymological triplets are groups of three words of common origin: hospital (lat) – hostel (Norm. Fr.) – hotel (Par. Fr.), to capture (Lat.) – to catch (Norm. Fr.) – to chase (Par. Fr.).Exercise 6. Compare the meaning of the following etymological doublets or triplets. State their origin.major – mayor, captain – chieftan, shirt – skirt, shriek – screech, canal – channel, corpus – corpse – corps, dike – ditch, travel – travail, shrew – screw, cart – chart, shadow – shade, naked – nude, lapel – label, ward – guard, hale – hail, shabby – scabby, pauper – poor, vast – waste, wine – vine, zealous – jealously, basis – base, deacon – dean, papyrus – paper, chief – chef, hospital – hostel – hotel, saloon – salon, suit – suite, camp – campus, street – stratum, catch – chase, cavalry – chivalry, dragon – dragoon – drake, plan – plane – plain, gentle – genteel – gentile, stack – stake – steak.Exercise 7. State the origin of the following etymological doublets, if any. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. 1. After crossing a rather large prairie, we arrived at the skirts of a little wood that was enlivened by the songs and flight of a large number of birds. 2. He once found a little fox cub half drowned in its hole and he brought it home in the bosom of his shirt to keep it warm. 3. In the course of the day of the 29th of January, the island of Ceylon disappeared under the horizon, and the Nautilus, at a speed of twenty miles an hour, slid into the labyrinth of canals which separate the Maldives from the Laccadives. 4. The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the north-east of Lilliput, from which it is parted only by a channel of eight hundred yards wide. 5.?“Well, my friend, this earth will one day be that cold corpse; it will become uninhabitable and uninhabited like the moon, which has long since lost all its vital heat.” 6. She smiles a weak, embarrassed smile, and the press corps chuckle encouragingly. 7. When he traveled about, darkness so brooded over him that the sight of him was a wrong done to other people because it was as if he poisoned the air about him with gloom. 8. What does the Bible tell us about this difference, and why the Negro race has been cursed to so much pain and travail? 9. “Hum!” thought I, “a whale with the strength of a cavalry regiment would be a pretty whale!” 10.?There was a steel-barred gate at the far end of the tunnel. It always reminded me of pictures I'd seen of old castles; you know, in days of old when knights were bold and chivalry was in flower. 11. "Do you never catch cold?" inquired Mary, gazing at him wonderingly.12. I've chased about the moor in all weathers same as the rabbits do. 13.?"Now," I said, tilting my bowl to capture the last spoonful, "probably would have cooked him some soup". 14. This isn't to let me off the hook, but it sometimes seems to me that history which has recently fallen over the horizon is harder to research than the Middle Ages or the time of the Crusades. 15. It made me feel like a character in an Edgar Allan Poe story every time I used it. 16.?Yet, even lost as deeply in his own fantasy world as he was, he gave Percy a wide berth and a mistrustful glance. 17.?"Open the window!" he added, laughing half with joyful excitement and half at his own fancy. 18. Some group – probably exiled Russian hard-line fanatics – began selling nuclear weapons to terrorist groups, including The Base. 19.?I looked for a fan, but they were all gone. 20. That chance now fell into his lap, courtesy of Percy Wetmore. 21. "Thank you, sir," bobbing a curtsy, "I want to do my duty, sir." 22. Our shadows bobbed and flickered on the walls. 23. It occurred to me that it should have been the shade of tired old limes, because now this room was just another version of the Green Mile. 24. I described that extraordinary care always taken of their education in arts and arms, to qualify them for being counsellors both to the king and kingdom; to have a share in the legislature; to be members of the highest court of judicature, whence there can be no appeal; and to be champions always ready for the defence of their prince and country, by their valour, conduct, and fidelity. 25. He knew not what could be the use of those several clefts and divisions in my feet behind; that these were too soft to bear the hardness and sharpness of stones, without a covering made from the skin of some other brute; that my whole body wanted a fence against heat and cold, which I was forced to put on and off every day, with tediousness and trouble: and lastly, that he observed every animal in this country naturally to abhor the Yahoos, whom the weaker avoided, and the stronger drove from them. 26. Has dedicated a however the ultra I need a cruise the Panama canal. 27. Indeed will today’s teristrial TV channels transfer to mobile device? 28. Australian by birth, he has worked in adventure travel since 1967. 29. Those that have joined with their honor great travails, cares, or perils are less subject to envy. 30.?They are well seasoned in trying to avert attention and skirt details. Exercise 8. Comment on the etymological composition of the following hybrids. 1. Chance rewarded our search for eatable vegetables, and one of the most useful products of the tropical zones furnished us with precious food that we missed on board. 2. I think – I think he's beautiful!" said Mary in a determined voice. 3. The mouse scampered up on his bald pate and sat there. I don't know if he remembered that he also had reason to distrust, Percy, but it certainly looked as if he did. 4. I know countless ways how to be happy. 5. I promise to love you as long as life endures. 6.?Merciful and merciless are affixal antonyms.Translation-Loans The term “loan word” is identical to borrowing. By translation loans we indicate borrowings which are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but are influenced by the process of translation. Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme) translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units. Some translation loans came in English from Latin already in the Old English period, e.?g. Sunday (solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: pipe of peace, pale-faced, from German masterpiece, homesickness, superman. They are only compound words, because each stem can be translated separately: e. g. 5 year-plan (from Russian пятилетка), first dancer (from Italian prima-ballerina), collective farm (from Russian колхоз), wonder child (from German wunderkind), etc.Exercise 9. Translate the following translation-loans into Ukrainian.Fatherland, fellow-traveller, first dancer, lightning way, milky way, local colouring, the moment of truth, mother tongue, pen name, self-criticism, Sisyphean labour, a slip of the tongue, a slip of the pen, swan song, sword of Damocles, thing-in-itself, word combination, world-famous.Exercise 10. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to translation-loans. 1. A kibbutz is a collective farm, although increasingly it includes other industries as well. 2. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-90) was cleared by the cabinet only in 1989, rendering it ineffective. 3. It was the swan song of my pension and the developed nations. 4. Three years of hard grind, and now it's the moment of truth for two of ballet's young hopefuls. 5.?Most of them have no fatherland of their own, or someone else's. 6. But we ought to exercise enough self-criticism to ask ourselves whether it would not be better to pool competences in some cases. 7. We had a guesstimate of Pounds 20,000, which felt like the Sword of Damocles hanging over our heads. 8.?While swimming and catching a tan, I met some fellow travelers from London. 9. A thing-in-itself is an object as it would appear to us if we did not have to approach it under the conditions of space and time.PART 5. SEMASIOLOGYMeaning is a component of the word through which a concept is communicated. When we first hear or read a word the corresponding concept comes to mind. Thus, the word can denote real objects, qualities, actions and abstract notions.There are three main types of the lexical meaning of words:Nominative meaning. It is the direct meaning of the word, which refers to objects in extralinguistic reality. The nominative meaning has denotational and connotational components. Denotation means the expression of the direct meaning of the word that doesn’t bear any emotive evaluation or stylistic colouring, e.?g. friend, dog, love, great, begin, etc. Connotation is the supplementary expressive meaning which is performed either by emotive charge, e.?g. girlie, doggy, worship, etc., or by stylistic reference, e.?g. father (neutr.) :: parent (book.) :: dad (col.) :: governor (slang); great (neutr.)?:: terrific (col.).Syntactically conditioned meaning. It displays itself in different colligations. Cf. look at :: look for :: look after, etc.Phraseologically bound meaning. It is idiomatic meaning which displays itself only in certain phraseological units, e.?g. buy smth. for a song; to be on the safe side; to cut a long story short, etc. (see Table 8).A branch of linguistics that studies meaning is called semasiology (or semantics). The name comes from the Greek sēmasiā – “signification” (from sēma – “sign”, sēmantikos – “significant”, and logos – “learning”). The modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of the word (its meaning) presents the semantic structure of the word.Table 8 ?- Main types of the lexical meaning of wordsLexical meaning of wordsnominative meaningdenotatione. g. girl, dog, loveconnotatione. g. girlie, doggy, worshipsyntactically conditionedmeaninge. g. look at, look for, look after, etcphraseologically bound meaninge. g. buy smth.for a song; to be on the safe side; to cut a long story short, etc.Three main semantic structures of words: monosemy, semantic diffusion and polysemy.Monosemy is the existence within one word of only one meaning. There are not too many monosemantic words. They are mainly scientific terms, e.?g. chemistry, molecule, sputnic, etc.Semantic diffusion is observed in words with a very wide conceptual volume. Such words can name an indefinitely large number of objects. For example, the word thing means “any object of our thought”. It can name anything – living beings, problems, facts, affairs, pieces of writing, possessions, etc.Polysemy (from Greek poly, “many” semeion, “sign”) is when a word has several meanings or is open to several or many meanings. Polysemy is a treasure and value of every spoken language. It exists only in the language, but does not exist in speech. The majority of English words are polysemantic. In the process of polysemy development new meanings appear and old ones are lost. Polysemantic word is the presence of several meanings in one word. Though they are used to mark different subjects, occurrences, processes all of them are connected with each other. They are also used in different word combinations (see Table 9).Table 9 ?- Main semantic structures of wordsSemantic structures of wordspolysemye. g. table,to takesemantic diffusione. g. stuff,thingmonosemye. g. chemistry,moleculeCh.?Bally made distinction between two aspects of polysemy as a linguistic phenomenon: 1) one linguistic sign has several meanings, 2) one meaning is expressed by several signs. Some meanings invariably come to the fore when we hear the word in actual speech or see it written. Other meanings are evident only due to the context of the word. The context makes the word explicit, i. e. brings them out. The word in one of its meanings is called lexico-semantic variant of this word. There may be no single semantic component common to all lexico-grammatical variants but every variant has something in common with at least one of the others. All the lexico-semantic variants of a word taken together form its semantic structure or semantic paradigm. When analyzing the semantic structure of a polysemantic word, it is necessary to distinguish between two levels of analysis. On the first level, the semantic structure of a word is treated as a system of meanings. For instance, the semantic structure of the noun “head” could be presented by the scheme given below (here you can see only the most frequent meanings): HeadA part of the human bodyPerson (intellect)The top of somethingOn the second level of analysis of the semantic structure of a word: each separate meaning is a subject to structural analysis in which it may be represented as sets of semantic components.For example, the word dark: 1. Obscure – destitute of light. 2. Gloomy – destitute of cheerfulness. 3. Mysterious – destitute of clarity. 4. Not enlightened with knowledge; rude; ignorant – destitute of learning and science. 5. Not vivid – destitute of brightness. 6. Disheartening; having unfavorable prospects – destitute of luck, hope. 7. Blind – destitute of eyesight. The semantic structure of a word should be investigated at both these levels: 1) of different meanings, 2) of semantic components within each separate meaning.Terminology is the language area, where the polysemy is not desirable. As a rule, a term usually bears only one meaning in one science or sphere of activity. For instance a word hydrogen has only one meaning, e.?g. In the process of chlorine production, hydrogen is generated as a byproduct. Or a word molecule, which also has only one meaning, e.?g.: In the pale yellow substance obtained, the ratio of coordination compound to organic molecule is 1/5000.Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian paying attention to the different meanings of the words in bold type. 1. They say the best hotel for one customer is not the best for another, but even the face of this building was impressive. 2. Edward Cullen's face was perfect, his lips flawless, his teeth brilliant, his voice irresistible. 3. Edward made a face when he kissed Bella, because he didn’t want to let her go. 4. Remember the most important thing in business is to save face no matter what happens. 5. They were standing face to face, I was afraid Edward would kill Jake. 6. “The bread has got hard, dad. How can you eat that?” 7.?Michael Porter tells us about strategy’s job, but for some people it is really hard to understand how it works. 8. I saw that, Edward tried so hard to preserve his humanity. 9. Jacob is a person of hard language and witted mind. 10. “It looked like a flight or something how did you do that so fast? You wasn’t here”. 11.?If you think that a simple flight will help you to solve these problems, you are deeply wrong. 12. It just a flight of folly, she will never love someone like me. 13. The airplane appeared undamaged, but would undoubtedly be washed down and inspected thoroughly before resuming its interrupted flight to Acapulco. 14. All along, he had believed that seventy-five thousand dollars was the top limit for airport-purchase insurance for an overseas flight. 15. We went up two flights of stairs on a dilapidated staircase that at one time must have been luxurious. 16. You have to believe to make it real, it’s the only way to get what you want to achieve. 17. I got it, you don’t want to spend the rest of you life like a normal, real person. 18.?Charlie got us sitting together in my room, I was absolutely lost. 19.?“I’ve got to break this connection, before it's too late”, – he whispered. 20.?“You know, Scarlett, money will come but never comes to good and this house is proof of the axiom. 21.?At the same time, the structure of deposits as part of broad money, indicates that other deposits in domestic currency grew at the highest rates (29.0 percent). 22. The model of the station won two Grand Prix awards at expositions in Paris (1937) and Brussels (1958). 23.?She was not only a good model, but a good housewife. 24. It would help me fight like a wildcat or run like a deer. 25. Run upstairs and get the iodine. 26.?He was running from danger, being terrified to death. 27. He was talking the other night about how much he hated Frog Point and being Brent Faraday and running for mayor. 28. The car ran along the highway. 29. This bus runs between New Haven and Hartford. 30. Let the water run before you drink it. 31.?The news of his promotion ran all over town.Exercise 2. Paraphrase the following sentences paying attention to the different meanings of the words in bold type. Translate them into Ukrainian. 1. a) Dick was indeed eager to get a little smattering of Spanish, and perhaps he was not really quite so stupid as he pretended to be. b) Нis hair was still thick and dark, with just a smattering of salt and pepper at each temple. 2. a) She must chirp and sing, and hop from place to place, and eat and drink, and preen her wings and do at least a dozen different things every minute. b)?She always spends ages preening herself before she goes out. c)?Why, they know when I praise them and preen themselves. 3.?a)?Bids through the host of thousand trumpets blare. b) It was almost dark outside now, and the lights in her house were blaring already. 4. a) The kitchen would be a mess – dishes in a sink, the detritus of meal preparation left across the counters, cheese going hard, and a knife left in the butter. b) All above that is terminal moraine, rock detritus piled upon rock foundation by the glacier. 5.?a)?She didn’t have her best friend’s flair for drama b) His carefully developed flair for character study, guessed them from the first. c)?And she gathered impressions swiftly, and, moreover, had a natural flair for all that was first-rate, original or strange. 6. a) I was unjust enough to load him with the guilt of his plot against me. b) I would give all the money in my pocket to be with those dear little women at the round table in the saloon, or on the grass-plot in the garden. c) Amelia’s mother was driving the two of them home from the cinema – and a graphic retelling of the plot of Fatal Attraction was under the way. d) Can a sweet Flower make a plot and tell lies like the old doctor? 7. a) A gram-atom is the mass, in grams, of one mole of atoms in a monatomic element. b) Upon one cheek he had a mole, not unbecoming. c) Its extreme downtown is the battery, where that noble mole is washed by waves. d) Susannah finished work and emerged, blinking mole-like, from her darker, air-conditioned office. 8. a) Vera had her old baby title of Flapsy? Which somehow suited her restless nervous motions, and Agatha had become Nag. b) And thump, thump, goes the farmer's nag over the narrow bridge of the weir. 9. a) Peel the pumpkin and remove the seeds, cut into small pieces, and put into a saucepan. b) He peeled the jacket, and kissed the side of her neck. Change of MeaningThe meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of the meaning is called lexico-semantic word-building – when the outer aspect of a word does not change. The reasons of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic, e.?g. the lexical meaning of the noun pen was due to extra-linguistic causes. The word pen comes from the Latin word penna (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was called a pen. On the other hand this may occur on linguistic reasons, e.?g. the conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other language one of them may specialize in its meaning, e.?g. the noun tide in Old English was polysemantic and denoted time, season, hour. When the French words time, season, hour were borrowed into English they ousted the word tide in these meanings. It was specialized and now means regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon.Lexical meaning reflects the concept which is expressed by the given word. If the polysemantic structure of the word is subjected to a diachronic semantic analysis, then the word, as a rule, retains its original meaning, but at the same time acquires several new ones. Hence one should distinguish the following meanings comprising the set treated diachronically:The direct meaning, subdivided into: a) the primary (etymological) meaning, e.?g. wall – L. vallum – “fortification”; b) the derived meaning: wall – “upright structure, forming part of a room or building”.The secondary meaning, subdivided into: a) the secondary denotative meaning: wall – “inside surface of cavity or vessel”, e.?g. walls of the heart; reactor wall; b) the figurative meaning, e.?g. wall of partition/between persons; wall of fire; wall of hostility. In his work “Prinzipien des Sprachgeschichte” the German scientist Herman Paul suggested the most complete classification. It is based on the logical principle. According to him, there are two main ways where the semantic change is gradual (specialization and generalization), two momentary conscious semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litote).The process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is called transference – the name of one object is transferred onto another, proceeding from their similarity (of shape, color, function, etc.) or closeness (of material existence, cause/effect, instrument/result, part/whole relations, etc.).Linguistic MetaphorThis type of transference is based on resemblance (similarity). A new meaning is a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their outward similarity.The noun eye has for one of its meaning ‘hole in the end of a needle’ which developed through transference based on resemblance. Metaphors may be based on different types of similarity, for instance, similarity of shape, position, colour, function, etc.: е.?g. the neck of a bottle, the teeth of a saw, to catch an idea, etc.The noun drop has several meanings: ‘a small particle of water or other liquid’, ‘ear-rings shaped as drops of water’ (e.?g. diamond drops), and ‘candy of the same shape’ (e.?g. mint drops) both these meanings are also based on resemblance.Words that denote animals and their actions may be used metaphorically to denote human qualities. Such cases belong to zoosemy, e.?g. a fox (“a crafty person”), an ass (“a stupid, foolish, or stubborn person”), to wolf (“to eat greedily”), a cock (“a leader, chief person”), a bear (“a gruff, clumsy, bad-manner person”), etc.Metaphoric epithets, that denote human qualities, are often applied to inanimate objects: a treacherous calm, cruel heat, a sullen sky, pitiless cold, a virgin soil etc.Linguistic MetonymyThis type of transference is based on contiguity. The association is based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes traced and identified with much difficulty. The two objects may be associated together because they often appear in common situations, and so the image of one is easily accompanied by the image of the other.The simplest case of metonymy is synecdoche. Here the name of a part is applied to the whole or vice versa, e. g. to earn one’s bread; I don’t want to provoke the police (a single policeman is meant), etc. In metonymic epithets certain properties of the whole are ascribed to the part, e.?g. threatening eyes (it is the person who is threatening), etc.Metonymy has several different types: a) the material an object is made of may become the name of the object, e.?g. a glass, iron, etc; b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.?g. the House – members of Parliament, Fleet Street – bourgeois press, the White House – the Administration of the USA etc; c) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.?g. the violin, the saxophone; d) the name of some person may become a common noun, e.?g. boycott was originally the name of an Irish family who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they did not mix with them, sandwich was named after Lord Sandwich who was a gambler. He did not want to interrupt his game and had his food brought to him while he was playing cards between two slices of bread not to soil his fingers. e) names of inventors are very often terms to denote things they invented, e.?g. watt, om, roentgen, etc f)?some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.?g. holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a special kind of carpets) , china (porcelain), etc.Other examples of metonymy include:The foot of a bed is the place where the feet rest when one lies in the bed, but the foot of a mountain got its name by another association: the foot of a mountain is its lowest part, so that the association here is founded on common position.By the arms of an arm-chair we mean the place where the arms lie, so that the type of association here is same as in the foot of the bed. The leg of a bed (table…) is a part which serves as a support, the original meaning “the leg of a man or animal”.The meaning of the adj. sad in Old English was ‘satisfied with food’ (cf. the Ukr. ситий). Later this meaning developed a connotation of a greater intensity of quality and came to mean ‘oversatisfied with food’, having eaten too much. Thus, the meaning of the adj. sad developed a negative evaluative connotation and now described the physical unease and discomfort of a person who has had too much to eat. The next shift of meaning as to transform the description of physical discomfort into one of spiritual discontent because these two states often go together. So the modern meaning of the word ‘sad’ → ‘melancholy’, ‘sorrowful’ was developed.The scope of transference in metonymy is much more limited than that of metaphor, which is quite understandable: the scope of human imagination that identifies two objects (phenomena, actions) on the grounds of commonness of their innumerable characteristics is boundless while actual relations between objects are more limited. Synecdoche, metaphor and metonymy can be found in one sentence. Example: “Fifty keels ploughed the deep”, where “keels” is the synecdoche as it takes a part (of the ship) as the whole (of the ship); “ploughed” is the metaphor as it substitutes the concept of ploughing a field for moving through the ocean; and “the deep” is the metonymy, as “deepness” is an attribute associated with the ocean.Exercise 3. Pick up and comment on the metaphors in the following sentences. 1. All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players, they have their exits and their entrances. 2. She is the true angel in my life. 3.?My gym is a prison. 4. He is a snake in the grass. 5. I do not follow the herd, I take my own path. 6. John is the Tiger Woods of his golf team. 7. His hair was bone white. 8. She is an early bird. 9. The teacher descended upon the exams, sank his talons into their pages, ripped the answers to shreds, and then, perching in his chair, began to digest. 10. She wore a sunny smile that brightened up the room. 11. The pines were roaring on the height, the winds were moaning in the night. 12. O! Will you be staying, or will you be flying? Your ponies are straying, the daylight is dying! 13. What has roots as nobody sees is taller than trees, up, up it goes, and yet never grows? – It is mountain. 14. The wind goes on from West and East, all movement in the forest ceased. 15.?The Mountain was standing alone; dwarves have left it long ago. 16. The typical teenage boy’s room is a disaster area. But Charlie is a young lady! 17. Humor is the shock absorber of life; it helps us take the blows. 18. Marriage – is a souvenir of love. 19. There is an ocean of things for us to talk about and arrange. 20. I meant to see more of her. But I saw nothing. She was in the warehouse of intensions. 21. A wise man does not thrust all his eggs to one basket. 22. Wit is the only wall between us and the dark. 23. He covered me with kisses of fire. 24.?Life is an incurable disease. 25. America is a tune. It must be sung together. 26. Anger is a bow that will shoot sometimes when another feeling will not. 27. I was lost in a sea of nameless faces. 28. The detective listened to her tales with a wooden face. 29. It was extremely hot during the day. We were almost roasted! 30. What had awakened him from his train of thought that caused a tear to appear on his face was the sweet melody of his favourite song. 31. I'm oxygen and he's dying to breathe. 32. Time, you thief. 33. Books are the mirrors of the soul. 34. People say that eyes are windows to the soul. 35.?Memories are bullets. Some whiz by and only spook you. Others tear you open and leave you in pieces. 36. Laughter is the sun that drives winter from the human face. 37. Religion is the opium for the people. 38. I am not plain or average or - God forbid – vanilla. I am peanut butter rocky road with multicolored sprinkles, hot fudge and a cherry on top. 39.?Every word was a singing sparrow, a magic trick, a truffle for me. 40. If people were rain, I was drizzle and she was hurricane. 41. Delia was an overbearing cake with condescending frosting, and frankly, I was on a diet. 42.?A man may break a word with you, sir, and words are but wind. 43.?Life is a journey. Time is a river. The door is a jar. 44.?The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees. 45.?The moon was a ghostly galleon tossed upon cloudy seas. 46.?The road was a ribbon of moonlight over the purple moor. 47.?His eyes were hollows of madness. 48. Time is a dressmaker specializing in alterations. 49. The rain came down in long knitting needles. Exercise 4. Explain the logic of metonymic transference in the following sentences. 1. The pen is mightier than the sword. 2. He writes a fine hand. 3. Fox News has always maintained. 4. As the bullet pierced his chest, I watched the life flow out of him. 5. She is the shoulder I always cry on. 6. The blueberry pie wants to see the chef. 7. We have always remained loyal to the crown. 8. They gradually ascended for half-a-mile, and then found themselves at the top of a considerable eminence, where the wood ceased, and the eye was instantly caught by Pemberley House, situated on the opposite side of a valley, into which the road with some abruptness wound. 9.?Elizabeth’s heart was delighted. She had never seen a place for which nature had done more, or where natural beauty had been so little counteracted by an awkward taste. 10. King’s hand does this better than anyone else. We finished the book about three non-stop hours after we picked it up. 11. Smaug’s eyes certainly looked fast asleep, when Bilbo peeped once more from the entrance. 12. My poor legs, my poor legs and poor me. It is a dangerous and long adventure for a little hobbit, I say. 13.?You’re a fool head, William, as I’ve said afore this evening. 14. My eyes are exited! This is the real elvish blade. 15. Calm down, boy. We must wait to hear from the crown until we make any further decisions. 16. Don’t trouble your little peanut head over the problem. It is not worth. 17. Yes, we were together. We even engaged. But one day she just broke my heart. 18. One table was playing dominoes already. 19.?The Stars and Stripes dangled languidly from a flagstaff. 20. She smoothed the front other dress with the palms of soft, clever hands. 21. I stopped at a bar and had a couple of double Scotches. They didn't do me any good. All they did was make me think of Silver Wig, and I never saw her again. 22. The White House asked the television networks for air time on Monday night. 23. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. Exercise 5. Pick up and comment on the linguistic and stylistic metonymy in the following sentences. 1. “Is it true, thought Pendennis, lying on his bed and gazing at a bright moon without, that lighted up a corner of his dressing table, and the frame of a little sketch of Fairoaks drawn by Laura, and hung over his drawers—is it true that I am going to earn my bread at last, and with my pen?” 2. He went over to the hawk-faced man. He was dead. There was some currency and silver in his pockets, cigarettes, a folder of matches from the Club Egypt, no wallet, a couple of extra clips of cartridges. 3. George Dial was tall, dark, handsome, Hollywoodish. 4. George Dial, already fully dressed in smart gray flannels, came around the corner and lifted one of the drinks. 5. It was parked almost at the next corner, a shiny black Packard with a little discreet chromium here and there. 6. He felt as the hand explored his pockets, his armpits. 7. De Ruse stood perfectly still except that his head jerked a little when the hard metal hit his face. 8. You won't ever touch a nickel of the big boy's money. 9. It would be misleading to suggest that this is exactly trending, but at the AJ Bell Stadium in Salford last night small but significant pockets of people were wrapped proudly in Stars And Stripes. 10. A military option to strike against Iran is still on the table if Tehran fails to live up to commitments to curb its nuclear ambitions, the White House insisted last night. 11. Whitehall prepares for a hung parliament. 12. France determined to channel anger in play-off return against Ukraine. 13. I had mustered my spirits again, and was ready for my knife and fork. 14. I am not the last boy in the school. I have risen in a few months over several heads. 15.?When he took out his yellow pocket-handkerchief with his hand that was cased in white kids, a delightful odour of musk and bergamot was shaken through the house. 16. “Can I have the honour of speaking with major Pendennis in private?” – he began – “I have a few word for your ear. I am the bearer of a mission from me friend Captain Costigan” 17. She reached for a pack of Kents and shook one loose and reached for it with her lips. 18. A few tentative raindrops splashed down on the sidewalk and made spots as large as nickels. 19. It's painfully simple, Commander. There are a lot of Machiavellians in this world. 20. He was a tall, thin man in gray hairs, sixty or close to it or a little past it. He had blue eyes as remote as eyes could be. 21.?Let me give you a hand. 22. One table was playing dominoes already. 23. “His eyes were pretty shiny," she confessed; "and he didn't have no collar, though he went away with one. But maybe he didn't have more in a couple of glasses”. 24. He took the Browning and the Swinburne from the chair and kissed them. He took another look at himself in the glass, and said aloud, with great solemnity: “Martin Eden, the first thing to-morrow you go to the free library an' read up on etiquette. Understand!” 25. But the fire having done its duty of boiling the young man's breakfast-kettle, had given up work for the day, and had gone out, as Pen knew very well. 26.?He's in dance. 27. The White House isn't saying anything. 28.?He's got a Picasso. 29. From her cradle she was self-willed; the very circumstances of her life had developed that self-will in her. 30. There is a mixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of a Frenchman. 31. I've got a new set of wheels. 32. She's planning to serve the dish early in the evening. 33. The Yankees have been throwing the ball really well, and they have been hitting better than they have been in the past few seasons. 34. The pen is mightier than the sword. 35.?England decides to keep check on immigration. 36. He’s a big question mark to me. 37. He writes a fine hand. 38.?Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 38. We have always remained loyal to the crown. 39. The House was called to order. 40. Can you please give me a hand carrying this box up the stairs? 41. She works with a newspaper. 42.?The suits on Wall Street walked off with most of our savings. 43. The Oval Office was busy in work. 44.?The library has been very helpful to the students this morning. 45.?Learn how to use your eyes properly! 46. The restaurant has been acting quite rude lately. 47. The Pentagon will be revealing the decision later on in the morning. 48.?The cup is quite tasty. 49. If we do not fill out the forms properly, the suits will be after us shortly. 50. The White House will be announcing the decision around noon today. 51. We must wait to hear from the crown until we make any further decisions. Broadening and Narrowing of MeaningSometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change in the range of meaning. For example, the verb to arrive (French borrowing) comes from English and had the narrow meaning “to come to shore, to land”. In modern English it has greatly widened and developed the general meaning “to come”. Here we come across broadening or generalization of meaning. The meaning developed through transference based on contiguity, but the range of the second meaning is much broader. In such cases the meaning of a word becomes more general in the course of time. The transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is most frequent, e.?g. ready (a derivative from the verb ridan - ride) meant “prepared for a ride”, now its meaning is “prepared for anything”. Journey was borrowed from French with the meaning “one day trip”, now it means “a trip of any duration”. All auxiliary verbs are cases of generalization of their lexical meaning because they developed a grammatical meaning: have, be, do, shall, will when used as auxiliary verbs are devoid of their lexical meaning which they have when used as notional verbs or modal verbs, e.?g. cf. I have a new car and I have bought a new car. In the first sentence the verb have has the meaning “possess”, in the second sentence it has no lexical meaning, its grammatical meaning is to form Present Perfect.Narrowing (or specialization) of meaning is a process contrary to broadening. It is a gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication, e.?g. case has a general meaning “circumstances in which a person or a thing is”. It is specialized in its meaning when used in law (a law suit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a noun), in medicine (a patient, an illness). The difference between these meanings can be revealed from the context. The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage. It occurs in the case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when one of them specializes in its meaning to remain in the language, e.?g. the English verb starve was specialized in its meaning after the Scandinavian verb die was borrowed into English. Die became the general verb with this meaning because in English there were the noun death and the adjective dead. The meaning of starve was “to die of hunger”. The next way of specialization is the formation of Proper names from common nouns, it is often used in toponimics, e.?g. the City – the business part of London, Oxford – university town in England, the Tower – originally a fortress and palace, later – a prison, now – a museum.It is interesting to trace the history of the word girl. In the Middle English it had the next meaning of ‘a small child of either sex’. Then the word underwent the process of transference based on contiguity and gained the meaning of ‘a small child of the female sex’, so that the range of meaning was narrowed. In its further semantic development the word gradually broadened its range of meaning. At first it came to denote not only a female child but, also, a young unmarried woman, later, only young woman, so that its range of meaning is quite broad. Some more examples:deer → any beast → a certain kind of beast;meat → any food → a certain food product;voyage → any trip or journey → a journey by sea or water.In all these words the second meaning developed through transference based on contiguity, and when we speak of them as examples of narrowing of meaning we imply that the range of the second meaning is more narrow than that of the original meaning.Exercise 6. Comment on the narrowing or broadening of meaning.1. a) Occasionally pheasants, quail, game fowl and turkeys can be infected. b) Neither fish, flesh, nor fowl. 2.?a)?On its own, being a decent person is no guarantee that you will act well, which brings us back to the one protection we have against demagogues, tricksters, and the madness of crowds, and our surest guide through the uncertain shoals of life: clear and reasoned thinking. b) “Ask that demagogue of a Marius if he is not the slave of that little tyrant of a Cosette”. 3.?a) Calliand was a lucky accident. b)?While witnesses have told of chaotic scenes immediately after the accident, motorists knew instinctively to leave the tunnel. 4. a)?Cool jazz, as a major style began to splinter into several other styles during the 1950’s. b) Even though they were old, she thought they were pretty cool. 5. a) Dogs use each of the same senses to communicate, but selective breeding has altered the standard forms of wolf communication. b) Canis familiaris, also known as “dog,” is essentially a domesticated wolf. Elevation and DegradationElevation is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time, e.?g. knight originally meant “a boy”, then “a young servant”, then “a military servant”, then “a noble man”. Now it is a title of nobility given to outstanding people; marshal originally meant “a horse man” now it is the highest military rank etc. Degradation is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time. It is usually connected with nouns that denote common people, e.?g. villain originally meant “working on a villa” now it means “a scoundrel”. Hyperbole and LitoteHyperbole is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration, e.?g. to hate (doing something), (not to see somebody) for ages. Hyperbole is often used to form phraseological units, e.?g. to make a mountain out of a molehill, to split hairs, etc. Litote is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker expresses affirmative with the negative or vica versa, e.?g. not bad, no coward, etc.Semantic Groups of WordsSynonymsSynonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects. In other words synonyms are words with the same or similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from Ancient Greek syn (σ?ν) (“with”) and onoma (νομα) (“name”). Examples of synonyms are the words begin and commence. Likewise, if we talk about a long time or an extended time, long and extended become synonyms. Synonyms can be of any part of speech (such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as long as both words are the same part of speech. Here are more examples of English synonyms: – verb buy and purchase– adjective big and large– adverb quickly and speedily– preposition on and uponNote that synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words; for instance, pupil as the “aperture in the iris of the eye” is not synonymous with student. Likewise, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died.In English, many synonyms emerged in the Middle Ages, after the Norman conquest of England. While England’s new ruling class spoke Norman French, the lower classes continued to speak Old English (Anglo-Saxon). Thus, today we have synonyms like the Norman-derived people, liberty and archer, and the Saxon-derived folk, freedom and bowman. Some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that have similar meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others (for example, a long arm is not the same as an extended arm). Synonyms are also a source of euphemisms.In contemporary research the term synonyms may be used for words with the same denotation, or the same denotative component, but differing in connotations, or connotative components. Types of Semantic ComponentsThe leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is usually termed denotative (or sometimes referential) component. The denotative component expresses the conceptual content of a word.The following list presents denotative components of some English verbs:to glare → to lookto glance → to lookto shiver → to trembleto shudder → to tremble.The definitions given in the right column only partially describe the meaning of their corresponding words. To give more or less full picture of the meaning of a word, it is necessary to include in the scheme of analysis additional semantic components which are termed connotations or connotative components. Let us give connotative components to our verbs.to glare →to looksteadily 1.Connotation of durationlastinglyin anger,2.Emotive connotationrage, etc.to glance → to lookbriefly 1.Connotation of durationpassinglyto shiver → to tremblelastingly1.Connotation of durationwith the cold2. Connotation of causeto shudder → to tremblebriefly1.Connotation of durationwith horror,2.Connotation of causedisgust, etc.3.Emotive ConnotationTypes of ConnotationsThe connotation of degree and intensity (to surprise – to astonish – to amaze).The connotation of duration (to stare – to gaze – to glance).Emotive connotation (alone – single – lonely – solitary).The evaluative connotation (well-known – famous; to produce – to create – to manufacture).The connotation of manner (to like – to admire – to love – to adore worship).The connotation of cause (to shudder – to tremble).It is easy to understand what the word really means by singling out denotative components. A meaning can have two or more connotative components.A group of synonyms is usually studied with the help of their dictionary definitions (definitional analysis). The data from various dictionaries are analyzed comparatively. After that the definitions are subjected to transformational operations (transformational analysis). In this way, the semantic components of each analyzed word are signed out.Here are the results of the definitional and transformational analysis of some synonyms for the verb to look.To stare:to look + steadily, lastingly + in surprise, curiosity, etc.To glare:to look + steadily, lastingly + in anger, rage, fury.To gaze:to look + steadily, lastingly + in tenderness, admiration.To glance:to look + briefly, in passing.To peep:to look+ steadily, lastingly + by stealth, through an opening or from a conceded location.The common denotation shows that the words are synonyms. The connotative components highlight their differentiations.In modern research the criterion of interchangeability is applied. According to it, synonyms are defined as words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without considerable alteration in denotational meaning. But this theory has been much criticized. Synonyms are not, cannot and should not be interchangeable, or they would simply become useless ballast in the vocabulary.The Dominant SynonymIn every synonymic group there is a word called the dominant synonym.Ex: to shine – to gleam – to sparkle – to glitter – to glimmer – to shimmer – to flash – to blaze; fear – terror – horror.The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to the manner, intensity, duration, etc. Its meaning which is broad and generalized, covers the meaning of the rest of the synonyms. Here, the idea of interchangeability comes into its own. But such substitution would mean a loss of the additional information.Types of SynonymsAcademician Vinogradov has established the only existing classification system for synonyms.There are 3 types of synonyms:ideographic synonyms are words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of meaning, e.?g. fast – rapid – swift – quick, etc.;stylistic synonyms differ in stylistic characteristics, e.?g. to begin (neutral) – to commence (bookish) – to start (neutral) – to initiate (bookish);absolute synonyms coincide in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics and, therefore, are interchangeable in all contexts, e.?g. compounding – composition; word-building – word-formation.Absolute stylistic synonyms are rare in the vocabulary. The vocabulary system tends to abolish it either by rejecting one of the absolute synonyms or by developing differentiation characteristics in one or both of them (see Table 10).Table 10 ?- Types of synonymsSynonymsideographice. g. fast – rapid – swift – quick, etcstylistice. g. to begin (neutral) –to commence (bookish) –to start (neutral) –to initiate (bookish)absolutee. g. compounding – composition; word-building – word-formationSources of Synonymy Synonymy has its characteristic patterns in each language. Its peculiar feature in English is the contrast between simple native words stylistically neutral, literary words borrowed from French and learned words of Greco-Latin origin. This results in a sort of stylistically conditioned triple “keyboard” that can be illustrated by the following:Native English wordsWords borrowed from FrenchWords borrowed from Latinteachingguidanceinstructionto riseto mountto ascendto endto finishto completeemptydevoidvacuousto gatherto assembleto collectbellystomachabdomento askto questionto interrogateThe important things to remember is that it is not only borrowings from foreign languages but other sources as well that have made increasing contributions to the stock of English synonyms. There are, for instance, words that come from dialects, and, in the last hundred years, from American English in particular. As a result speakers of British English may make use of both elements of the following pairs, the first element in each pair coming from the USA: gimmick :: trick; dues :: subscription; long distance (telephone) call :: trunk call; radio :: wireless. There are also synonyms that originate in numerous dialects as, for instance, clover :: shamrock; liquor :: whiskey (from Irish); girl :: lass, lassie or charm :: glamour (from Scottish).Exercise 7. Pick out synonyms from the sentences below. Comment on their shades of meaning and stylistic reference. 1. Miss Elphistone was white and pale. 2. He is continuously tense and worried, easily upset, and constantly haunted by future calamities or future errors. 3. It can cause only sad and tragic kind of entertainment. 4. Soldiers began to fire and shoot with all guns they had. 5. We were hungry so he suddenly became so unselfish and generous. 6. Due to aliens’ gas it was too hazardous and dangerous to stay outdoors. 7.?Welcome to the new wave of fear. If you were scared before, you’ll be terrified now. 8. She must have been a foolish, dull woman, or else very inexperienced. 9. “I’ll give him ‘go out’!” he shouted like an insane, crazy thing. 10. They said good-day, and all departed together. 11. It is not only your skill and dexterity that fascinates me. 12. Her cleanliness and purity had reacted upon him. 13. Nothing upsets me more than being hungry; I snarl and snap and burst into tears. 14. It was a shark attack, clear and simple. 15. I don’t believe she took their curses and graces any more seriously than she took the aches and pains of characters in a novel. Exercise 8. Classify synonyms in bold type according their types.1. a) Lula was standing hand on hip, watching me spar with Connie. b) Morelli looked at me for a couple beats. 2.?a)?Ranger cut his eyes to Tank. b) Her demon eyes narrowed. 3.?a)?My life is too weird. b) Ranger is the mystery man. 4.?a)?And I didn't have a clue how to choose between them. b) Seemed like a bad idea to say something that might ratchet up the competition between them. 5.?a)?You're using Bob to lure me to your house. b) I'm surprised Morelli isn't trying to seduce me. 6. a) I crossed the lot to the large glass double doors leading to the offices. b) You are a huge problem, Stephanie. 7. a) Now, as the meeting was about to begin, Leslie turned to Amy, who was serving coffee. b)?I worked the last shift at Dave’s Dogs, and I was supposed to start shutting down a half hour before closing so I could clean up for the day crew. 8. a) Leslie Stewart was beautiful and had an IQ of 170, and nature had taken care of the rest. b) He was even more attractive in person than in his photographs. 9.?a)?One early fall evening, Oliver prepared dinner at his home, a charming house in Versailles, a small town near Lexington. b) They were a spectacular-looking couple, Oliver dark and handsome, and Leslie with her lovely face and figure and honey-blond hair. 10. a) The next few weeks were filled with frantic preparations for the wedding. b) Senator Todd Davis was without doubt Kentucky’s most influential citizen, and the story of his daughter’s marriage and of the groom’s jilting Leslie was big news. 11. a) Rita Lonergan froze for a moment, and then screamed. b) I grabbed my big black leather shoulder bag and yelled good-bye to my roomie, Rex-the-hamster. 12. a) The pay wouldn’t be great but the benefits would be pretty decent. b) I’m sure we’re all pleased that big business is doing so well and that corporate profits have never been higher. 13. a) I’d been taking a time-out from Morelli and Ranger, hoping to get a better grip on my feelings, but I wasn’t making much progress. b) “We’ve got to start some damage control,” Peter Tager was saying. 14. a) The entire factory was housed in a mammoth three-story redbrick building. b) At lunchtime, in the hotel dining room, large platters of sandwiches were placed in the centre of the table. 15.?a)?General, the Tribune would like to do some coverage on the meeting you had with the president on October fifteenth. b) Okay, I don’t actually have an interview appointment, but Karen Slobodsky works in the personnel office, and she said I should look her up if I ever wanted a job. 16.?a)?It happened at the Borgata, a restaurant in a castle-like old Italian village setting, the dinner was superb. b) Romantic plans made now will be fulfilled, excellent prospects for the future. 17.?a)?He said it’s a disaster waiting to happen. b) It was a simple, optimistic statement, with not the slightest portent of the dramatic chain of events that was about to occur. 18.?a)?Leslie’s father was a handsome man, patrician and intellectual. b) An imposing-looking man seated on the couch rose as Oliver came in. 19. a) She was an extraordinarily intelligent child. b) And what the hell is a young kid doing in an expensive suite like this? 20. a) Father asked me to talk to you, Oliver, he’s very upset. b) “Tomorrow can we climb up to the top of the monument, Daddy?” he begged. 21. a) The introductions seemed to go on forever. b) The people walking the streets behind Dana continued as though they had heard nothing. 22.?a) Dana watched him leave. b) There was no chance that the president was going to let them get away with this. 23. a) In Suite 825, the Imperial Suite, there was total silence. b) I could see absolute minimum of storage space in that garage. 24. a) It was a Filipina maid who found the dead girl’s body sprawled on the floor. b) This recently deceased girl remains an obscure figure. 25. a) As far as Oliver was concerned, it was a marriage of convenience, and he was careful to see that he did nothing to disrupt it. b) He’s trying to destroy everything I've worked for.EuphemismsMore “decent” synonymic substitutes used instead of indecent, impolite or too direct words are called euphemisms. A euphemism is a generally innocuous word, name, or phrase that replaces an offensive or suggestive one. Some euphemisms intend to amuse, while others intend to give positive appearances to negative events or even mislead entirely. Euphemisms are used for dissimulation, to refer to taboo topics (such as disability, sex, or death) in a polite way, and to mask profanity. The opposite of euphemism roughly equates to dysphemism. The word euphemism comes from the Greek word ευφημ?α (euphemia), meaning “the use of words of good omen”, which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words ‘eu’ (ευ), “good/well” + “pheme” (φ?μι) “speech/speaking”, meaning “glory, flattering speech, praise”. Etymologically, ‘the eupheme’ is the opposite of ‘the blaspheme’ (evil-speaking). The term euphemism itself was used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks, meaning “to keep a holy silence” (speaking well by not speaking at all). A euphemism also may be a substitution of a description of something or someone rather than the name, to avoid revealing secret, holy, or sacred names to the uninitiated, or to obscure the identity of the subject of a conversation from potential eavesdroppers. Some euphemisms are intended to be funny. When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms may be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas (stupid → unwise, drunk → mellow, to lie → to distort the facts, etc.), even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in public relations and politics, where it is sometimes called doublespeak. Sometimes, using euphemisms is equated to politeness. There are also superstitious euphemisms (devil → deuce, dickens), based on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune and religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some words are sacred, or that some words are spiritually imperilling. Euphemisms can also be treated within the synchronic approach, because both expressions, the euphemistic and the direct one, co-exist in the language and form a synonymic opposition. Not only English but other modern languages as well have a definite set of notions attracting euphemistic circumlocutions. These are notions of death, madness, stupidity, drunkenness, certain physiological processes, crimes and so on. For example: die :: be no more :: be gone :: lose one’s life :: breathe one’s last :: join the silent majority :: go the way of alt flesh :: pass away :: be gathered to one’s fathers.A prominent source of synonymic attraction is still furnished by interjections and swearing addressed to God. To make use of God’s name is considered sinful by the Church and yet the word, being expressive, formed the basis of many interjections. Later the word God was substituted by the phonetically similar word goodness: For goodness sake / Goodness gracious / Goodness knows! Many euphemisms fall into one or more of these categories: foreign terms, abbreviations, abstractions, indirections, mispronunciation, longer (usually Latinate) words. There is some disagreement over whether certain terms are or are not euphemisms. For example, sometimes the phrase visually impaired is labelled as a politically correct euphemism for blind. However, visual impairment can be a broader term, including, for example, people who have partial sight in one eye, a group that would be excluded by the word blind. Exercise 9. State which words are replaced by euphemisms.1. It was the name of the man who had been walking along the Oxford Canal at the time when Joanna Franks passed away – when Joanna Franks was supposedly murdered. 2.?They’re all asleep. 3. The remains of Joanna Franks were found at Duke’s Cut on the Oxford Canal at about 5.30am on Wednesday 21st June 1859. 4. Sad, however, from Morse’s point of view, was the unequivocal assertion made here that the body was still warm. 5. Do you mean he's lost his life? 6.?The protagonist, ‘the cave-man in a lounge suit’, is the maddening, irascible and fascinating Professor George Edward Challenger. 7. Shirley, would you go powder your nose? I have things to discuss with Loulie. 8. After all, losing weight by losing your lunch is never a goal. 9. She was wearing a white leotard that showed off her ample proportions. 10. Before an agency can furlough employees, it must seek approval of its plan from the State Personnel Board. 11. By comparison, private correctional facilities held only 10.2% of the total adults in 1998. 12.?First he sent Pat to a specialist to investigate why, after nine months of marriage, there was still no bun in oven. 13. It includes people who are temporarily between jobs because they are moving, etc. 14. “Are there any houses of ill repute in Foxglove?” he said. 15. At first everything was O.K. but suddenly he felt a call of nature. 16. For drinkers of more adult beverages, there is a special establishment. 17. We had a friend whose parents completely furnished their house with stuff that fell off the back of the track. 18. The dog was bad, so veterinarian had to put her to sleep. 19. Two pirates had bitten the dust. 20. There are also concerns that present policies are not only ineffective but create collateral damage. HomonymsModern English is exceptionally rich in homonymous words and word-forms. It is held that languages where short words abound have more homonyms than those where longer words are prevalent. Therefore it is sometimes suggested that abundance of homonyms in Modern English is to be accounted for by the monosyllabic structure of the commonly used English words.Two or more words identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling but different in meaning, distribution and origin are called homonyms. The term is derived from Greek “homonymous” (homos – “the same” and onoma – “name”) and thus expresses the sameness of name combined with the difference in meaning. The state of being a homonym is called homonymy.Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms and he pointed out three groups: perfect homonyms, homographs and homophones:1. Perfect homonyms (or homonyms proper) which are identical both in sound and spelling, e.?g. back n “part of the body” – back adv “away from the front” – back v “go back”; ball n “a gathering of people for dancing” – ball n “round object used in games”; bark n “the noise made by dog” – bark v “to utter sharp explosive cries” – bark n “the skin of a tree”.2. Homographs which are identical in spelling but different in sound, e.?g. bow [bou] – bow [bau]; lead [li:d] – lead [led]; sewer [‘soue] – sewer [sjue]; tear [tie] – tear [tee]; wind [wind] – wind [waind] and many more.3. Homophones which are identical in sound but different in spelling, e.?g. arms – alms; buy – by; him – hymn; knight – night; piece – peace; rain – reign; scent – cent; steel – steal; write – right and many others. These words are a very common source of confusion when writing. Common examples of sets of homophones include: to, too, and two; they're and their; bee and be; sun and son; which and witch; plain and plan; key and quay; sow and sew, etc. (see Table 11).Table 11 ?- Homonyms according to their spelling and sound formsHomonymshomophonese. g.arms – alms;buy – by;him – hymn;knight – night;not – knothomographse. g. bow [bou] – bow [bau];lead [li:d] –lead [led];row [rou] –row [rau]perfect (or proper)e. g: back n “part of the body” – back adv “away from the front” – back v “go back”Another classification was suggested by Professor A.?I.?Smirnitskiy. He added to Skeat’s classification one more criterion: grammatical meaning. He subdivided the group of perfect homonyms in Skeat’s classification into two types of homonyms: perfect which are identical in their spelling, pronunciation and their grammar form, and homoforms which coincide in their spelling and pronunciation but have different grammatical meaning. Professor A. I. Smirnitskiy classified homonyms into two large classes: 1) full homonyms, 2) partial homonyms:1) full homonyms are words, which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm, e.?g. wren n. (a member of the Women’s Royal Naval Service) – wren n. (a bird).2) partial homonyms are subdivided into three subgroups:a) simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words, which belong to the same category of parts of speech. Their paradigms have only one identical form, but it is never the same form, e.?g. (to) found v. – found v. (past indef., past part. of to find), (to) lay v. – lay v. (past indef. of to lie).b) complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech, which have identical form in their paradigms, e.?g. rose n. – rose v. (past indef. of to rise), maid n. – made v. (past indef., past part. of to make). c) partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms, e.?g. to lie (lay, lain) v. – to lie (lied, lied) v., to hang (hung, hung) v. – to hang (hanged, hanged) v. (see Table 12).Table 12 ?- Homonyms according to professor Smirnitskiy's classificationHomonyms partial homonymspartial lexical homonymse. g. to lie (lay, lain) v. – to lie (lied, lied) v.,to hang (hung, hung) v. – to hang (hanged, hanged) plex lexico-grammatical partial homonymse. g. rose n. – rose v. (past indef. of to rise), maid n – made v (past indef.,past participle of to make)simple lexico-grammatical partial homonymse. g. (to) found v. –found v. (past indef.,past participle of to find)full homonymse. g. wren n.(a member of the Women’s Royal Naval Service) – wren n. (a bird)Homonyms may be classified by the type of their meaning. In this case one should distinguish between:Lexical homonyms which belong to the same part of speech, e.?g. plane n. (л?так) – plain n. (р?внина), light a. (св?тлий) – light a. (легкий).Grammatical homonyms which belong to different parts of speech, e.?g. row v. (гребти) – row n.(ряд), weather n. (погода) – whether conj. (чи).Homoforms which are identical only in some paradigm constituents, e.?g. scent n. – sent (Past Ind. and Past Part. of send), seize v. – sees (Pr. Ind., 3d p. sing. of see).From the viewpoint of their origin, homonyms are divided into etymological and historical.Etymological homonyms are words of different origin. Their formal coincidence is the result of various factors: phonetical changes in native and borrowed words, changes in spelling, etc. E.?g. M. E. base ? (п?длий) L. basis > O. E. base?> M. E. base II (основа, п?двалина); O. E. mal > M. E. mole ? (родимка); O. E. mol > M. E. molle > M. E. mole II (кр?т).Historical homonyms are those which result from disintegration (split) of polysemy. At present there is not any connection between their meanings, though they can be traced back to the same etymological source, e.?g. nail (н?готь) :: nail (цвях) < O.E. naeg(e)l; beam (пром?нь) :: beam (балка, бантина) < O.E. beam.Sources of HomonymsPhonetic changes which words undergo in the course of historical development. Two or more words which were formerly pronounced differently may develop identical sound forms.Night and knight were not homonyms in Old English as the initial k was pronounced. In Old English the verb to write had the form written, and the adjective right had the form reht, riht.Borrowing is another source of homonyms. A borrowed word may, in the final stage of its phonetic adaptation, duplicate in form either a native word or another borrowing. So, in the group of homonyms rite, n. – to write, v. – right, adj. the second and the third words are of native origin whereas rite is a Latin borrowing. Match, n. (a game) is a native, and match, n. (a slender short piece of wood used for producing fire) is French borrowing.Word building also contributes significantly the growth of homonymy, and the most important in this respect is conversion. Such pairs of words as comb – to comb, pale – to pale are numerous in the vocabulary. Homonyms of this type refer to different categories of parts of speech, are called lexico-grammatical homonyms. Shortening is a further type of the word-building increases the number of homonyms: fan (shortened from fanatic) and fan (cf. the Ukr. в?яло, опахало, вентилятор). Words made by sound-imitation can also form pairs of homonyms with other words: bang (a loud, sudden noise) – bang (cf. the Ukr. чуб). In all the mentioned cases the homonyms developed from two or more different words, and their similarity is purely accidental.Another source: two or more homonyms can originate from different meanings of the same word when, for some reason, the semantic structure of the word breaks into several parts. This type of formation is called split polysemy. Let us consider the history of three homonyms:board, n. – a long and thin piece of timber;board, n. – daily meals, esp. as provided for pay, e.?g. room and board;board, n. – an official group of persons who direct some activity, e.?g. a board of directors.These three words are in no way associated with one another. Yet board has a meaning “table”. It developed from the meaning “a piece of timber” by transference based on contiguity (association of an object and the material from which it is made). The meanings “meals” and “an official group of persons” develop from the meaning “table” also by transference based on contiguity. It was meaning ‘table’ which served as a link to hold together all the parts.Exercise 10. Classify the words in bold type into homophones, homographs and homonyms proper.1. a) It’s made out of wood. b) “The skaters would normally perform their stunts and tricks there,” May explains. 2. a) “A half – pipe can be dangerous. Skateboarders wear protective gear,” May points out. b) “Staying safe is important,” Buzz agrees. “Now where is my notebook?” 3.?a)?“Good luck!” Buzz tells May. “Go take the lead in this competition!” b) “I feel nervous”, May says. “My legs feel as if they are made of lead”. 4. “May I sail with you in May?” 5.?Mouse: Deer, I’m very glad to have such dear friends. 6.?But he’s unable to see that Oscar prefers his presence to his presents once in a while. 7. a) It’s my birthday present to him. b) “I can fill in,” Ollie says. “I’d be happy to present the Big Air Jam, with Buzz”. 8.?a) “Dad, buy me a ball!” b) “Bye, Osc, I’m in a hurry,” answered Mark and hung on. 9. a) “What a nice scent, Nicky! Hilary Duff “With love?” asked Ally. b)?“Ughmn. My father sent it to me last Christmas,” said Nicky climbing the ladder. 10. a) I’d like to go to the sea. b) “I think it’s amazing to see the autumn sunset,” said Carolyn a bit enigmatically. 11. a) Hermione slammed her Arithmancy book down on the table so hard that bits of meat and carrot flew everywhere. b) It was of a very handsome young man called Dorian Gray and when Lord Henry saw it, he wanted to meet this young man. 12. a) If I had known that you were ill I would have gone to see you. b) They entered it in one of its lowest points, and drove for some time through a beautiful wood, stretching over a wide extent. 13. a) But they won fair and square, even Wood admits it. b) I took one last look out at the statue. 14. a) It was the worst I have ever seen. b) The whole scene was almost too perfect to disturb. 15. a) I may thank you, Eliza, for this piece of civility. b)?They infest the darkest, filthiest places, they glory in decay and despair, they drain peace, hope and happiness out of the air around them. 16.?a)?She couldn’t come to the party, which was a pity. b) If the one-eyed witch was boarded up too, he would never be able to go into Hogsmeade again. 17. a) The journey to King’s Cross was very uneventful compared to Harry’s trip on the Knight Bus. b) Last Wednesday night, there were over a thousand fans at Cardiff University Great Hall to see Coldplay. 18.?a)?What would you do if somebody gave you a lot of money? b) “Though it is difficult,” said Jane, “to guess in what way he can mean to make us the atonement he thinks our due, the wish is certainly to his credit.” 19. a) And with his arm around my waist, guiding me into my third-row seat, I was reminded that the nice man attended the gym very regularly. b)?“This is such a waste of time,” Hermione hissed. 20.?a)?I have a high respect for your nerves. b) “Hi,” I said, accepting his kiss on the cheek and feeling distinctly underdressed in a little Splendid T-shirt dress and Havaianas. 21. a) He is going to fall into the hole. b) ‘And with Alex?’ Jenny asked, signalling the waitress and ordering more or less the whole dessert menu. c) For a hole in your roof or a whole new roof. 22.?a)?“Well, you know that old motorbike that Mick had for years?” b) “No,” he shook his head, smiling. 23. a) Our boat survived and I was trying to recover when my elder brother put mouth close to my ear, and screamed out the horrifying word ‘Whirlpool!’ b) He did look at it and into it for half an hour, was pleased with what the owner said in its praise, and took it immediately. 24. Do you see the letter 'c' written in sea salt? 25.?a)?Nazan picked up me and stroked my tail. b) That is the beginning of my tale. 26. a) He sees America as a crazy house. b)?The final issue deals with the right to seize the item. 27. A much more terrible sight awaited one at the site of the accident. 28.?a)?Suffice to say I’d never hammered a nail before in my life, and Alberta knew it. b) My nails skewed at odd angles or bounced free and took flight. 29. We must polish the Polish furniture. 30. The glory and the beauty of new days will always leave me in a heady daze! 31. a) “Face your partners!” called Lockhart, back on the platform. “And bow!” b) As he passed the door to the living room, Harry caught a glimpse of Uncle Vernon and Dudley in bow ties and dinner jackets. 32. a)?“You're wrong,” he said aloud to the still and silent hat. b) But they are the most dangerous creatures that ever lived because there is nothing they will not do if allowed, and nothing they will not be allowed to do. 33. a) Firstly, there is a joint-stock piano in a great many of the boarding-houses. b) In every little chamber that I entered, and at every grate through which I looked, I seemed to see the same appalling countenance. 34. a) Commissions in the service are distributed on the same principle. b) The principal medical attendant resides under the same roof; and were the patients members of his own family, they could not be better cared for, or attended with greater gentleness and consideration. 35. a) Ron went as red as Ginny. b) “Lizzy, when you first read that letter, I am sure you could not treat the matter as you do now.” 36. a) The ladies were somewhat more fortunate, for they had the advantage of ascertaining from an upper window that he wore a blue coat, and rode a black horse. b) He was digging here, one summer day, very industriously, when the wicket in the outer gate chanced to be left open: showing, beyond, the well-remembered dusty road and sunburnt fields. 37.?a)?Restlessly, without thinking she began to lift objects with her mind and put them back down, the way a nervous woman awaiting someone in a restaurant will fold and unfold her napkin. b) I wake, of course, when we get under weigh, for there is a good deal of noise. 38. a) Our road wound through the pleasant valley of the Susquehanna; the river, dotted with innumerable green islands, lay upon our right; and on the left, a steep ascent, craggy with broken rock, and dark with fir trees. b) The tip of Dumbledore's long, crooked nose was barely an inch from Mrs. Norris's fur. 39.?a)?They passed a group of gloomy nuns, a ragged man wearing chains, and the Fat Friar, a cheerful Hufflepuff ghost, who was talking to a knight with an arrow sticking out of his forehead. b) Four Hi-Presh-A Smart Suits moved slowly out of the open hatchway of the salvage craft and waded through the barrage of its lights toward the monstrous shape that loomed darkly out of the sea night. 40.?a)?A ring at the doorbell sounded loudly. b) That golden ring with diamond was very expensive but Robert bought it for Betty. 41. a) A good rest was just necessary for him, because of his being terribly tired. b) Two of the attackers were killed, and the rest escaped. 42. a) The plane was just a dot on the horizon. b) Her beauty was the valuable dot from nature. 43.?May one give us peace in all our States. And the other – a piece for all our plates. 44. See shadows of a ghost ship lost at sea.Exercise 11. Read the following jokes and say on what linguistic phenomenon they are based. 1. – Is life worth living?– It depends upon the liver. 2. – How much is my milk bill? – Excuse me, Madam, but my name is John.3. A tailor guaranties to give his customers the perfect fit. 4. – Why is it so wet in England? – Because many kings and queens have reigned there. 5. – Where do you find giant snails?– On the ends of giants' fingers. 6. – Waiter, what is this?– It’s bean soup, sir.– Never mind what it has been. I want to know what it is now.7. – I got sick last night eating eggs.– Too bad.– No, only one.8. – I spent last summer in a very pretty city in Switzerland.– Berne ?– No, I almost froze.9. – Officer (to driver in parked car): Don’t you see this sign “Fine for parking”? – Driver: Yes, officer, I see and agree with it.10. – Boyfriend: What is your favourite music group?– Girlfriend: I love U2.– Boyfriend: I love you too, but what is your favourite music group? 11. A woman goes to the doctor complaining of water on the knee. “What should I do?” she asks. “Wear pumps” replies her doctor.12. “Mine is a long tale!” said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing. “It is a long tail, certainly.”13. “Of course it is,” said the Duchess, who seemed ready to agree to everything that Alice said: “there's a large mustard-mine near here. And the moral of that is – 'The more there is of mine, the less there is of yours.”14. “You can make doors, windows, and blinds?” “Oh, yes sir!” “How would you make a Venetian blind?”The man scratched his head and thought deeply for a few seconds. “I should think, sir,” he said finally, “the best way would be to punch him in the eye.” Exercise 12. Provide homonyms for some words. Classify homonyms according to prof. Smirnitskiy’s classification system.1. Teacher: Here is a map. Who can show us America?Nick goes to the map and finds America on it.Teacher: Now, tell me who found America?2. Father: I promised you to buy a car if you passed your exam, and you have failed. What were you doing last term? Son: I was learning to drive a car.3. a) When I started to strike a match for a light, he stopped me. b) He is not a man to lose the match without your knowing that he has tried and tried everything not to lose.4. I was arrested at the airport. Just because I was greeting my cousin Jack! All that I said was "Hi Jack", but very loud. 5. a) The sun rose and the children ran into the garden. b) He stands before a rose in bloom; the rose we see is an expression of its inner spirit, a shadow, a representation of spirit in material form.6. They were too close to the door to close it.7. "Then the words don't fit you," said the King looking round the court with a smile. There was a dead silence. Exercise 13. Comment on homoforms in bold type. Compare their initial forms.1. a) They lay their suitcases just on the table, that irritates this old man. b) She lay in the comfortable bed. 2.?a)?Caroline found the real miracle among yellowed letters. b) It wasn’t easy for Justin to found such great company. 3.?a)?They bound Bob’s arms and legs with rope. b) All children bound in the yard every day, but not she. Monica is unusual child. 4. a) “Jack slew him!” b) These lazy guys just always slew around in their chairs. 5. a) The lymphatic liquid discharged from John’s bad wound. b) Daniel wound his watch and put it on his wrist. 6. a) That tender rose was for her the red star on the stalk. b) They rose into the spacious bedroom. 7. a) Shelly was a kitchen maid in one of the most prestigious hotels of Manchester. b) She in really made him happy. 8. a) “Is that your car?” “No, mine is parked over the road.” b)?The ship struck a mine and sank. 9. a) Just the thought of more food made her feel sick. b) He thought all that time only about Mary. 10. a) Bridget made a dramatic entrance into the room. b)?The wonderful flowers entrance all people who live in that region. 11. a) He wedged the door open with a bit of wood. b) The dog bit him and made his hand bleed. 12. a) She held out her left hand. b) Frances left work early to meet her mother.13. a) They had one daughter. b) He won the Tour de France last year. 14. a) “Don't lie in the sun for too long”- the little Nett heard from her mother when she went to the river. b) They lie everything. You are the best girl in the world. 15. a) They can hang him for murder. b) He wanted to hang the picture in the hall. 16. a) The police are doing all they can to find her. b) They just can people in that ideas. 17. I will love you always... and I'll love you in all ways. 18. The bandage was wound around the wound. 19.?a)?My uncle works at the electric plant. b) Mom sent me to buy a tomato plant. 20. a) The cat looked through the wooden blind. b) Helen Keller was both deaf and blind. 21. a) You need flour, sugar and eggs to make a cake. b)?A daisy is a beautiful flower. 22. a) We read a fairy tale in Library. b) A rabbit has a fluffy tail. 23. My niece could see Grease both in Greece and in Nice. 24. a) I know the answer. b) There is no more water in the jug. 25. a) There is a big hole on my shirt. b)?Kelvin ate the whole pineapple all by himself. 26.?a)?Today’s weather is fine. b) I am buying the car whether you like it or not. 27. a) I would love to have a piece of cake. b) The communities live together in peace. 28. a) Which colour do you like, green or blue? b) Snowwhite’s stepmother was a witch. 29. The sale on red apples at the fair seemed really fair because they were only 25 cent. 30. a) Fishermen fish for rainbow trout from the bank of the lake. b) The bank held my money for withdrawing and depositing.Exercise 14. Classify homonyms according to prof. Smirnitskiy’s classification system into a) full lexical homonyms, b)?simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms, c) complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms, d) partial lexical homonyms.1. a) I saw a football and it was a perfect match. b)?Please, give me a match. 2. a) He is to found a huge corporation. b) He found other people's documents at the bus stop. 3. a) These lipsticks rose her lips. b) Level of the economy rose to a maximum. 4. a) This girl is a very serious person because she is a wren (a member of the Women’s Royal Naval Service). b) A wren is a very beautiful bird. 5. a) I usually can tomatoes with my mother in August. b) I can go there but I do not want. 6. a) His cottage is located on the opposite bank. b) I went to the bank to withdraw money from their own account. 7. a) I lay on the sofa at home. b) She always lies to her parents. 8. a) The left column is the interference with traffic. b) I left my university when I went abroad. 9. a) A ball is a sphere or any spherical body. b) I went to the ball to France. 10. a) Yesterday I left my book at home. b)?This store is left of me. 11. A bass was painted on the head of a bass drum. 12. After many years they found the place where they will found a new town. 13. If you're going to lie to me, you will lie under the ground. 14. The insurance was invalid for the invalid. 15. The soldier decided to desert his desert in the desert. 16. "But they were in the well," Alice said to the Dormouse, not choosing to notice this last remark. "Of course they were," said the Dormouse: "well in". 17. How can I intimate this to my most intimate friend? 18. The driver turned left and left the main road. 19. a) The dog gave me a loud bark. b) The tree bark was oozing sap. 20. a) I beat everyone in the race. b) That song has a fast beat. 21. a) The fly was bussing around the food. b) I don’t like to fly in a helicopter. 22. A lean cat could lean on a skunk! 23. Why don't we toast with a toast? 24. A bear can bear very cold temperatures. 25.?a) She wears a sparkly ring. b) Do you hear those bells ring? 26.?Looking through the window, I saw an enormous saw on sale at the hardware store. 27. a) I rose up from my seat to sharpen my rose coloured pencil. b) I picked up a rose from my garden for mother’s day. 28. a) I tear my paper because it sounds bad when you hear it. b) My eyes tear when I see my report card. 29. a) The well started to flood because too much water came in. b) “Well done, Max. You finished your math homework.” 30. a) The fan broke down so I didn’t know how to cool myself. b) I am a fan of Owl City, a one man band whose new song “Firefly” is really great.Paronyms There are several meanings of the word paronym. The term paronym comes from the Greek para “beside” and onoma “name”. Paronyms are the words that are kindred in origin, sound form and meaning and therefore liable to be mixed but in fact different in meaning and usage and therefore only mistakenly interchanged.Paronym is a word similar to another in sound; the partial coincidence in outward form occurs simply by chance and is not conditioned by semantic or word-formation processes. Some scholars regard as paronyms words with the same root that are similar in structure or sound and are the same part of speech or have common grammatical features. But the definition that shows up most often is that “paronyms are words pronounced alike, but have different meanings”, or in other words, words that have the same root. Another word for paronym is cognate. This is the case with the adjectives ingenious and ingenuous. The first of these means “clever” and may be used both of man and of his inventions and doings, e. g. an ingenious craftsman, an ingenious device. Ingenuous means “frank”, “artless”, as an ingenuous smile.The likeness may be accidental as in the verbs affect and effect. The first means “to influence”, the second – “to produce”. These come from different Latin verbs. The similarity may be also due to a common source. It is etymologically justified in alternate “succeeding each other” and alternative “providing a choice”, or consequent “resulting” and consequential “important”, or continuance “an uninterrupted succession” and continuation which has two distinct meanings “beginning again” and “sequel” as the continuation of a novel. Paronyms can be categorized in several ways. There are two different types of paronyms: those that look like they’re related and those that don’t. Coming from the same root doesn’t mean that words came into English at the same time or in the same way. So, while paronyms beauty and beauteous share the first five letters, paronyms dubious and doubtful look far less alike, though they both have the letters d, u, and b in the first syllable.Another way to categorize paronyms is by whether or not they sound alike. Paronyms may be differentiated by having different prefixes or suffixes and added word syllables can change stress and other elements of pronunciation. Paronyms beauty and beautiful sound identical for the first syllable. Paronyms legal and legislate sound quite different, with the pronunciation of both ‘e’ and ‘g’ changing when the suffix is applied, even though the spelling of the first three letters is identical.A third way to categorize paronyms is the ones that are words in the same language and the ones include words in more than one language. English, with words from so many languages, also has paronyms with many different languages, although Spanish, French, and German are three that often are referred to.Exercise 15. Deduce the meanings of the paronyms. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. 1. a) In Sites of Historical Sorcery the inn was the headquarters for the 1612 goblin rebellion, and the Shrieking shack’s supposed to be the most severely haunted building in Britain. b)?Bakewell is a historic town in Derbyshire. 2. a) The great secret of a successful marriage is to treat all disasters as incidents and none of the incidents as disasters. b) About half of all cases of breast cancer occur in women over the age of 65, and its incidence rises with increasing age. 3. a) The lawyer's indiscreet remarks to the media provoked an angry response from the judge. b) The indiscrete nucleus does not have a nuclear membrane and is therefore not separate from the cytoplasm. 4. a) To read of a detective's daring finesse or ingenious stratagem is a rare joy. b) She was enchanted by his ingenuous expression and frank blue eyes. 5. a) It is only because miners sweat their guts out that superior persons can remain superior. b) We are just an advanced breed of monkeys on a minor planet of a very average star. 6. a) One sees great things from the valley, only small things from the peak. b) A recession begins just after the economy reaches a peak of activity and ends as the economy reaches its trough. 7. a) The Quidditch team scheduled an extra practice session for Thursday. b) Auckland has a warm climate, with fertile farmland and seas that teem with fish. 8. a) ‘Does the order still own that cloister on the road to Cardos?’ she asked. b) Let us deal with the specific issues that have been raised when we cluster items. 9. a) She is your bride. b) This is my last chance; I had to bribe a helicab to get me here. 10. a) She, Scarlett O’Hara was lying behind a negro cabin, in the midst of ruins, too sick and too weak to move, and no one in the world knew or cared. b) Further properties of thick spaces are given in the following lemma. 11. a) It tasted as grape juice but not as sweet. b) A trickle of sweat rolled down her brow. 12. a) I am not such a bear, you know, as you think. b) Why didn’t he just buy lots of milk and beer and keep it in the refrigerator? 13.?a)?So different from me. b) Making contact with you is quite difficult. 14. a) I can feel your heart, you know. b) If a company requests approval prices then it is necessary to fill in those forms and send by e-mail to EMI (or send on CD). 15.?a)?“What, is it you?” said Candide, “you live?” b) She would just as soon leave him, but that wouldn’t be wise. 16.?a)?The trouble with you, kid, is you just don’t give a damn. Really. b) Will this spell doom for developing countries? 17.?a)?It would not be politic to ignore them. b) Health care has become a major political issue in recent years. 18. a) An inhumane dictator tortured and murdered thousands of his own people. b) She had an almost inhuman desire to succeed. 19.?a)?We've received credible information about the group's location. b) Few people are credulous enough to believe such nonsense.AntonymsAntonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style, expressing contrary or contradictory notions. Also antonyms may be defined as two or more words of the same language belonging to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and often used together so that their denotative meanings render contradictory or contrary notions. Antonyms are also called opposites. For example: good – bad, badly, badness, evil, evilness, ill, malevolent, malicious, poorly, wicked.It is more or less universally recognized that among the cases that are traditionally described as antonyms there are at least the following three groups.1.Contradictories which represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs like dead and alive, single and married, perfect and imperfect, etc. To use one of the terms is to contradict the other and to use not before one of them is to make it semantically equivalent to the other, cf. not dead=alive, not single=married.2.Contraries differ from contradictories mainly because contradictories admit of no possibility between them. One is either single or married, either dead or alive, etc. whereas contraries admit such possibilities. This may be observed in cold – hot and cool and warm which seem to be intermediate members. Thus we may regard as antonyms not only cold and hot but also cold and warm. Contrary antonyms are also mutually opposed but they are gradable, e. g. old and young are the most distant elements of a series like: old : middle-aged : young.3. Incompatibles. Semantic relations of incompatibility exist among the antonyms with the common component of meaning and may be described as the reverse of hyponymy, i.?e. as the relations of exclusion but not of contradiction. To say morning is to say not afternoon, not evening, and not night. The negation of one member of this set however does not imply semantic equivalence with the other but excludes the possibility of the other words of this set. A relation of incompatibility may be observed between colour terms since the choice of red, e.?g., entails the exclusion of black, blue, yellow and so on. Naturally not all colour terms are incompatible. Semantic relations between scarlet and red are those of hyponymy.V.?N.?Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two groups: absolute or root antonyms and derivational antonyms (see Table 12). 1. Absolute (root) antonyms (those which have different root), e.?g. long – short, up – down, to start – to finish, etc.Derivational (affixal) antonyms (in which special affixes or their absence express semantic opposition). The presence or absence of negative affixes creates derivational antonyms e.?g. hopeful – hopeless, happy – unhappy, appear – disappear, etc.Table 12 ?- Classification of antonyms according to V.?N.?ComissarovAntonymsderivational (affixal)e.?g. hopeful – hopeless; happy – unhappyabsolute or roote.?g. long – short;up – downBy the nature of the relationship between the opposed meanings we can figure out three categories of antonyms:1. A gradable antonym is one of a pair of words with opposite meanings where the two meanings lie on a continuous spectrum. For example: young, old; early, late; empty, full; dull, interesting.2. A complementary antonym is one of a pair of words with opposite meanings, where the two meanings do not lie on a continuous spectrum, e.?g. dead, alive; off, on; day, night; exit, entrance; exhale, inhale; occupied, vacant; identical, different. Leonard Lipka in the book “Outline of English Lexicology” describes complementarity in the following way: the denial of the one implies the assertion of the other, and vice versa. John is not married implies that John is single. The type of oppositeness is based on yes/no decision.3. The third group includes converses, expressing reciprocity. The pairs above/below, before/after, precede/follow, buy/sell, and lend/borrow exemplify this category. Converses are sometimes called relational opposites. They all express relationships between two (or more) people or things. Take, for instance, the pair buy/sell: Brian sold the car to Michael and Michael bought the car from Brian. Both indicate that a particular transaction has taken place. But the first sentence highlights Brian's role in the proceedings, while the second focuses on Michael. Converseness is mirror-image relations. A relational antonym is one of a pair of words with opposite meanings, where opposite makes sense only in the context of the relationship between the two meanings: come/go, teach/learn, husband/wife, doctor/patient, predator/prey, servant/master, parent/child, before/after, etc.L. Lipka also gives the type which he calls directional opposition up/down, consequence opposition learn/know, antipodal opposition North/South, East/West. L. Lipka also points out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets. Here he points out serially ordered sets, such as scales: hot, warm, tepid, cool, cold; colour words: black, grey, white; ranks: marshal, general, colonel, major, captain, etc. There are gradable examination marks: excellent, good, average, fair, poor. He also points out cycles, such as units of time: spring, summer, autumn, winter.Polysemantic words usually have antonyms for each of their lexico-semantic variants: a dull knife – a sharp knife, a dull boy – a bright boy, etc. Exercise 16. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Classify the words in bold type. 1. “Flash Wiggins makes scoring look easy,” Harold tells Cassy. “But beating the goalie is difficult”. 2. “Krupp and Smythe worked together to even the score,” Harold adds. “Nothing can tear them apart!” 3. “You can help me make this rough ice smooth again!” says the driver. 4. Father Bear “I’m Father Bear and I sit in this great big chair.” Baby Bear “I’m Baby Bear and I sit in that little chair”. 5. “Ah, but sometimes it is more courageous to do the right thing, than rebel and do the wrong thing, you know,” she said softly, meeting my eye. 6.?He blushed and suddenly paled from nerves at the situation he was in. 7. “Oh no, Nicky! For you it’s hard, but for me…it’s very easy. I have known him for ages”. 8.?“And then we couldn’t sleep in the spacious room after being promised. But I suppose, it will be better to sleep in narrow rooms”. 9.?Anne had a young, brighter face and more delicate features than the others; Marilla saw at her and felt herself old enough to change her life. 10. “I can; and A-n-n looks dreadful, but A – n – n - e looks so much more distinguished, but call me Cordelia! It looks wonderful!” 11. A marvellously written novel... rich with both ordinary and extraordinary realities. 12.?This sparky debut novel... Enthralling from the first page, this bittersweet fusion of fairy-tales and nightmares is sugared by nostalgia and salted with sadness. 13.?If speaking is silver, then listening is gold (Turkish proverb). 14.?Parents must teach their children the difference between the good and the bad. 15. Nothing as difficult as a beginning, in poetry, unless perhaps the end. 16. The series is based on the lives of group of people who are either married, single or "other", other being defined as in a relationship. 17. The writer should seek his reward in the pleasure of his work and in release from the burden of his thought; and indifferent to aught else, cares nothing for praise or censure, failure or success. 18. Nixon seemed an awkward and unsure debater, while Kennedy came across as a confident leader. 19. When people call this beast to mind, they marvel more and more at such a little tail behind so large a trunk before. 20. It presents both totally ordinary characters and some extremely odd ones, and ranges in scope from epic megamovies to private cell phone films on microbudgets. 21. We discussed the rights and wrongs of genetic cloning. 22. Cold and exhaustion were beginning to drain his strength and he knew the children were suffering. 23.?For Jason Locke a promise given is promise kept. 24. I had many reasons, both selfish and unselfish, for not giving the unnecessary openings. 25.?My only love sprang from me only hate. Too early seen unknown, and known too late! 26.?The storm disappeared as suddenly as it had appeared. 27.?The marchers included black and white Americans, young and old. 28.?Critics and supporters alike hailed his acceptance speech as the “speech of his life”. 29. The poster said that the robbers were wanted dead or alive. 30. He inhaled deeply and exhaled slowly, trying to relax. 31. In the summer of 1988, the Republican and Democratic parties each choose their candidate for President. 32. Supporters of the Vietnam War were known as hawks, while opponents were called doves. 33.?Kennedy wanted Congress to pass laws to help the poor in city slums and in rural areas. 34. Employment is a relationship between two parties, usually based on a contract, one being the employer and the other being the employee.Functional Semantic ClassesSide by side with classifying words into lexico-grammatical classes known as parts of speech, modern scholars make attempts to work out the classification of words into functional semantic classes. Here it is limited to considering two functional semantic classes which can be clearly distinguished: those of qualifiers and responsives. Qualifiers (Degree Modifiers)Qualifiers (degree modifiers) are words used for qualifying properties, states, etc. as to the degree of their manifestation. The degree modifiers are adverbs that normally modify and emphasize gradable words and answer the question “How?”, “How far?”, “To what degree?”, “How much?” Qualifiers provide readers with specific details. In other words, they change how absolute or generalized a sentence can be. For instance, ‘this sum is very large’ or ‘this sum is a great deal bigger than I expected’, where the words ‘very’ and ‘great deal’ are the qualifiers. Qualifiers are used only with adjectives and adverbs preceding them to indicate the degree to which these gradable words apply. More specifically, they derive from a group of words called adverbs of degree, also known as degree adverbs. However, when used grammatically as degree modifiers, these words cease to be degree adverbs, because they no longer quantify the idea they modify. Instead, they emphasize it emotionally.Qualifiers are subdivided into three groups:intensifiers;moderators;limiters.Intensifiers are degree words used to emphasize the high degree of gradable adjectives and adverbs (very, too, extremely, more, much, so, ever, most, really, utterly, exactly, all too, a little too, a lot, even, far, etc.).Moderators are degree words used to emphasize the moderate degree of gradable adjectives and adverbs (almost, rather, quite, kind of, enough, half, equally, mildly, somewhat, reasonably, etc.).Limiters are degree words used to emphasize the low degree of gradable adjectives and adverbs (a little, a bit, hardly, faintly, scarcely, slightly, less, least, etc.).One should bear in mind that degree modifiers are adverbs which lack the primary characteristic of adverbs: the ability to modify verbs. They modify exclusively adjectives and adverbs.Exercise 17. Arrange the qualifiers in bold type according to the degree of intensity. 1. Hindsight, our cruelest and most astute adviser, so easily illuminates our errors of judgment, and yet in the middle of life one seizes upon things that seem to mean so much. 2. I saw Nathan sitting there nursing a bleeding elbow, tears in his eyes, the temptation to touch it growing ever stronger as he looked. 3. “The war is over, right?” he said, and smiled half-heartedly. 4. He clutched his face, couldn’t see a thing, and I let go with the most almighty kick to his balls. 5. I had never believed myself to be anything other than honest, straight as a die, implacable almost in my attention to those things that were right and just and equitable. 6. There was blackness behind my eyelids, black and deep enough to swallow me. 7.?People change a little every day, and sometimes you can meet someone down the road and they are utterly different from the person you thought they were…but then sometimes it’s you who has changed, and they stay exactly the same, and now you merely see them from a different point of view. 8.?.And then suddenly, all too suddenly, she was gone, breezing past me with her grace, her beauty, the scent of something autumnal from her hair. 9. Hands big enough to floor Marty Hooper, sensitive enough to fold an origami bird in Benny’s Soda Shop. 10. Nathan came down a little later. I said nothing. 11. I was talking, rambling a little… I remember I was tired, really tired. 12. Perhaps Maurice’s mind was patterned with equally vivid images, contrasts which had made him a Socialist and which, even now, kept him one despite the knowledge, which surely he shared, that his creed would merely transfer the Lagonda to an owner equally. 13. The door to the front room was slightly open, and peering through the gap between the edge of the door and the frame I could see movement on the floor behind the chair. 14. The careful handwriting, the official-looking, very clean paper and the red margin gave the manuscript the look of an affidavit or of an examination script. 15. She held me a little too long for this just to be the excitement of a chance meeting. 16. Now she and her mother became mildly addicted to the risible awfulness of a family drama series in which the characters apparently physically and mentally unscathed by the traumas of the last episode… 17. He knew with absolute certainty that the girl was too young to be her sister and unlikely to be her niece, that this was Mary Ducton’s daughter. 18.?Harris spoke quite kindly and sensibly about it. 19. It was easier to find her, a lot easier than I thought. 20. “When a man asks himself what is meant by action, he proves that he isn’t a man of action. Action is a lack of balance. In order to act you must be somewhat insane. A reasonably sensible man is satisfied with thinking”. 21.?He didn’t know whether to feel angry he’d been cheated of the kill, or sympathetic because we had encountered what appeared to be a far worse fate. 22. Her face is very close to mine: her warm breath brushes my skin. 23. “I suppose his life hasn’t been exactly easy,” I say. 24. Alice did try to paint after that, and it bored her so much she was quite alarmed. 25. He felt extremely possessive about it as well as being conscious. 26.?Still, she wasn’t daft enough to believe it would keep a man content in the long run. 27. One is spare and dark, with a cynical face, the other is rather broad-shouldered, with graying hair. 28. So in a curious state of being at once both exhilarated and quite calm. 29. When he’s almost finished his second serving, he picks up the bowl. 30. The one who has the kind of skin that peels in the sun. 31. Alice played the piano reasonably well. 32. He shakes his head slightly, as though denying that this is kindness at all. 33. After a little while, Margot came and tried to cry. 34. The little house in which Cora lived was hardly bigger than pantry. 35. She had scarcely dismounted before the door swung open.Exercise 18. Pick out all qualifiers and arrange them according to the degree of intensity. 1. The entire defence was extremely well marshalled and few attackers got through to fire off a shot. 2. His performance in the final against West Germany was equally assured, by a rasping shot from Haller after a mistake by Wilson and a late equalizer that appeared to be helped along by a German hand before finding its way into net. 3. Probably the most instantly recognizable player on the planet, David trained with Spurs as a youngster but set his heart on signing for MU. 4. Real have overtaken MU as the most popular club side in the world, even if achievements on it still leave a lot to be desired. 5. The most charismatic player ever to grace a football field, George Best was the player who had it all and seemingly threw it all away. 6. Although no doubt traumatized by the experience, Bobby picked up the pieces of his career almost immediately, collecting his first full cap for England the month after the disaster. 7. All that was to change with the acquisition of Di Stefano in 1953, perhaps the player who became most responsible for the elevation to becoming the biggest in the world. 8. Real was able to buy the player for $70,000, a very small price to pay for the glories Alfredo was bring. 9. No matter who was in charge of Real, the one thing they could never replace or repeat was the ability of Alfredo Di Stefano, a player many consider at least the equal of Pele in his prime. 10.?His legend and status enough to earn him a standing ovation more than thirty years after he left the stage he most certainly graced. 11. That match had seen Tom play at right wing, a position that had been the almost exclusive preserve of Stan Matthews. 12. One of the most talented of player on the field, Garrincha established an equally formidable reputation of it. 13. I had a really bad feeling. Thinking ahead to whatever hell brought the chief out of his comfy home in Oakland on a Saturday. 14. I went after him – but I lost him. It really hit me then. 15. Their somewhat absolutely lack-lustre performance in Switzerland had the media and public alike calling for changes to the side and Garrincha was handed an international debut in 1954. 16. This was the start of the 4-4-2 line-up that was to so enthral the world with Garrincha linking especially well with Pele. 17. Yet despite this, he was largely ignored and forgotten when he retired. 18. It is very rare in the modern game to have a striker as a captain, but Thierries awareness of what is happening in all areas of the field made him an ideal candidate. 19.?Kevin Keegan may not have been the most naturally gifted player. 20. He settled in almost immediately at the club and, although they were unable to topple Real from the top of the league. 21. Spurs were desperately trying to sell both key players. 22. Like many of his peers, Maradona found it extremely difficult to make the transition from player to coach. Responsives (Interjections)The categorical features of responsives are as follows: their non-nominating character, the communicative function of response to the interlocutor’s utterance or a certain situation, invariability and semantic intonational arrangement. The bulk of the functional semantic class of responsives is constituted by interjections (ah!, oh!, alas!, etc.). However, this class includes a lot of words which descended from other parts of speech (my!, boy!, hell!, swell!, come!, rubbish! etc.). The interjection is a part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them. According to their meaning, interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative ones. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. They are: ah, oh, eh, uuuhhh, bravo, alas, huh, hell, my God, okay, Jesus, etc. Imperative interjections show the will of the speaker, his order or appeal to the hearer. They are: here, hush, sh-sh, ssshhh, well, come, hey, now, etc.Interjections may be also primary and secondary. Primary interjections are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are simple words: ah, oh, eh, ooh, pooh, fie, bravo, hush, okay, hey, ow, uuuhhh, etc. Only a few interjections are composite: heigh-ho!, hei-ho!, holla-ho!, gee-ho!, uh huh, etc. Secondary interjections are derived from other parts of speech. They are homonymous with the words they are derived from. They are simple or composite: well, now, so, here, there, come, why, hell, Christ, gosh, Jesus Christ, my God, trailer trash, Goddamn, oh god, etc.Interjections are used as independent sentence-words or independent elements of the sentence. One should also bear in mind that formulas of courtesy, greetings, etc. should not be regarded as interjections. Thus, good-bye, thank you are not interjections because they do not express emotion or will.Exercise 19. Comment on the responsives in bold type. State to what parts of speech some of them can be traced back. 1. Ah, to hell with what’s right and what’s not. You want something, you take it baby. 2. “Ssshhh,” he whispered. “Quiet now…don’t you want to be wasting what little breath you have left there, Daniel”. 3. Whaddaya figure huh? Ain’t some folk prejudiced or what? 4. “Hell, Danny, take it easy,” Linny told me. 5. “Don’t bite!” she hollered. “Ow, ow, ow…” 6.?“Okay,” I said. “So I’m standing here in the room and I hear someone screaming who I think is Linny Goldbourne”. 7.?“Got your date eh?” West went on. 8. My knees were weak, my insides churning, and I anticipated the sound of his voice, the Hey you! That would come any second. 9. Christ, Linny, he’s my friend. 10. Hey, Danny, hold up there! 11. “My God, Nathan,” she shouted. “When did you get back?” 12. “Okay, just tell me what happened with Nathan and you after Linny came back”. 13. Get up, go to work, mow and lawn, read the paper… Jesus, could you imagine having a life like that? 14.?“Ooh, ooh, Danny, that hurt,” I replied. 15. “Danny?” – “Uh huh?” – “Tell me,” Father John repeated. 16. Hell, you know what, guys? A couple of heavies came down and saw me at Eve Chantry’s place. 17. And then he said it too. “Nigger! Damned nigger!” 18. “Trailer trash,” Nathan went on. 19. I could hear myself crying, and then making that sound once more…Uuuhhh… 20. Hell, it was Christmas Eve. We relaxed; we had a drink and a smoke. 21. When I opened my eyes I could see his half-lit face right there above me through the bars. “Jesus Christ!” I started. 22. I thought this was it. This was the moment I die. This is when it goes really ugly and they kick the living crap out of me, and Oh Lord Jesus Christ Almighty, Mary Mother of God… 23. I felt a sound escaping from my lips. Uuuhhh… 24. “So?” he prompted, and I leaned back and looked at him, feeling strangely awkward. 25.…when she said Well thank you, Frank, and thank you to all our listeners today. It certainly has been a day of revelation, hasn’t it? 26. Goddamn. He said Goddamn. So unlike Nathan. 27.?Oh God, oh God, oh God…not like this…not like this…any other way than this. 28. “Wow!” said Gary, impressed. 29. “Oh! Don’t be stupid, Neil,” Alice said more brutally than she intended. 30. “Bloody hell! Richard said spitefully. 31. “Jesus!” I was wrong. 32. “Sh-sh,”she said. She came over and took his hand. PART 6. ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGYPhraseology is a branch of linguistics which studies different types of set expressions. If synonyms may be figuratively referred to as the tints and colours of the vocabulary, then phraseology is a kind of picture gallery, in which are collected bright and amusing sketches of the nation’s customs, traditions, recollections of its past history, folk songs, fairy tales, quotations from the great poets, crude slang witticisms, etc. Phraseology is not only the most colourful, but probably the most democratic area of vocabulary and it drowses its resources mostly from the very depths of popular speech.Phraseological unit is a word group with a fixed lexical composition and grammatical structure; its meaning, which is familiar to native speakers of the given language, is generally figurative and cannot be derived from the meanings of the phraseological unit’s component parts. The meanings of phraseological units are the result of the given language’s historical development. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. In modern linguistics there is considerable confusion about the terminology associated with these word-groups. Along with the term “phraseological unit” generally accepted in our country there exist a lot of other terms, such as: set phrases, set-expressions, fixed word-groups, collocations, word equivalents, idioms. Differences in terminology reflect certain differences in the main criteria used to distinguish between free word-groups and a specific type of linguistic units generally known as phraseology. Phraseological units are habitually defined as non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units. The term “set-phrase” implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups. The term “idioms” generally implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity or lack of motivation. An idiom (Latin: idioma, “special property”, f. Greek: δ?ωμα – idiōma, “special feature, special phrasing”) is a combination of words that has a figurative meaning owing to its common usage. An idiom's figurative meaning is separate from the literal meaning. There are thousands of idioms and they occur frequently in all languages. There are estimated to be at least twenty-five thousand idiomatic expressions in the English language.Thus, an idiom is a phrase that has a meaning of its own that cannot be understood from the meanings of its individual words. Here are examples of idioms: to be fed up with means “to be tired and annoyed with something that has been happening for too long”; to rub someone the wrong way means “to irritate someone”; by the skin of your teeth means that something was successful, but only just barely. She passed the test by the skin of her teeth means she almost didn’t pass. I can't keep my head above water – to keep one's head above water means to manage a situation. The term “idioms” habitually used by English and American linguists is very often treated as synonymous with the term phraseological unit. The essential features of phraseological units are stability of the lexical components and lack of motivation. Unlike components of free word-groups which may vary according to the needs of communication, member-words of phraseological units are always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations.Thus, for example, the constituent red in the free word-group red flower may, if necessary, be substituted for by any other adjective denoting colour (blue, white, etc.), without essentially changing the denotational meaning of the word-group under discussion (a flower of a certain colour). In the phraseological unit red tape (bureaucratic methods) no such substitution is possible, as a change of the adjective would involve a complete change in the meaning of the whole group. A blue (black, white, etc.) tape would mean “a tape of a certain colour”. It follows that the phraseological unit red tape is semantically non-motivated, i.?e. its meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components and that it exists as a ready-made linguistic unit which does not allow of any variability of its lexical components.Grammatical structure of phraseological units is to a certain extent also stable. Thus, though the structural formula of the word-groups red flower and red tape is identical (A + N), the noun flower may be used in the plural (red flowers), whereas no such change is possible in the phraseological unit red tape; red tapes would then denote “tapes of red colour” but not “bureaucratic methods”.Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.Ways of Forming Phraseological UnitsA.?V.?Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units. Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group: a) Most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.?g. in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases: launching pad in its terminological meaning is “стартова площадка”, in its transferred meaning – “пункт в?дправки”, to link up – “стикуватися, стикувати косм?чн? корабл?” in its tranformed meaning it means – “знайомитися”; b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transforming their meaning, e.?g. granny farm – “панс?онат для престар?лих”, Troyan horse – “комп'ютерна програма, навмисно складена для пошкодження комп'ютера”; c) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration, e.?g. a sad sack – “нещасний випадок”, culture vulture – “людина, що ц?кавиться мистецтвом”, fudge and nudge – “ухильн?сть”; d) they can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic for forming interjections, e.?g. My aunt!, Hear, hear! etc.; e) they can be formed by means of distorting a word group, e.?g. odds and ends was formed from “odd ends”; f)?they can be formed by using archaisms, e.?g. in brown study means “in gloomy meditation” where both components preserve their archaic meanings; g) they can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.?g. that cock won’t fight can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting ), it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically; h)?they can be formed when we use some unreal image, e.?g. to have butterflies in the stomach – “хвилюватися”, to have green fingers – “процв?тати як сад?вник-любитель”, etc. i)?they can be formed by using expressions of writers or polititions in everyday life, e.?g. corridors of power (Snow), American dream (Alby), the winds of change (Mc Millan).Semantic Classification of Phraseological UnitsPhraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by academician V.?V.?Vinogradov. He developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally and gave a strong impetus to a purely lexicological treatment of the material. It means that phraseological units were defined as lexical complexes with specific semantic features and classified accordingly. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit that is the relationship between the meaning of the whole and the meanings of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression that is with the possibility of changing the form or the order of components and of substituting the whole by a single word though not in all the cases.According to Vinogradov’s classification all phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations. Other scientists enlarge this classification and say that basing on the semantic principle English phraseological units fall into the following classes: fusions; half-fusions; unities; half-unities; phraseological collocations; phraseological expressions. Phraseological fusion is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit which meaning is never influenced by the meanings of its components. It means that phraseological fusions represent the highest stage of blending together. Sometimes phraseological fusions are called idioms under which linguists understand a complete loss of the inner form. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties, e.?g. once in a blue moon (“very seldom”), a white elephant (“a present one can’t get rid of”), cried for the moon (“to demand unreal”), etc. Half – fusions are stable word-groups in which the leading component is literal while the rest of the group is idiomatically fused, e.?g. to buy smth for a song (“to buy smth very cheaply”), to talk through one’s hat (“to talk foolishly”), to pay through the nose (“to pay unreasonably much”), etc.Unities – metaphorically motivated idioms, e.?g. to make a mountain out of a molehill (“to become excited about trifles”), to play second fiddle (“to have a lower or less important position”), to wash one's dirty linen in public (“to tell people about one’s hidden sins and faults”), a snake in the grass (“a person with harmful intentions”; “a hidden enemy”), etc.Half-unities – binary word-groups in which one of the components is literal, while the other is phraseological bound (the so-termed phrasemes), e.?g. black frost (“frost without ice or snow”), small talk (“polite talk about unimportant things”), a tall story (“a lie”), Dutch courage (“courage of a drunk”), husband's tea (“very weak tea”), to talk turkey (“to talk plainly and honestly about practical matters”), etc.Phraseological collocations (standardized phrases) – word-groups with the components whose combinative power (valency) is strictly limited, e.?g. to make friends (but not ‘to do friend’ or ‘to make comrades’), to bear a grudge, to break silence, to make sure, to take into account, unconditional surrender, ways and means, now and then, etc. Phraseological collocation is a construction or an expression in which every word has absolutely clear independent meaning while one of the components has a bound meaningPhraseological expressions – proverbs, sayings and aphoristic familiar quotations, e.?g. Birds of a feather flock together (= Рибак рибака п?зна? здалека); Still water runs deep(= Тиха вода греблю рве); No pains no gains (= Без труда нема плода); Something is rotten in the state of Denmark (= Не все гаразд у Датському корол?вств?); Brevity is the soul of wit (= Стисл?сть – основа дотепност?) (W.?Shakespeare); Fools rush in where angels fear to tread (= дурням закон не писаний) (A. Pope), etc. (see Table 13).Table 13 ?- Semantic classification of phraseological unitsPhraseological unitshalf-unitiese. g. black frost, small talkphraseological collocationse. g. to make friends, to bear a grudgephraseological expressionse. g. Birds of a feather flock together; Still water runs deephalf – fusionse. g. to buy smth for a song, to talk through one’s hatfusionse. g. once in a blue moon, a white elephantunitiese. g. to play second fiddle,a snake in the grassExercise 1. Group the phraseological units in bold type according to their classification based on the semantic principle. Comment on them.1. Regan can build a castle in the air, but he didn’t believe her. 2. I don’t want to hear all the whys and wherefores-just get it finished properly this time. 3. He wasn’t sick, he just was up to the ears in love, and that is why he couldn’t eat. 4. But I laughed and said, “Don’t worry, Professor, I am not pulling her ladyship’s leg. I wouldn’t do such a thing. I have too much respect for that charming limb. 5.?My sister lives in Alaska, so I only get to see her once in a blue moon. 6. I know Sir John will go, he was sure it wouldn’t rain Cats and Dogs. 7. No one else wanted it, so I picked it up for a song. I could buy this house for a song, because it’s so ugly. 8. Meanwhile a pretty kettle of fish was preparing for Mr. Noon. He smelled nothing of it for some days. 9. Finally, we asked him to lay his cards on the table and tell us about his plans. 10. Of course I can lift him. He’s light as a feather. 11.?Lewis was watching Fifteen to one in the rec room and as usual you could hear a pin drop. 12. Let’s talk over the arrangement with the others before we make a decision. 13. It would certainly make a sensation second to none, and Mr. Rachel dearly love to make a sensation. 14. I can stop when make up my mind to it, although it’s difficult. 15. Now and again Jane had qualms about the fact that if she had not done for little Kate everything? 16. “What he thinks has taken the place of the ivory tower?” “Abstraction?” She shook her head. 17. She flew off the handle when she heard it. 18. Jake and Max made a bargain with their sponsor and they were going to have a cup of coffee. 19.?Please, don’t worry about it; she just got out of bed on the wrong side. 20. He could make nothing of it. 21. “Kate, please, go and make sure she’s all right”, said he emotionally. 22. David was finding it hard to keep his eyes off Sophie. 23. I did my best and I thought I was following your instructions. 24. Annie grimaced as Sophie and Jake locked eyes. Eat your heart out, Love Boat. 25.?Annie was watering the flowers as a phone call broke the silence in the room. 26. “Of course I’ll help you”, he replied. “Two heads are better than one”. 27. I’m going to burst into tears. 28. Mrs. Rachel prided herself on always speaking her mind. 29.?Jake lived to the best of his abilities and didn’t want to leave this place. 30. I always knew I could trust her completely – which became more and more important as time went by and my stature in Hollywood grew. 31. That is except to do some cooking every now and then. 32. They pull out all the stops. 33. I’m going to look them over, see if I can make head or tail of them. 34. Over the years she had taken a back seat to Georgio, always had. 35. Every now and then she would come over and take my temperature. 36.?I can only say that Philip is a cool cat. 37. Bird in Hand Is Worth Two in the Bush. This philosophical statement, of course, is centuries old, but I’d just like to repeat it again to emphasize its importance. 38. I kept my eyes fixed on this terrible infant. 39.?Sometimes, breaking the law seems less harmful than obeying the law. 40. Tommy, now casting his eyes over the children and nodding towards Nardy. 41. ‘Mind what I told you. Behave yourself’. 42. I know that isn't a very optimistic observation of humans, but remember, every cloud has a silver lining. 43. The filth will come out of the woodwork now. 44. Clifford Malin just tried to commit suicide. 45.?Every penny we have in the bank was earned fair and square. 46. Thought Georgio had it built for next to nothing ten years before. 47. Wise man says: An apple a day keeps the doctor away – if aimed right. 48. A rolling stone gathers no moss that's what the majority say and that danged old stone keeps rolling going on its’ merry way. 49. Georgio stood his ground, refusing to be intimidated. 50. Lady Exner said that it was time off.Classification of Phraseological Units Based on the Structural PrincipleIt is obvious that Academician V.?V.?Vinogradov’s classification system does not take into account the structural characteristics of phraseological units. On the other hand, the border-line separating unities from fusions are vague and even subjective. One and the same phraseological unit may appear motivated to one person (and therefore be labelled as a unity) and demotivated to another (and be regarded as a fusion). The more profound one’s command of the language and one’s knowledge of its history are the fewer fusions one is likely to discover in it.Prof. A.?I.?Smirnitskiy worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes. Among one-top units he points out three structural types: a) units of the type to give up (verb + postposition type), e.?g. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, etc.; b) units of the type to be tired. Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions “by” or “with”, e.?g. to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at, etc.; c)?prepositional-nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.?g. on the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of, etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.?g. tomorrow, instead, etc. Among two-top units A.?I.?Smirnitskiy points out the following structural types: a)?attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.?g. high road, in other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.?g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.?g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, etc.; b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.?g. to read between the lines, to speak BBC, to sweep under the carpet, etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.?g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.?g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.?g. to burn one’s boats, to vote with one’s feet, to take to the cleaners’, etc.; c) phraseological repetitions, such as: now or never, part and parcel, etc. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.?g. ups and downs, back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.?g. cakes and ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic, e.?g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter (perfectly). Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound words), e.?g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock, stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own sweet will.Syntactical Classification of Phraseological UnitsPhraseological units can be clasified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.?V.?Arnold. In the traditional structural approach, the following principal groups of phraseological units are distinguishable (see Table 14).Table 14 ?- Syntactical classification of phraseological unitsPhraseological unitsverbale.?g. to talk through one's hat, to get (win) the upper handsubstantivee.?g. dog's life, white lieadjectivale.?g. high and mighty, spick and spanadverbiale.?g. like a dream, to the bitter endinterjectionale.?g. my God! By George!prepositionale.?g. in the course of, on the stroke of1) Verbal denoting an action, a state, a feeling: to run for one's (dear) life, to get (win) the upper hand, to talk through one's hat, to make a song and dance about something, to sit pretty (Amer. sl.), to be on the beam;2) Substantive denoting an object, a person, a living being: dog's life, cat-and-dog life, calf love, white lie, tall order, birds of a feather, birds of passage, red tape, brown study, Green Berets;3) Adjectival denoting a quality: high and mighty, spick and span, brand new, safe and sound, (as) cool as a cucumber, (as) nervous as a cat, (as) weak as a kitten, (as) good as gold (usu. spoken about children), (as) pretty as a picture, as large as life, (as) drunk as an owl (sl.), (as) mad as a hatter/a hare in March;4) Adverbial: in cold blood; to the bitter end; by a long chalk; like a dog with two tails; like a dream; with a bump.5) Interjectional: my God/by Jove! By George! Goodness gracious! Good Heavens' sakes alive!6) Prepositional: in the course of, on the stroke of.In I.?V.?Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quatations, e.?g. The sky is the limit, What makes him tick, I am easy. Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.?g. Too many cooks spoil the broth, while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical, e.?g. Where there is a will there is a way.Exercise 2. Group the phraseological units in bold type according to the classification based on the structural principle. Comment on them.1. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort. 2. I’ll make no bones about it: I don't like your attitude to work. 3. He’s reasonable and tries to meet his co-workers halfway, when possible. 4. The bottom line is, she didn’t have enough money. 5. They are true friends. It’s as plain as the nose on your face. 6. Stop crying and complaining! You have to pull yourself together now. 7. The speeding car almost hit the man. That was really a close call. 8. The blonde woman seemed to know Roscoe. But she disappeared as if by magic. 9.?God forbid! I won’t hold her anymore! 10.?Remember what a wet blanket he was last time? Please don’t invite him again. 11.?The new evidence turned the tide, and the defendant was acquitted of charges. 12. Oh my God! You’re so beautiful! 13.?I feel myself so depressed. Don’t want to live with a heavy heart. 14. He said a stupid thing and tried to save face by saying he misunderstood me. 15. He knows the ins and outs of this business. 16. I want to speak with you as with man – head to head, face to face. Are you ready to this? 17. His remarks rub many co-workers the wrong way. 18. This question is an apple of discord in our family. 19. He shook his head… Good heavens! Nearly hundred, thousand. 20. It was just a slip of the tongue! 21. There were two brothers, as like as two peas in a pod. 22. Chris and Sara always live a cat and dog life. I don’t remember them without any scandal. 23. Brad examined all the facts closely; he doesn't just scratch the surface. 24. Why does she keep all those things she never uses? – Marcella is a pack rat. 25. They’re a married couple. It’s as sure as eggs are eggs. 26. In the current economic climate, survival is the name of the game. 27. I won’t believe in this! Caroline will do this only when pigs fly. 28. Their second son is the black sheep of the family, he is good for nothing. 29. I hated living in London. I started getting itchy feet. 30. She wanted it all, the whole ball of wax. She wanted the company for herself. 31.?As quickly as possible we cleaned the fish and placed them in coolers. 32.?Marge, you're as pretty as Princess Leia and as smart as Yoda. 33.?Foolishness! Your dog is not smarter than my dog! 34. It was empty, but a door stood as black as night at the other end. 35.?Brad and his mother didn't see eye to eye any longer. 36.?Cheshire Cat drunk as a lord, beginning with the end of its tail. 37. By George, they’re coming back to me!!! 38. Devil is not as black as he is painted. 39. He looked at me again… Goodness gracious! You look so… smart. 40. There was a sound of heavy footsteps, then he became fierce as a tiger. 41.?Sakes alive! I see you had a crazy night. 42. This was a cunning as fox gentleman, with a shock of hair prematurely white, and a boisterous and decided manner. 43. I’m going to look through them, see if I can make head or tail of them. 44.?Georgio will be much happier finding out the state of play from the horse’s mouth. 45. If I don’t finish those houses then I’m afraid my business will go to the wall. 46. I think we were both at sixes and sevens today. 47. But he did call Robert “the most determined person” he had ever known. To another reporter he said proudly, “Bobby’s as hard as nails”. 48.?Why can’t you come back to Bellomont this evening? We’re all alone, and Judy is as cross as two sticks. 49. I haven’t a worry and haven’t a care. I feel like a feather floating on air. I am fit as a fiddle and ready to go. 50. “It’s nothing”, Charlie muttered. “Give me a brandy and I’ll be as right as a trivet in a moment of two”. 51. Mr. Winter has lost his head over horse races; he makes bets and loses a lot of money. 52.?He was admired for being fair and square in all his dealings.53.?Aunt Hermione has taken a fancy to antique furniture. 54. And what was she now but George’s wife—no, George’s grass widow at this moment, and this moment was her whole life in microcosm and Dominic’s mother? 55.?Georgiana likes being praised; it is music to her ears. 56. I know that you want to leave immediately, but please hold your horses. 57. She was too high and mighty to make her own bed. 58. That was as busy as a bee during wedding preparations, and she wasn’t ready to accept such terrible news. 59. Don't ride the high horse and get rid of those clothes. 60. She was dressed from head to toe in red. 61. I'll pass this course by hook or by crook. 62. It's time to take the bull by the horns and get this job done. 63. When they asked for volunteers, he raised his hand like a shot. 64. Can we drop the subject now?’ Hat grimaced. 65. Our university needs several million dollars for its building renovation project; $50,000 is a mere drop in the bucket. 66. “Can Sam stay overnight, Mish?” Hat asked. “Goodness gracious, most certainly not!” her friend replied. “What would your parents say?” 67. We were talking politely and carefully with the teacher about a class party, but John came in like a bull in a china shop and his rough talk made the teacher say no. 68.?“My goodness,” Gina exclaimed when she saw her son covered with mud from head to foot. 69. Bob was looking over his notes for English class and in a flash he knew what he would write his paper about. 70. I have been working like a horse to finish everything before the deadline. 71. The right to host the Olympic Games is an apple of discord between the two countries. 72. As the crow flies, it is about six kilometres between my house and my office. 73. Good heavens, what are you doing? 74. John dropped a brick when he called her by his ex-wife's name.Exercise 3. Pick out the phraseological units and group them according to the structural principle. Comment on them.1. I burnt the candle at both ends when I was young, and now I’m suffering from the numerous illnesses. 2. David passed all the exams with flying colours and got a golden medal on leaving school. 3. Meeting with all my classmates was as flowers in the May since we haven’t seen each other for 10 years. 4. Helen felt like she was fleeced of her money, a damn feeling. 5. He had to cycle home in the rain and came in looking like a drowned rat. 6. You tried to use me as a cat’s paw to pull chestnuts out of the fire for Stanley Rider. 7.?She thanked him from the bottom of her heart. 8. The foreign student in our group seemed to be queer as a three-dollar bill at first, but then we got accustomed to each other. 9. When they both were fourteen, we thought we feel the greatest infatuation in the world, but soon they understood it was just a puppy love. 10.?Oh my eye! is the shop of Charlie Devon , designer and creator of the original Spool Sewing bird pattern and mobile which was featured in Philadelphia. 11. There's no doubt that he's interested in her. It's as plain as the nose on your face. 12.?His tongue-in-cheek compliment concerning my evening dress made me embarrassed. 13. God damn it! She really loves him. 14. It'll all work out in the course of time. 15. The issue of nuclear weapons isn't as black and white as it used to be. 16.?She is a real sitting duck! How could she let the pickpocket steal all her belongings! 17. A pretty kettle of fish. Where I'll end, I can't say. 18. Good God! So it is not surprising that there were no good treatment. 19. The years of animosity between two groupings finished by a severe kangaroo court. 20. You want me to apologize? Like hell I will!Like words phraseological units can be related as synonyms, e. g. to back the wrong house – to hunt the wrong hare – to get the boot on the wrong foot; before the ink is dry – in a twinkle of an eye – before one can say Jack Robinson; like a shot – in half a trice, etc. Phraseological synonyms often belong to different stylistic layers.Phraseological synonyms should not be mixed up with variants of а phraseological unit, to add fuel to the fire – to add fuel to fire – to add oil to fire – to add fuel to the flame, etc.; God knows – goodness knows – Heaven knows – the Lord knows, etc.; not worth a bean – not worth a brass farthing – not worth a button – not worth a pin – not worth a rap – not worth a straw, etc.Occasional phraseological variants may be formed due to authors’ actualizing the potential (literary) meanings of their components. Cf. a skeleton in the family cupboard: We were peeping into the family cupboard and having a look at the good old skeleton (P.G. Wodehouse).Phraseological antonyms are of two main types: they may either differ in a single component (to do one’s best – to do one’s worst; up to date – out of date; to look black – to look bright, etc.) or have different sets of components (to draw the first breath – to breathe one’s last; to take a circuit – to make a bee-line; to talk to the dozen – to keep mum, etc.).ProverbsA proverb (from Latin: proverbium) is a simple and concrete saying, popularly known and repeated, that expresses a truth based on common sense or the practical experience of humanity. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim.Proverbs are often borrowed from similar languages and cultures, and sometimes come down to the present through more than one language. Both the Bible (including, but not limited to the Book of Proverbs) and Medieval Latin (aided by the work of Erasmus) have played a considerable role in distributing proverbs across Europe. Mieder has concluded that cultures that treat the Bible as their "major spiritual book contain between three hundred and five hundred proverbs that stem from the Bible." However, almost every culture has examples of its own unique proverbs.The study of proverbs is called paremiology (from Greek παροιμ?α – paroimía, “proverb, maxim, saw”) and can be dated back as far as Aristotle. Paremiography, on the other hand, is the collection of proverbs. A prominent proverb scholar in the United States is. Wolfgang Mieder He has written or edited over 50 books on the subject, edits the journal Proverbium, has written innumerable articles on proverbs, and is very widely cited by other proverb scholars. Mieder defines the term proverb as follows: A proverb is a short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorisable form and which is handed down from generation to generation. Examples: Haste makes waste. Those who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. We never know the value of water till the well is dry. These examples show that proverbs are different from phraseological units. Phraseological units are a kind of ready-made blocks which fit into the structure of a sentence performing a certain syntactical function.Ex.: George liked her for she never put on air (predicate).Proverbs are sentences and so cannot be used in the way in which phraseological units are used.If we compare proverbs and phraseological units in the semantic aspect, the difference becomes more obvious. Proverbs could be compared with fables for they sum up the collective experience of the community. A proverb is a short popular saying that moralizes, gives warning, gives advice about how people should behave or that expresses a belief that is generally thought to be true. Here are some examples: If you sing before breakfast, you will cry before night. Don’t cry over spilled milk. Those who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. A stitch in time saves nine.No phraseological unit ever does any of these things. They do not stand for whole statements as proverbs do but for a single concept. Their function in speech is purely nominative (they denote an object, an act, etc.). The function of proverbs in speech is communicative (they impart certain information).The question of whether or not proverbs should be regarded as a subtype of phraseological units is controversial one. Professor Koonin labels them communicative phraseological units. Like idioms, proverbs often have a meaning that is greater than the meaning of the individual words put together, but in a different way than idioms. The literal meaning of an idiom usually doesn’t make sense, and idioms can be almost impossible to understand unless you have learned or heard them before.?The literal meaning of a proverb such as “Don’t cry over spilled milk” does makes sense on its own, but it’s not until you apply this meaning to a broader set of situations that you understand the real point of the proverb. For example, “Don’t cry over spilled milk” means “Don’t get upset over something that has already been done. It’s too late to worry about it now, just get on with your life.”However, people will often quote only a fraction of a proverb to invoke an entire proverb, e. g. "All is fair" instead of "All is fair in love and war", and "A rolling stone" for "A rolling stone gathers no moss."Grammatical Structure of ProverbsProverbs in various languages are found with a wide variety of grammatical structures. In English, for example, we find the following structures (in addition to others):Imperative, negative – Don't beat a dead horse. Imperative, positive – Look before you leap.Parallel phrases – Garbage in, garbage out. Rhetorical question – Is the Pope Catholic? Declarative sentence – Birds of a feather flock together.PART 7. STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION OF ENGLISH WORDSLinguostylistics discerns the following lexico-stylistic layers of the English vocabulary: Stylistically neutral wordsLiterary-bookish wordsColloquial wordsStylistically neutral layer consists of words mostly of native origin though it also comprises fully assimilated borrowings. Such words are devoid of any emotive colouring and are used in their denotative meaning, e. g. table, street, sky, go, speak, long, easy, never, often, etc. In groups of synonyms neutral words fulfil the function of the synonymic dominant. Literary-Bookish WordsLiterary-bookish words belong to the formal style, to the formal category of communication. Literary words are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of speech. The so-termed learned words are used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts, radio and television announcements, official talks and documents, business correspondence, etc. They mark the text as belonging to this or that style of written speech, but when used in colloquial speech or in informal situations, they may create a comical effect. These words are mostly of foreign origin and have polymorphemic structure, e.?g. solitude, fascination, cordial, paternal, divergent, commence, assist, comprise, endeavour, exclude, heterogeneous, miscellaneous, hereby, thereby, herewith, wherein, etc. Literary (bookish) words are not stylistically homogeneous. Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e.?g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out various specific subgroups, namely: 1) terms or scientific words such as, e g. renaissance, genocide, teletype, etc.; 2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.?g. whilom – ‘formerly’, aught – ‘anything’, ere – ‘before’, albeit – ‘although’, fare – ‘walk’, tarry – ‘remain’, nay – ‘no’; etc.; 3)?barbarisms and foreign words, such as, e.?g., bon mot – ‘a clever or witty saying’, apropos, faux pas, bouquet, etc.; 4) neologisms such as, e.?g. teledish (“a dish-shaped aerial for receiving satellite television transmissions”), roam-a-phone (“a portable telephone”), graviphoton (“a hypothetical particle”), etc. Terms are words or nominal groups which convey specialized concepts used in science, technology, art, etc., e.?g. gerontology, phoneme, radar, knee joint, common denominator, periodic table, still life, choreography, etc.Poetic words are stylistically marked; they form a lexico-stylistic paradigm. In the 17th-18th centuries they were widely used in poetry as synonyms of neutral words. In modern poetry such a vocabulary barely exists. Poetic words are diverse; they include: a) archaic words (commix – mix); b) archaic forms (vale – valley); c) historic words (argosy – large merchant ship); d) poetic words proper (anarch, brine). Their main function is to mark the text in which they are used as poetic, thus distinguishing it from non-fiction texts. In modern poetry such words are seldom used. Their stylistic meaning gets more vivid when they are contrasted to neutral words.Archaisms are words which are no longer used in everyday speech, which have been ousted by their synonyms. Archaisms remain in the language, but they are used as stylistic devices to express solemnity. Archaisms are obsolete names for existing things, actions, phenomena, etc. All of them can be replaced by neutral synonyms, e.?g. hark (“listen”), deem (“think”), glee (“joy”), aught (“anything”), nigh (“near”). Grammatical archaisms represent obsolete grammatical forms: thou, three, thy, thine; ye; he goeth, thou knowest, etc. Among archaic words one should distinguish historical words that denote no-longer existing objects, e.?g. yeoman, fletcher, gleeman, galleon, visor, etc. Historical words have no neutral synonyms in Modern English.Archaic words that denote existing objects are divided into two groups: a) archaic words proper: words which are no longer recognized in modern English. They were used in Old English and have either dropped out of language use entirely or completely changed (troth – faith, losel – worthless); b) archaic forms of the words: corse instead of corpse, an instead of and, annoy instead of аnnоуаnсе. Sometimes a lexical archaism begins a new life, getting a new meaning, then the old meaning becomes a semantic archaism, e.?g. fair in the meaning “beautiful” is a semantic archaism, but in the meaning “blond” it belongs to the neutral style. Sometimes the root of the word remains and the affix is changed, then the old affix is considered to be a morphemic archaism, e.?g. beauteous, bepaint, darksome, oft. Here “ous” was substituted by “ful”, “be” and “some” were dropped, “en” was added.Barbarisms and foreign words. There are many borrowings in every language, some of them being assimilated. We may distinguish three groups of such words in English: foreign words, barbarisms, and exotic words. Foreign words are close to barbarisms, but they are characterized by occasional usage only, mainly in literary speech. They do not form a lexico-stylistic paradigm, though they may be used to create some stylistic effect. Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely assimilated into the English language preserving their former spelling and pronunciation. Most of them (e.?g. chic, chagrin, en passant) have corresponding English synonyms. Neologisms are the main problem of modern scientific research. A neologism is a word, term, or phrase which has been recently created (“coined”) – often to apply to new concepts, to synthesize pre-existing concepts, or to make older terminology sound more contemporary. Neologisms are especially useful in identifying inventions, new phenomena, or old ideas which have taken on a new cultural context. Most frequently, neologism is explained and defined as “a new word”. This term was coined around 1800 and is also referred to an existing word or phrase which has been assigned a new meaning. At the present moment English is developing very swiftly and there is so called “neology blowup”. R. Berchfield who worked at compiling a four-volume supplement to NED says that averagely 800 neologisms appear every year in Modern English. It has also become a language-giver recently, especially with the development of computerization. New words, as a rule, appear in speech of an individual person who wants to express his idea in some original way. This person is called “originater”. New lexical units are primarily used by university teachers, newspaper reporters, by those who are connected with mass media. Neologisms can develop in three main ways: a lexical unit existing in the language can change its meaning to denote a new object or phenomenon. In such cases we have semantic neologisms, e.?g. the word umbrella developed the meanings: “ав?ац?йне прикриття”, “пол?тичне прикриття”. A new lexical unit can develop in the language to denote an object or phenomenon which already has some lexical unit to denote it. In such cases we have transnomination, e.?g. the word slum was first substituted by the word ghetto then by the word-group inner town. A new lexical unit can be introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon. In this case we have a proper neologism, many of them are cases of new terminology.We can point out several semantic groups when we analyze the group of neologisms connected with computerization, and here we can mention words used: a) to denote different types of computers, e.?g. PC, super-computer, multi-user, neurocomputer, etc.; b) to denote parts of computers, e.?g. hardware, software, monitor, screen, data, etc. c)?to denote computer languages, e.?g. BASIC, Algol FORTRAN, etc; d) to denote notions connected with work on computers, e.?g. computerman, computerization, computerize, to troubleshoot, to blitz out, etc. There are also different types of activities performed with the help of computers, many of them are formed with the help of the morpheme “tele”, e.?g. to telework, to telecommute. There are also such words as telebanking, telemarketing, teleshopping. In the sphere of biometrics we have computerized machines which can recognize characteristic features of people seeking entrance: finger-print scanner, biometric eye-scanner, voice verification and others. There are different semantic groups of neologisms belonging to everyday life: a) food e.?g. starter instead of hors d’oevres, macrobiotics, longlife milk, microwave stove, consumer electronics, fridge-freezer, hamburgers /beef-, cheese-, fish-, veg-; b) clothing, e.?g. catsuit (one-piece clinging suit), slimster, string (miniscule bikini), hipster (trousers or skirt with the belt on hips), completenik (a long sweater for trousers), sweatnik (a long jacket); c) footwear e.?g. winklepickers (shoes with long pointed toes), thongs (open sandals); backsters (beech sandals with thick soles); d) bags, e.?g. bumbag (a small bag worn on the waist), sling bag (a bag with a long belt), maitre (a small bag for cosmetics). There are also such words as: dangledolly (a dolly-talisman dangling in the car before the windscreen), boot-sale (selling from the boot of the car), touch-tone (a telephone with press-button).Among neologisms one can find the so-termed occasional words (or nonce-words) coined for a particular situation or context and aimed at a certain stylistic effect, e.?g. “A what?” – “Moneyholic. A word I’ve just made up to describe someone with an uncontrollable addiction to money”. We can say that author's neologisms (of course it's considered to be only the part of some definite text) are among occasional words.Several occasional words coined by famous English authors have penetrated to the Standard English vocabulary and are registered in dictionaries, e.?g. snob (W.?M.?Thackeray), to chortle (L.?Carrol). There are two authors who can give us the great amount of examples, as they have created their own separate worlds – Lewis Carroll and J.?R.?R.?Tolkien, the mother of particular hobbit. This word denotes completely new race of creatures and after some time we can hear it on every corner of the street. It's one of the perfect examples of perfect injection new literary word in the ordinary life and book-life itself.One shouldn’t confuse occasional words with potential words based on productive word-formation patterns and devoid of any stylistic colouring. Typical cases of potential word-formation are composite numerals (thirty-two, five hundred and twelve), numerous adjectives with semi-suffix – like (soldier-like, moth-like) and some other widely-distributed patterns. Being easily coined and understood, potential words are not registered in dictionaries. Exercise 1. Pick out learned words from the sentences below. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.1. He chortled in his joy. 2. We must away ere break of day to seek the pale enchanted gold. 3. I had such an interesting talk with Mrs. Allan about besetting sins last Sunday afternoon. 4.?To think that I should have lived to be good-morninged by Belladonna Took’s son, as if I was selling buttons at the door. 5. “It was the cell phones”, she said in that same whisper. “It was the cell phones, all right”. 6. Sitting behind a keyboard and monitor, this new breed of predator could pretend to be anyone: An eighteen-year-old boy; a twelve-year-old girl; a talent agent; Eminem’s best friend. 7.?The private diary of the child could migrate into a blog, which in her case was quite sustained. 8. And as in uffish thought he stood, The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame. 9. He left it dead, and with its head he went galumphing back. 10.?Came whiffling through the tulgey wood, And burbled as it came! 11. One was a special bird called a jabberjay that had the ability to memorize and repeat whole human conversations. 12.?We started with and ended up with this web site on near-death experiences. 13. “Why, Matka?” her other son asked her. “Don’t you think those kids were just making up their story? Do you think they really saw a UFO?”. 14.?Dumbledore was wearing his familiar, kindly smile, but as he peered over the top of his half-moon spectacles, he gave the impression, even in newsprint, of X-raying Harry, whose sadness mingled with a sense of humiliation. 15. I said, “His name is Dr. Larry Harper. I checked his credentials, and he is an MD and is board certified in oncology and gynecology as well as being a board-certified surgeon”. 16.?Although it was against the rules, I clipped my radio on my belt and put my headphones on. 17. When I drew close to the up escalator, I involuntarily transferred my paperback and CVS bag to my left hand, so that I could take the handrail with my right, according to habit. 18. Marilla’s astonishment could not have been greater if Matthew had expressed a predilection for standing on his head. 19. Gracious heavenly Father, I thank Thee for the White Way of Delight and the Lake of Shining Waters and Bonny and the Snow Queen. 20. First of all Carrie Sloane dared Ruby Gillis to climb to a certain point in the huge old willow tree before the front door; which Ruby Gillis, albeit in mortal dread of the fat green caterpillars with which said tree was infested and with the fear of her mother before her eyes if she should tear her new muslin dress, nimbly did, to the discomfiture of the aforesaid Carrie Sloane. 21. Anne had good reason to bless her imagination many a time and oft during the tedious seven weeks that followed. 22. On Anne’s birthday they were tripping lightly down it, keeping eyes and ears alert amid all their chatter, for Miss Stacy had told them that they must soon write a composition on “A Winter’s Walk in the Woods”, and it behooved them to be observant. 23. A good cry, indulged in the grateful solitude of the east gable, had soothed her nerves and restored her to her wonted cheerfulness. 24. After breakfast the jaunty new cap and jacket were donned, and Anne hastened over the brook and up through the firs to Orchard Slope. 25. Lawful heart, shall I ever forget that tantrum of hers! 26. Diana knew it would be useless to ask how Gilbert Blythe had fared, so she merely said, “Oh, you’ll pass all right. Don’t worry”. Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the words in bold type in English. 1. A condition known to doctor as a flatulence, may a company heart burn or appear independently. 2. Chatting on the Internet can be fun and exhilarating, but selecting a chat room can also be risky, and especially in Web chat. 3. She sent the information on my e-mail. 4. The IPhone has been touted by some as great device for consuming media. 5. The work for such a Net by-product is spam. 6. David was coffee, and nobody wanted to agree with him. 7. Frisbeetarianism, as it is listed in the contest, is not a common word and the meaning was not conceived by a reader. 8.?You've probably seen gargoyles at one time or another, whether in pictures or in person. 9. He tried to esplanade but he did not. Colloquial WordsColloquial words are characteristic of the informal style of spoken English. Colloquialisms are common sayings that people use in everyday speech and some are very old expressions. Colloquialisms are expressions appropriate to informal, conversational occasions. Colloquial words are characteristic of the informal style of spoken English. For example, I felt “down in the dumps” is a colloquialism for feeling depressed or miserable. The etymology of the term “colloquialism” can be traced to the Latin word “colloqui”, which in turn is derived from the words “com” meaning “with” and “loqui” meaning “conversation”. The phrase is used to refer to language that is normally used in casual conversation. Authors and playwrights often use colloquial language while writing, and therefore you may often come across instances of colloquialism in novels and plays. Consequently, colloquialisms appear frequently in literature because they provide an impression of actual or genuine talk and make use of the grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and terms of everyday speech.Colloquialisms include words (such as y'all, gonna, and wanna), phrases (such as old as the hills, raining cats and dogs, and dead as a doornail) and aphorisms (such as there's more than one way to skin a cat).Generally, colloquialisms are specific to a geographical region. They are used in “everyday” conversation and, increasingly, through informal online interactions. An example of the regional specificity of colloquialisms is the term used when referring to “soft drinks”. In the Upper Midwestern United States and Canada, soft drinks are called “pop”, whilst in other areas, notably the Northeastern and far Western United States; they are referred to as “soda”. In some areas of Scotland, the term “ginger” is used.Words that have a formal meaning can also have a colloquial meaning. For example, “kid” can mean “young goat” in formal usage and “child” in colloquial usage.An example of a colloquialism and how it migrates to other areas is the Indian phrase, "Please do the needful", meaning, "Please do what is implied and/or expected". As the global workplace expands, this once regional phrase is now being used outside the area in which it originated.One should distinguish between literary colloquial words (which are used in every day conversations both by educated and non-educated people) and non-literary colloquialisms (which include slang, jargonisms, professionalisms and vulgarisms). A distinction between colloquialisms and slang is the most interesting part that may give you some kind of misunderstanding in definition of the special kind of word or word-combination. And it would be right to pay attention to some words of famous linguist Ghil’ad Zuckermann, which will explain the difference to us:Slang refers to informal (and often transient) lexical items used by a specific social group, for instance teenagers, soldiers, prisoners, or surfers. Slang is not considered the same as colloquial (speech), which is informal, relaxed speech used on occasion by any speaker; this might include contractions such as you’re, as well as colloquialisms. A colloquialism is a lexical item used in informal speech; whilst the broadest sense of the term colloquialism might include slangism, its narrow sense does not. Slangisms are often used in colloquial speech but not all colloquialisms are slangisms. One method of distinguishing between a slangism and a colloquialism is to ask whether most native speakers know the word (and use it); if they do, it is a colloquialism. However, the problem is that this is not a discrete, quantized system but a continuum. Although the majority of slangisms are ephemeral and often supplanted by new ones, some gain non-slang colloquial status (e.?g. English silly – cf. German selig ‘blessed’, Middle High German s?lde ‘bliss, luck’, and Zelda, a Middle Eastern female first name) and even formal status (e.?g. English mob).There are also some examples from the literary texts, that content quite clear types of colloquial words. We can find them in works by Irvine Welsh, J.?D.?Salinger, Mark Twain and others, e.?g. I would bring some drink and we would eat whatever there was and spend many happy hours whiling the world away. The usage of this unusual form of word “while” is justified by the fact that exactly this word is a linking part between two worlds that are shown in the definite text. The blink of red torches could be seen behind them in the tunnel they were following; and they were getting deadly tiered. The word “deadly” usually uses in everyday informal speech and denotes, as it does now too, the highest degree of some feeling.Slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's language or dialect but are considered acceptable in certain social settings. As a rule, their meanings are based on metaphor and often have ironic colouring, e.?g. attic (“head”), beans (“money”), saucers (“eyes”), etc. Such words are easily understood by all native speakers, because they are not specific for any social or professional group.Jargon is words or phrases used by people in a particular job or group that can be difficult for others to understand. Such words are usually motivated and, like slang words, have metaphoric character, e.?g. bird (“spacecraft”) /astronauts’ jargon/; to grab (“to make an impression on smb.”) /newspaper jargon/; grass, tea, weed (“narcotic”) / drug addicts’ jargon/, etc. Words such as “backup”, “chatroom” and “browser” are computer jargon. Jargon is often referred to as “technical language”. It makes communication quicker and easier among members of a group who understand it. Among social jargons cant or argot (thieves jargon) stands somewhat apart. Cant words are non-motivated and have special “agreed-upon”, secret meanings, e.?g. book (“life sentence”), splosh (“money”), to rap (“to kill”), etc. Professionalisms are sub-standard colloquial words used by people of a definite trade or profession. Such words are informal substitutes for corresponding terms, e.?g. Hi-Fi (“high fidelity”), smash-up (“accident”), anchor (“brakes”), etc. A vulgarism also called scurrility, is a colloquialism of an unpleasant action or unrefined character, which substitutes a coarse, indecorous word where the context might lead the reader to expect a more refined expression. Vulgarisms include: a) expletives and swear words of abusive character, like damn, bloody, etc.; b) obscene (or taboo, four-letter) words which are highly indecent.Exercise 3. Pick out colloquialisms from the sentences below and comment on their meaning. 1. So they appealed for people to come forward with their holiday snaps, see if anybody might have got a picture of this bloody accidentally. 2.?Hobbits have long clever brown fingers, good-natured faces, and laugh deep fruity laughs (especially after dinner, which they have twice a day when they can get it). 3. “Escaping goblins to be caught by wolves!” he said, and it became a proverb, though we now say “out of the frying-pan into the fire” in the same sort of uncomfortable situations. 4. Someone wanted to mete out punishment of his own. 5. You don’t know about me without you have read a book by the name of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, but that ain’t no matter. 6. But Mrs. Rachel Lynde was one of those capable creatures who can manage their own concerns and those of their folks into the bargain. 7. “What do you want?” – “I don`t wanna nothing. Just go along by, but the dogs won`t let me.” 8. I`d rather look at people to be sure they seem contented enough. 9.?She was recently dumped by her fiancé. 10.?Oh, I like things to have handles even if they are only geraniums. 11. Sam Boulter had sassed Mr. Phillips in class and Mr. Phillips whipped him and Sam's father came down to the school and dared Mr. Phillips to lay a hand on one of his children again. 12.?She had had one of her headaches that afternoon, and although the pain had gone she felt weak and tuckered out, as she expressed it. Anne looked at her with eyes limpid with sympathy. 13. I have one kid, it’s a boy. 14.?Finally, Charlie Sloane fought Moody Spurgeon MacPherson, because Moody Spurgeon had said that Anne Shirley put on airs about her recitations, and Moody Spurgeon was licked; consequently Moody Spurgeon’s sister, Ella May, would not “speak” to Anne Shirley all the rest of the winter.PART 8. SOME BASIC PROBLEMS OF DICTIONARY COMPILINGThe theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called lexicography. The history of compiling dictionaries comes as far back as the Old English period, where we can find glosses of religious books / interlinear translations from Latin into English/. Regular bilingual dictionaries began to appear in the 15-th century: Anglo-Latin, Anglo-French, Anglo-German. The first unilingual dictionary explaining difficult words appeared in 1604, the author was Robert Cawdry, a schoolmaster, who compiled his dictionary for schoolchildren. In 1721 an English scientist and writer Nathan Bailey published the first etymological dictionary which explained the origin of English words. It was the first scientific dictionary compiled for philologists. In 1775 an explanatory dictionary was compiled. Its author was Samuel Johnson. Every word in his dictionary was illustrated by examples from English literature, the meanings of words were clear from the contexts in which they were used. The dictionary was a great success and it influenced the development of lexicography in all countries. The dictionary influenced normalization of the English vocabulary. But at the same time it helped to preserve the English spelling in its conservative form. In 1858 one of the members of the English philological society Dr. Trench raised the question of compiling a dictionary including all the words existing in the language. More than a thousand people took part in collecting examples, and 26 years later in 1884 the first volume was published. It contained words beginning with “A” and “B”. The last volume was published in 1928 that is 70 years after the decision was adopted. The dictionary was called NED and contained 12 volumes. In 1933 the dictionary was republished under the title “The Oxford English Dictionary’, because the work on the dictionary was conducted in Oxford. This dictionary contained 13 volumes. As the dictionary was very large scientists continued their work and compiled shorter editions of the dictionary: “A Shorter Oxford Dictionary” consisting of two volumes. It had the same number of entries, but far less examples from literature. They also compiled “A Concise Oxford Dictionary” consisting of one volume and including only modern words and no examples from literature.The work at a dictionary consists of the following main stages: the collection of material, the selection of entries and their arrangement, the setting of each entry. At different stages of his work the lexicographer is confronted with different problems. Some of these refer to any type of dictionary; others are specific of only some or even one type. The most important of the former are:1) the selection of lexical units for inclusion; 2)?their arrangement; 3)?the setting of the entries; 4)?the selection and arrangement (grouping) of word-meanings; 5)?the definition of meanings; 6)?illustrative material; 7)?supplementary material.The choice of lexical units for inclusion is one of the first problems the lexicographer faces. Then the number of items to be recorded must be determined. The basic problem is what to select and what to leave out in the dictionary. Which form of the language, spoken or written or both, is the dictionary to reflect? Should the dictionary contain obsolete and archaic units, technical terms, colloquialisms, etc?The choice depends upon the type to which the dictionary will belong, the aim the compilers pursue, the prospective user of the dictionary, its size, the linguistic conceptions of the dictionary-makers and some others.Explanatory and translation dictionaries usually record words and phraseological units, some of them also include affixes as separate entries. Synonym-books, pronouncing, etymological dictionaries and some others deal only with words. Frequency dictionaries differ in the type of units included. Most of them enter graphic units, thus failing to discriminate between homographs (such as back n, back adv., back v) and listing inflected forms of the same words (such as go, gone, going, goes) as separate items; others enter words in accordance with the usual lexicographic practice.The number of entries is usually reduced at the expense of some definite strata of the vocabulary, such as dialectisms, jargonisms, technical terms, foreign words and the less frequently used words (archaisms, obsolete words, etc.).The policy settled on depends on the aim of the dictionary. As to general explanatory dictionaries, for example, diachronic and synchronic word-books differ greatly in their approach to the problem. Since the former are concerned with furnishing an account of the historical development of lexical units, such dictionaries as NED and SOD embrace not only the vocabulary of oral and written English of the present day, together with such technical and scientific words as are most frequently met with, but also a considerable proportion of obsolete, archaic, and dialectal words. Synchronic explanatory dictionaries include mainly common words in ordinary present-day use. The bigger the dictionary, the larger is the measure of peripheral words, the greater the number of words that are so infrequently used as to be mere museum pieces.In accordance with the compiler’s aim the units for inclusion are drawn either from other dictionaries or from some reading matter or from the spoken discourse. For example, the corpus from which the word frequencies are derived may be composed of different types of textual material: books of fiction, scientific and technical literature, newspapers and magazines, school textbooks, personal or business letters, interviews, telephone conversations, etc.The order of arrangement of the entries is different in different dictionaries. In most dictionaries of various types entries are given in a single alphabetical listing. In others the units are arranged in nests, based on this or that principle.In some explanatory and translation dictionaries, for example, entries are grouped in families of words of the same root. In this case the basic units are given as main entries that appear in alphabetical order while the derivatives and the phrases are given either as subentries or in the same entry, as run-ons that are also alphabetised. In synonym-books words are arranged in synonymic sets and its dominant member serves as the head-word of the entry. In some phraseological dictionaries, e.g. in prof. Koonin’s dictionary, the phrases are arranged in accordance with their pivotal words which are defined as constant non-interchangeable elements of phrases.A variation of the cluster-type arrangement is found in the few frequency dictionaries in which the items included are not arranged alphabetically. In such dictionaries the entries follow each other in the descending order of their frequency, items of the same frequency value grouped together.Each of the two modes of presentation, the alphabetical and the cluster-type, has its own advantages. The former provides for an easy finding of any word and establishing its meaning, frequency value, etc. The latter requires less space and presents a clearer picture of the relations of each unit under consideration with some other units in the language system, since words of the same root, the same denotational meaning or close in their frequency value are grouped together.Practically most dictionaries are a combination of the two orders of arrangement. In most explanatory and translation dictionaries the main entries, both simple words and derivatives, appear in alphabetical order, with this or that measure of run-ons, thrown out of alphabetical order.The number of meanings a word is given and their choice depend on two factors: 1) on what aim the compilers set themselves and 2) what decisions they make concerning the extent to which obsolete, archaic, dialectal or highly specialised meanings should be recorded, how the problem of polysemy and homonymy is solved, how cases of conversion are treated, etc.It is natural, for example, that diachronic dictionaries list many more meanings than synchronic dictionaries of current English, as they record not only the meanings in present-day use, but also those that have already become archaic or gone out of use. Thus SOD lists eight meanings of the word arrive (two of which are now obsolete and two are archaic), while COD gives five.There are at least three different ways in which the word meanings are arranged: in the sequence of their historical development (called historical order), in conformity with frequency of use that is with the most common meaning first (empirical or actual order), and in their logical connection (logical order). In different dictionaries the problem of arrangement is solved in different ways. It is well-accepted practice to follow the historical order in diachronic dictionaries and the empirical and logical order in synchronic word-books.In many other dictionaries meanings are generally organised by frequency of use, but sometimes the primary meaning comes first if this is considered essential to a correct understanding of derived meanings.Meanings of words may be defined in different ways: 1) by means of definitions that are characterised as encyclopaedic, 2) by means of descriptive definitions or paraphrases, 3) with the help of synonymous words and expressions, 4) by means of cross-references. It is the descriptive definitions that are used in majority of entries. It is necessary to stress the fact that word-meanings can be explained not only with the help of definitions and examples but also by means of showing their collocability (lexical and grammatical valency), especially their typical collocability.One of the major problems in compiling translation dictionaries and other bilingual word-books is to provide adequate translation’ of vocabulary items or rather to choose an adequate equivalent in the target language. The compilation of such dictionaries must be based on systematic and detailed contrastive studies of the languages dealt with. This will enable the lexicographer to decide what parts of their vocabularies diverge and thus require special attention in translation. Conveying the meaning of a lexical unit in the target language is no easy task as the semantic structures of related words in different languages are never identical. The lack of isomorphism is not limited to the so-called “culture-bound words” only but also to most other lexical units.The dictionary-maker is to give the most exact equivalent in the target language. Where there is no equivalent, to achieve maximum accuracy in rendering the meanings to be entered the compiler may either describe the meaning with an explanation, much similar to the definition of an explanatory dictionary, or resort to transliteration. Very often enumeration of equivalents alone does not supply a complete picture of the semantic volume of this or that word.Lexicography, that is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, is an important branch of applied linguistics. Lexicography has a common object of study with lexicology; both describe the vocabulary of a language. The province of lexicography is the semantic, formal, and functional description of all individual words. Lexicographers have to arrange their material most often according to a purely external characteristic, namely alphabetically.The term dictionary is used to denote a book listing words of a language with their meanings and often with data regarding pronunciation, usage and/or origin. There are many different types of English dictionaries. First of all they may all be roughly divided into two groups – encyclopaedic and linguistic. Linguistic dictionaries are word-books, their subject’ matter is lexical units and their linguistic properties such as pronunciation, meaning, peculiarities of use, etc. The encyclopaedic dictionaries, the biggest of which are called encyclopaedias are thing-books, that give information about the extra-linguistic world, they deal with concepts (objects and phenomena), their relations to other objects and phenomena, etc. Although some of the items included in encyclopaedic and linguistic dictionaries coincide, such as the names of some diseases, the information presented in them is altogether different. The former give much more extensive information on these subjects. For example, the entry influenza in a linguistic dictionary presents the word’s spelling and pronunciation, grammar characteristics, synonyms, etc. In an encyclopaedia the entry influenza discloses the causes, symptoms, characteristics and varieties of this disease, various treatments of and remedies for it, ways of infection, etc.A linguistic dictionary is a book of words in a language, usually listed alphabetically, with definitions, pronunciations, etymologies and other linguistic information or with their equivalents in another language (or other languages). Linguistic dictionaries may be divided into different categories by different criteria. According to the nature of their word-list we may speak about general dictionaries, on the one hand, and restricted, on the other. The terms general and restricted do not refer to the size of the dictionary or to the number of items listed. What is meant is that the former contain lexical units in ordinary use with this or that proportion of items from various spheres of life, while the latter make their choice only from a certain part of the word-stock, the restriction being based on any principle determined by the compiler. To restricted dictionaries belong terminological, phraseological, dialectal word-books, dictionaries of new words, of foreign words, of abbreviations, etc. There are also dictionaries that concentrate their attention upon only one of these aspects: pronouncing (phonetical) dictionaries and etymological dictionaries. Pronouncing dictionaries record contemporary pronunciation. As compared with the phonetic characteristics of words given by other dictionaries the information provided by pronouncing dictionaries is much more detailed: they indicate variant pronunciations (which are numerous in some cases), as well as the pronunciation of different grammatical forms. The world famous English Pronouncing Dictionary by Daniel Jones, is considered to provide the most expert guidance on British English pronunciation. The most popular dictionary for the American variant is A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English by J.?S.?Kenyon and T.?A.?Knott. Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to the oldest forms available, establish their primary meanings and give the parent form reconstructed by means of the comparative-historical method. In case of borrowings they point out the immediate source of borrowing, its origin, and parallel forms in cognate languages. The most authoritative of these is the newly-published Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology edited by С.?Т.?Onions. Quite popular is the famous Etymological English Dictionary by W.?W.?Skeat compiled at the beginning of the century and published many times.For dictionaries in which the words and their definitions belong to the same language the term unilingual or explanatory is used, whereas bilingual or translation dictionaries are those that explain words by giving their equivalents in another language. Multilingual or polyglot dictionaries are not numerous; they serve chiefly the purpose of comparing synonyms and terminology in various languages. Explanatory dictionaries provide information on all aspects of the lexical units entered: graphical, phonetical, grammatical, semantic, stylistic, etymological, etc. Unilingual dictionaries are further subdivided with regard to the time. Most of these dictionaries deal with the form, usage and meaning of lexical units in Modern English, regarding it as a stabilised system and taking no account of its past development. They are synchronic in their presentation of words as distinct from diachronic, those concerned with the development of words occurring within the written history of the language. For instance, the New English Dictionary on Historical Principles commonly abbreviated in NED and its abridgement The Shorter Oxford Dictionary on Historical Principles (SOD) cover the history of the English vocabulary from the days of King Alfred down to the present time; they are diachronic, whereas another abridgement of the NED – the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (COD) is synchronic. Both bilingual and unilingual dictionaries can be general and special. General dictionaries represent the vocabulary as a whole with a degree of completeness depending upon the scope and bulk of the book in question. Some general dictionaries may have very specific aims and still be considered general due to their coverage. They include, for instance, frequency dictionaries, i.e. lists of words, each of which is followed by a record of its frequency of occurrence in one or several sets of reading matter. A rhyming dictionary is also a general dictionary, though arranged in inverse order. General dictionaries are contrasted to special dictionaries whose aim is to cover a certain specific part of the vocabulary.Special dictionaries may be further subdivided depending on whether the words are chosen according to the sphere of human activity in which they are used (technical dictionaries), the type of the units themselves (e.g. phraseological dictionaries) or the relationships existing between them (e. g. dictionaries of synonyms). The first subgroup embraces specialised dictionaries of limited scope which appeal to a particular kind of a reader. They register and explain technical terms for various branches of knowledge, art and trade: linguistic, medical, technical, economical terms, etc. The second subgroup deals with specific language units, i.e. with phraseology, abbreviations, neologisms, borrowings, toponyms, proverbs, etc. Phraseological dictionaries have accumulated vast collections of idiomatic or colloquial phrases, proverbs and other, usually image-bearing word-groups with profuse illustrations. But the compilers’ approach is in most cases purely empiric. By phraseology many of them mean all forms of linguistic anomalies. The third subgroup contains a formidable array of synonymic dictionaries. Dictionaries recording the complete vocabulary of some author are called concordances; they should be distinguished from those that deal only with difficult words, i.e. glossaries. Taking up territorial considerations one comes across dialect dictionaries and dictionaries of Americanisms. Dictionaries of slang contain elements from areas of substandard speech such as vulgarisms, jargonisms, taboo words, curse-words, colloquialisms, etc. The most well-known dictionaries of the type are Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English by E.?Partridge, Dictionary of the Underworld: British and American, The American Thesaurus of Slang by L.?V.?Berry & M.?Den?Bork, The Dictionary of American Slang by H.?Wentworth and S.?B.?Flexner.Finally, dictionaries may be classified into linguistic and non-linguistic. The latter are dictionaries giving information on all branches of knowledge, the encyclopaedias. They deal not with words, but with facts and concepts. The best known encyclopaedias of the English-speaking world are The Encyclopaedia Britannica (in 24 volumes) and The Encyclopedia Americana (in 30 volumes). Very popular in Great Britain and the USA are also Collier’s Encyclopedia (in 24 vols) intended for students and school teachers, Chamber’s Encyclopaedia (in 15 vols) which is a family type reference book, and Everyman’s Encyclopaedia (in 12 vols) designed for all-round use. Besides the general encyclopaedic dictionaries there are reference books that are confined to definite fields of knowledge, such as The Oxford Companion to English Literature, Oxford Companion to Theatre, Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature, etc.There exist also biographical dictionaries and many minor encyclopaedias.A bilingual dictionary is useful to several kinds of people: to those who study foreign languages, to specialists reading foreign literature, to translators, to travellers, and to linguists. It may have two principal purposes: reference for translation and guidance for expression. It must provide an adequate translation in the target language of every word and expression in the source language. It is also supposed to contain all the inflectional, derivational, semantic and syntactic information that its reader might ever need, and also information on spelling and pronunciation. Data on the levels of usage are also considered necessary, including special warnings about the word being rare or poetical or slangy and unfit to be used in the presence of “one’s betters”. The number of special bilingual dictionaries for various branches of knowledge and engineering is ever increasing. A completely new type is the machine translation dictionaries which present their own specific problems, naturally differing from those presented by bilingual dictionaries for human translation. It is highly probable, however, that their development will eventually lead to improving dictionaries for general use. The entries of a dictionary are usually arranged in alphabetical order, except that derivatives and compounds are given under the same head-word. Thus to characterise a dictionary one must qualify it at least from the four angles mentioned above: 1) the nature of the word-list, 2) the information supplied, 3) the language of the explanations, 4) the prospective user.TEST 1Tick off the cases of vulgarisms: a)?attic; b)?to leg; c)?goddamn; d)?to rag.Tick off the cases of literary colloquial words: a)?make-up; b)?touchy; c)?granny; d)?beans.Tick off the cases of argot: a)?splosh; b)?anchors; c)?to rag; d)?bird.Tick off the cases of slang: a)?grass; b)?tea; c)?saucers; d)?book.Tick off the cases of monosemantic words: a)?tungsten; b)?game; c)?coin; d)?make.Tick off the cases of reduplication: a)?first night; b)?sing song; c)?johnny-jump; d)?payday.Tick off the cases of phrasal nouns: a)?a breakdown; b)?a getaway; c)?a timetable; d)?a saleswoman.Tick off the cases of denizens: a)?sherbet; b)?foyer; c)?eureka; d)?husband.Tick off the cases of aliens: a)?hrivna; b)?ad hoc; c)?memoir; d)?face.Tick off the cases of barbarisms: a)?boulevard; b)?persona grata; c)?toreador; d)?na?ve.Tick off the cases of a free morpheme: a)?conceive; b)?half-baked; c)?friendly; d)?enlarge.Tick off the cases of bound morphemes: a)?freedom; b)?after-thought; c)?depart; d)?chairman.Tick off the cases of semi-bound morphemes: a)?well-known; b)?resist; c)?babylike; d)?himself.Tick off the cases of juxtapositional compounds: a)?electromotive; b)?whitewash; c)?H-bomb; d)?know-all.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?saleswoman; b)?up-to-date; c)?deep-blue; d)?hunting-knife.Tick off the cases of syntactic compounds: a)?grey-green; b)?go-between; c)?sportsman; d)?U-turn.Tick off the cases of reduplicative compounds proper: a)?goody-goody; b)?molly-dolly; c)?murmur; d)?flimflam.Tick off the cases of ablaut compounds: a)?namby-pamby; b)?singsong; c)?blah-blah; d)?ping-pong.Tick off the cases of rhyme compounds: a)?hoity-toity; b)?chit-chat; c)?highty-flighty; d)?tip-top.Tick off the cases of apocope: a)?van (caravan); b)?fancy (fantasy); c)?prefab (prefabricated); d)?stach (moustache).Tick off the cases of syncope: a)?fancy (fantasy); b)?specs (spectacles); c)?doc (doctor); d)?plane (aeroplane).Tick off the cases of acronyms: a)?NATO; b)?FBI; c)?L-driver; d)?e.?g.Tick off the cases of alphabetic abbreviations: a)?UNO; b)?SALT; c)?M.P. d)?Hi-Fi.Tick off the cases of compound abbreviations: a)?Z-hour; b)?Interpol; c)?Mr.; c)?pp.Tick off the cases of graphic abbreviations: a)?Co; b)?X-mas; c)?USA; d)?UNESCO.TEST 2Tick off the cases of jargonisms: a)?make-up; b)?weed; c)?granny; d)?beans.Tick off the cases of vulgarisms: a)?grass; b)?tea; c)?saucers; d)?bloody.Tick off the cases of adverbial phraseological units: a)?a drop in the bucket; b)?from head to foot; c)?by hook or by crook; d)?to take a fancy.Tick off the cases of interjectional phraseological units: a)?to drop a brick; b)?sakes alive!; c)?high and mighty; d)?my eye!Tick off the cases of slang: a)?attic; b)?to leg; c)?goddamn; d)?to rag.Tick off the cases of simile: a)?from the cradle to the grave; b)?clever fingers; c)?merry as a cricket; d)?a fleet of twenty sail.Tick off the cases of polysemantic words: a)?biochemistry; b)?mouth; c)?stuff; d)?sharp.Tick off the cases of blending: a)?luminisce; b)?mid-August; c)?cinemagnate; d)?ammo.Tick off the cases of juxtapositional compounds: a)?hooneymooner; b)?do-gooder; c)?heartache; d)?electromotive.Tick off the cases of metonymic epithets: a)?the inky water; b)?an apple-cheeked girl; c)?clever fingers; d)?pencil-thin legs.Tick off the cases of professionalisms: a)?splosh; b)?anchors; c)?to rag; d)?bird.Tick off the cases of mixed clipping: a)?tec (detective); b)?vegs (vegetables); c)?Liz (Elisabeth); d)?Nick (Nickolas).Tick off the cases of apheresis (initial clipping): a)?ammo (ammunition); b)?flu (influenza); c)?drome (airdrome); d)?Fred (Alfred).Tick off the cases of a free morpheme: a)?darken; b)?half-baked; c)?childhood; d)?enlarge.Tick off the cases of bound morphemes: a)?adrift; b)?poetic; c)?boy; d)?chairman.Tick off the cases of semi-bound morphemes: a)?well-known; b)?resist; c)?babylike; d)?himself.Tick off the cases of compound abbreviations: a)?G.B.S.; b)?V-day; c)?Mr.; d)?pp.Tick off the cases of graphic abbreviations: a)?usu.; b)?SALT; c)?USA; d)?hi-fi.Tick off the cases of metaphoric epithets: a)?a sullen sky; b)?threatening eyes; c)?a lemon moon; d)?a sausage finger.Tick off the cases of verbal phraseological units: a)?a bull in a china shop; b)?as busy as a bee; c)?like a shot; d)?to take the bull by the horns.Tick off the cases of substantive phraseological units: a)?fair and square; b)?as the crow flies; c)?the apple of discord; d)?a grass widow.Tick off the cases of adjectival phraseological units: a)?as dead as a door nail; b)?to lose one’s head; c)?high and dry; d)?good heavens!Tick off the cases of denizens (completely assimilated borrowings): a)?sherbet; b)?foyer; c)?eureka; d)?husband.Tick off the cases of aliens (partially assimilated borrowings): a)?hrivna; b)?ad hoc; c)?memoir; d)?face.Tick off the cases of apocope (final clipping): a)?van (caravan); b)?fancy (fantasy); c)?prefab (prefabricated); d)?stach (moustache).TEST 3 Tick off the cases of slang: a)?soaked; b)?boy; c)?beans; d)?book.Tick off the cases of denizens: a)?street; b)?index; c)?eureka; d)?call.Tick off the cases of aliens: a)?face; b)?sherbet; c)?memoir; d)?table.Tick off the cases of barbarisms: a)?boulevard; b)?eureka; c)?toreador; d)?ciaoTick off the cases of translation-loans: a)?country-house; b)?thing-in-itself; c)?the moment of truth; d)?the leg of the table.Tick off the cases of vulgarisms: a)?attic; b)?to leg; c)?to room; d)?damn.Tick off the cases of pseudo-international words: a)?aspirant; b)?banana; c)?tennis; d)?mathematics.Tick off the cases of a free morpheme: a)?development; b)?half-done; c)?friendship; d)?enlarge.Tick off the cases of bound morphemes: a)?freedom; b)?after-thought; c)?resist; d)?chairman.Tick off the cases of semi-bound morphemes: a)?half-frozen; b)?receive; c)?babylike; d)?himself.Tick off the cases of juxtapositional compounds: a)?V-day; b)?salesgirl; c)?blacklist; d)?know-all.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?statesman; b)?up-to-date; c)?deep-blue; d)?hunting-knife.Tick off the cases of syntactic compounds: a)?grey-green; b)?go-between; c)?speedometer; d)?forget-me-not.Tick off the cases of cant: a)?to grab; b)?anchors; c)?book; d)?to rap.Tick off the cases of ablaut compounds: a)?namby-pamby; b)?tip-top; c)?blah-blah; d)?ping-pong.Tick off the cases of rhyme compounds: a)?sing song; b)?chit-chat; c)?helter-skelter; d)?tip-top.Tick off the cases of apocope: a)?mag (magazine); b)?story (history); c)?prefab (prefabricated); d)?stach (moustache).Tick off the cases of syncope: a)?doc (doctor); b)?specs (spectacles); c)?fancy (fantasy); d)?plane (aeroplane).Tick off the cases of apheresis: a)?Fred (Alfred); b)?fridge (refrigerator); c)?unkie (uncle); d)?drome (airdrome).Tick off the cases of acronyms: a)?SALT; b)?STEM c)?F.D.R.; d)?GB.Tick off the cases of alphabetic abbreviations: a)?UNO; b)?NATO; c)?B.B. d)?FBI.Tick off the cases of compound abbreviations: a)?L-driver; b)?A-bomb; c)?Hi-Fi; d)?usu.Tick off the cases of graphic abbreviations: a)?pp. (pages); b)?Capt (captain); c)?sci-fic (science-fiction); d)?Interpol (International police).Tick off the cases of onomatopoeia: a)?babble; b)?chirp; c)?buzz; d)?squeak.Tick off the cases of semantic diffusion: a)?a face; b)?a bee; c)?to take; d)?thing.TEST 4 Tick off the cases of jargonisms: a)?garment; b)?bird; c)?dad; d)?beans.Tick off the cases of professionalisms: a)?nuke; b)?bloody; c)?to leg; d)?spiv.Tick off the cases of substantive phraseological units: a)?a drop in the bucket; b)?like a shot; c)?by hook or by crook; d)?high and mighty.Tick off the cases of half-unities: a)?red tape; b)?small talk; c)?to bell the cat; d)?my eye!Tick off the cases of half-fusions: a)?to buy smth. for a song; b)?to work double tides; c)?to play second fiddle; d)?to talk turkey.Tick off the cases of unities: a)?half seas over; b)?from hand to mouth; c)?a snake in the grass; d)?a tall atory.Tick off the cases of fusions: a)?to pull smb.’s leg; b)?to bell the cat; c)?to rain cats and dogs; d)?to take into account.Tick off the cases of moderators: a)?extremely; b)?faintly; c)?kind of; d)?a?bit.Tick off the cases of intensifiers: a)?hardly; b)?a little; c)?very; d)?too.Tick off the cases of mixed clipping: a)?Dora (Theodora); b)?vegs (vegetables); c)?Liz (Elisabeth); d)?Nick (Nickolas).Tick off the cases of apheresis: a)?Tony (Antony); b)?flu (influenza); c)?drome (airdrome); d)?Phil (Philip).Tick off the cases of compound abbreviations: a)?A.W.A.S.; b)?X-rays; c)?AIDS.; d)?pp.Tick off the cases of graphic abbreviations: a)?IQ; b)?STEM; c)?govt.; d)?Hi-Fi.Tick off the cases of denizens: a)?table; b)?shock; c)?caftan; d)?husband.Tick off the cases of aliens: a)?sample; b)?crisis; c)?city; d)?index.Tick off the cases of translation-loans: a)?mother-in-law; b)?by heart; c)?Masterpiece; d)?moustache.Tick off the cases of pseudo-international words: a)?conductor; b)?impulse; c)?doctor; d)?aeroplane.Tick off the cases of derivational compounds: a)?blacklist; b)?childhood; c)?strong-willed; d)?salesgirl.Tick off the cases of derived words: a)?poorly; b)?toss-up; c)?exceed; d)?combo.Tick off the cases of phrasal verbs: a)?put down; b)?give in; c)?jump above; c)?fall in love.Tick off he cases of conversion: a)?to address; b)?to phone; c)?to love; d)?to work.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?bluebell; b)?looking-glass; c)?sunlight; d)?barometer.Tick off the cases of ablaut compounds: a)?pooh-pooh; b)?namby-pamby; c)?buddy-buddy; d)?riff-raff.Tick off the cases of rhyme compounds: a)?silly-billy; b)?zigzag; c)?molly-dolly; d)?tip-top.Tick off the cases of the extension of meaning: a)?voyage; b)?girl; c)?barn; d)?deer.TEST 5Tick off the cases of bound morphemes: a)?untie; b)?acceptable; c)?old-maidish; d)?himself.Tick off the cases of semi-bound morphemes: a)?half-done; b)?power; c)?demonstration; d)?herself.Tick off the cases of a free morpheme: a)?development; b)?half-baked; c)?friendship; d)?enlarge.Tick off the cases of juxtapositional compounds: a)?snow-capped; b)?jet-black; c)?lexicological; d)?womanishness.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?U-turn; b)?electromotive; c)?looking-glass; d)?stay-at-home.Tick off the cases of syntactic compounds: a)?sunlight; b)?late-at-night; c)?gasometer; d)?shoe-makerTick off the cases of ablaut compounds: a)?singsong; b)?highty-flighty; c)?buddy-buddy; d)?willy-nilly.Tick off the cases of rhyme compounds: a)?zigzag; b)?molly-dolly; c)?wee-wee; d)?powwow.Tick off the cases of apocope: a)?dad (daddy); b)?bike (motorbike); c)?binocs (binoculars); d)?Phil (Philip).Tick off the cases of syncope: a)?lab (laboratory); b)?specs (spectacles); c)?vac (vacation); d)?craft (aercraft).Tick off the cases of apheresis: a)?plane (airplane); b)?van (caravan); c)?vegs (vegetables); d)?ammo (ammunition).Tick off the cases of acronyms: a)?CCTV; b)?ID; c)?STEM; d)?M.O.Tick off the cases of alphabetic abbreviations: a)?TUC; b)?NATO; c)?PBS; d)?G.B.S.Tick off the cases of compound abbreviations: a)?usu; b)?B-plans; c)?ATM; d)?IBMTick off the cases of graphic abbreviations: a)?m. (mile); b)?PTA; c)?ltd.; d)?NYPD .Tick off the cases of onomatopoeia: a)?gesticulate; b)?sneeze; c)?applause; d)?hiss. Tick off the cases of semantic diffusion: a)?stuff; b)?flower; c)?to run; d)?orange.Tick off the cases of vulgarisms: a)?book; b)?goddam; c)?to grab; d)?grass.Tick off the cases of cant: a)?to leg; b)?beans; c)?splosh; d)?sausers.Tick off the cases of slang: a)?to rag; b)?bird; c)?identikit; d)?Hi-Fi.Tick off the cases of professionalisms: a)?nuke; b)?spiv; c)?kite; d)?bastard.Tick off the cases of aliens: a)?rajah; b)?indices; c)?propos; d)?call.Tick off the cases of barbarisms: a)?noblesse; b)?caftan; c)?chef-d'ocuvre; d)?tableTick off the cases of denizens: a)?hrivna; b)?husband; c)?cup; d)?piazza.Tick off the cases of international words: a)?aspirant; b)?sport; c)?conductor; d)?personal.TEST 6Tick off the cases of denizens: a)?kidney; b)?husband; c)?karate; d)?restaurant.Tick off the cases of aliens: a)?kimono; b)?stadium; c)?memoir; d)?cigar.Tick off the cases of barbarisms: a)?polka; b)?alley; c)?d’art; d)?etceteraTick off the cases of translation-loans: a)?champion; b)?five year plan; c)?forget-me-not; d)?the leg of the table.Tick off the cases of pseudo-international words: a)?replica; b)?fabric; c)?character; d)?pamphlet.Tick off the cases of juxtapositional compounds: a)?waterproof; b)?yellow-necked; c)?matter-of-factness; d)?seaman.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?saleswoman; b)?late-at-night; c)?tight-wrested; d)?mud-splashed.Tick off the cases of syntactic compounds: a)?self-possessed; b)?rough-cut; c)?half-eaten; d)?crosswise.Tick off the cases of ablaut compounds: a)?murmur; b)?knick-knacks; c)?criss-crossed; d)?pooh-pooh.Tick off the cases of rhyme compounds: a)?cowsiewowsie; b)?riff-raff; c)?hokey-pokey; d)?molly-dolly.Tick off the cases of apocope: a)?hols (holidays); b)?Al (albert); c)?Tony (Antony); d)?pop (popular).Tick off the cases of syncope: a)?fancy (fantasy); b)?vegs (vegetables); c)?cab (cabriolet); d)?dad (daddy).Tick off the cases of apheresis: a)?gas (gasoline); b)?van (caravan); c)?exam (examination); d)?craft (aircraft).Tick off the cases of blending: a)?slanguage; b)?Eurovision c)?handwrite; d)?sunbathe.Tick off the cases of Latin abbreviations: a)?ltd.; b)?cf.; c)?ft.; d)?a.m.Tick off the cases of metaphoric epithets: a)?a sullen sky; b)?threatening eyes; c)?a lemon moon; d)?a sausage finger.Tick off the cases of verbal phraseological units: a)?a bull in a china shop; b)?as busy as a bee; c)?like a shot; d)?to take the bull by the horns.Tick off the cases of substantive phraseological units: a)?fair and square; b)?as the crow flies; c)?the apple of discord; d)?a grass widow.Tick off the cases of adjectival phraseological units: a)?as dead as a door nail; b)?to lose one’s head; c)?high and dry; d)?good heavens!Tick off the cases of metaphoric epithets: a)?a sullen sky; b)?threatening eyes; c)?a lemon moon; d)?a sausage finger.Tick off the cases of syncope (medial clipping)?: a)?fancy (fantasy); b)?specs (spectacles); c)?doc (doctor); d)?plane (aeroplane).Tick off the cases of acronyms: a)?NATO; b)?FBI; c)?L-driver; d)?e.?g.Tick off the cases of phrasal nouns: a)?a breakdown; b)?pile-up; c)?timetable; d)?blackboard.Tick off the cases of phrasal verbs: a)?pick apart; b)?fall behind; c)?jump high; c)?fall flat.Tick off the cases of conversion: a)?to begin; b)?to telephone; c)?to love; d)?to write.TEST 7 1.Tick off the cases of ideographic synonyms: a)?fast – rapid; b)?compounding –composition; c)?to begin – to commence; d)?to shine – to gleam.2.Tick off the cases of absolute synonyms: a)?motherland-fatherland; b)?word-building – word-formation; c)?to start – to initiate; d)?to glitter – to glimmer.3.Tick off the cases of homonyms proper: a)?plane – plain; b)?lead – lead; c)?row – row; d)?bark – bark 4.Tick off the cases of homographs: a)?arms – alms; b)?sewer – sewer; c)?scent – cent; d)?wind – wind.5.Tick off the cases of lexical homonyms: a)?light – light; b)?weather – whether; c)?tear – tear; d)?piece – peace.6.Tick off the cases of root antonyms: a)?hopeful – hopeless; b)?to start – to finish; c)?up – down; d)?happy – unhappy.7.Tick off the cases of complementary antonyms: a)?off – on; b)?come – go; c)?young – old; d)?early – late.8.Tick off the cases of relational antonyms: a)?dead – alive; b)?day – night; c)?husband – wife; d)?teach – learn.9.Tick off the cases of the connotation of duration: a)?alone – single – lonely; b)?to stare – to gaze – to glance; c)?to like – to admire – to love; d)?to?shudder – to tremble. 10.Tick off the cases of moderators: a)?really; b)?a bit; c)?somewhat; d)?even.11.Tick off the cases of intensifiers: a)?too; b)?very; c)?almost; d)?less.12.Tick off the cases of limiters: a)?a lot; b)?quite; c)?hardly; d)?all too.13.Tick off the cases of primary interjections: a)?bravo; b)?so; c)?well; d)?holla-ho.14.Tick off the cases of secondary interjections: a)?pooh; b)?gosh; c)?okay; d)?eh.15.Tick off the cases of fusions: a)?to rain cats and dogs; b)?small talk; c)?a?snake in the grass; d)?cried for the moon.16.Tick off the cases of half-fusions: a)?to kick the bucket; b)?to get blood out of a stone; c)?to make faces; d)?to buy smth. for a song.17.Tick off the cases of unities: a)?to play second fiddle; b)?out of sight; c)?Dutch courage; d)?to bell the cat.18.Tick off the cases of half-unities: a)?to make head or tail.; b)?a tall story; c)?husband’s tea; d)?to make sure.19.Tick off the cases of phraseological collocations: a)?to pull smd’s leg; b)?red tape; c)?to take into account; d)?to be sure.20.Tick off the cases of phraseological expressions: a)?to work double tides; b)?black frost; c)?to make friends; d)?no pains – no gains.21.Tick off the cases of verbal phraseological units: a)?as busy as a bee; b)?to drop a brick; c)?in a trice; d)?to sit pretty.22.Tick off the cases of substantive phraseological units: a)?calf love; b)?to take a fancy; c)?high and dry; d)?like a shot.23.Tick off the cases of adjectival phraseological units: a)?brown study; b)?as?large as life; c)?by a long chalk; d)?on the stoke of.24.` Tick off the cases of adverbial phraseological units: a)?with a bump; b)?a?grass widow; c)?in cold bloom; d)?my eye!.25.Tick off the cases of interjectional phraseological units: a)?high and mighty; b)?good heavens!; c)?from head to foot; d)?sakes alive!TEST 81.Tick off the cases of compound words proper: a)?train-sick; b)?realize; c)?room; d)?to job-hunt.2.Tick off the cases of compound-shortened words: a)?singer-songwriter; b)?motocross; c)?hydro-skimmer; d)?V-day.3.Tick off the cases of words with noun-forming suffixes: a)?employee; b)?friendship; c)?glimmer; d)?useless. 4.Tick off the cases of words with numeral-forming suffixes: a)?likewise; b)?coldly; c)?seventh; d)?cloudy.5.Tick off the cases of final clipping: a)?doc (doctor); b)?tec (detective); c)?mag (magazine); d)?van (caravan).6.Tick off the cases of mixed clipping: a)?phone (telephone); b)?Nick (Nickolas); c)?fancy (fantasy); d)?flu (influenza).7.Tick off the cases of alphabetic abbreviations: a)?B. B. (Brigitte Bardot); b)?L-driver; c)?USA; d)?Mr.8.Tick off the cases of latin abbreviations: a)?ltd (limited); b)?i. e. (that is); c)?BBC; d)?NATO.9.Tick off the cases of free morphemes: a)?friendly; b)?himself; c)?depart; d)?resist. 10.Tick off the cases of acronyms: a)?MP; b)?A-bomb; c)?UNO; d)?Interpol.11.Tick off the cases of bound morphemes: a)?greatly; b)?well-known; c)?dishonest; d)?chairman.12.Tick off the cases of semi-bound morphemes: a)?poetic; b)?misprint; c)?half-backed; d)?friendship.13.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?gasometer; b)?highway; c)?classroom; d)?blackboard.14.Tick off the cases of intensifiers: a)?faintly; b)?extremely; c)?rather; d)?a little.15.Tick off the cases of limiters: a)?highly; b)?enough; c)?kind of; d)?a bit.16.Tick off the cases of moderators: a)?scarcely; b)?reasonably; c)?half; d)?utterly.17.Tick off the cases of verbal phraseological unities: a)?my eye!; b)?to take the bull by the horns; c)?high and mighty; d)?fair and square.18.Tick off the cases of half-unities: a)?black frost; b)?a tall story; c)?small talk; d)?ways and means.19. Tick off the cases of phraseological collocations: a)?brevity is the soul of wit; b)?to talk turkey; c)?no and then; d)?to bell the cat.20.Tick off the cases of phraseological expressions: a)?a white elephant; b)?still water runs deep; c)?to make a mountain out of a molehill; d)?made up ones mind.21.Tick off the cases of barbarisms: a)?hearken (“hear”); b)?bon mot; c)?nigh (“near”); d)?ad libitum.22.Tick off the cases of archaisms: a)?hark (“listen”)?; b)?entre nous; c)?behold (“see”); d)?visor.23.Tick off the cases of poetic words: a)?woe (“sorrow”); b)?qui pro quo; c)?fletcher; d)?table d’hote.24.` Tick off the cases of neologisms: a)?oft (“often”); b)?teledish; c)?magalog; d)?gore (“blood”).25.Tick off the cases of vulgarisms: a)?smash-up; b)?goddam; c)?splosh; d)?Hi-Fi.TEST 91.Tick off the cases of splinters: a)?moonscape; b)?Moonquake; c)?afterthought; d)?sister-in-law.2.Tick off the cases of free morphemes: a)?reservation; b)?overreach; c)?brinkmanship; d)?to computerize.3.Tick off the cases of bound morphemes: a)?nourishment; b)?completenik; c)?self-criticism; d)?childishness. 4.Tick off the cases of semi-bound morphemes: a)?maxi-sculpture; b)?snowmobile; c)?cheeseburger; d)?readership.5.Tick off the cases of idiomatic compounds: a)?ghostwrite; b)?skinhead; c)?airbus; d)?chatter-box.6.Tick off the cases of non-idiomatic compounds: a)?bloodtransfuse; b)?brain-drain; c)?astrodynamics; d)?green-house.7.Tick off the cases of neutral compounds: a)?windowshop; b)?astrospace; c)?here-and-now; d)?job-hunt.8.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?free-for-all; b)?motocross; c)?handicraft; d)?Eurodollar.9.Tick off the cases of syntactical compounds: a)?do-or-die; b)?train-sick; c)?hydro-skimmer; d)?go-go. 10.?Tick off the cases of derivational compounds: a)?eggshell; b)?ear-minded; c)?tourmobile; d)?knee-deep.11.?Tick off the cases of coordinative compounds: a)?secretary-stenographer; b)?fifty-fifty; c)?kill-joy; d)?nuclear-free.12.Tick off the cases of subordinative compounds: a)?honey-sweet; b)?misprint; c)?half-backed; d)?friendship.13.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?gasometer; b)?highway; c)?classroom; d)?blackboard.14.Tick off the cases of intensifiers: a)?faintly; b)?extremely; c)?rather; d)?a little.15.Tick off the cases of limiters: a)?highly; b)?enough; c)?kind of; d)?a bit.16.Tick off the cases of moderators: a)?scarcely; b)?reasonably; c)?half; d)?utterly.17.Tick off the cases of verbal phraseological unities: a)?my eye!; b)?to take the bull by the horns; c)?high and mighty; d)?fair and square.18.Tick off the cases of half-unities: a)?black frost; b)?a tall story; c)?small talk; d)?ways and means.19. Tick off the cases of phraseological collocations: a)?brevity is the soul of wit; b)?to talk turkey; c)?no and then; d)?to bell the cat.20.Tick off the cases of phraseological expressions: a)?a white elephant; b)?still water runs deep; c)?to make a mountain out of a molehill; d)?made up ones mind.21.Tick off the cases of barbarisms: a)?hearken (“hear”); b)?bon mot; c)?nigh (“near”); d)?ad libitum.22.Tick off the cases of archaisms: a)?hark (“listen”); b)?entre nous; c)?behold (“see”); d)?visor.23.Tick off the cases of poetic words: a)?woe (“sorrow”); b)?qui pro quo; c)?fletcher; d)?table d’hote.24.` Tick off the cases of neologisms: a)?oft (“often”); b)?teledish; c)?magalog; d)?gore (“blood”).25.Tick off the cases of vulgarisms: a)?smash-up; b)?goddam; c)?splosh; d)?Hi-Fi.TEST 10Tick off the cases of bound morpheme: a)?rediness; b)?workable; c)?half-done d)?well-known;Tick off the cases of allomorphs: a)?activise; b)?displease; c)?impossible; d)?irregular.Tick off the cases of derived words: a)?classroom; b)?hand; c)?joyful; d)?snow-white.Tick off the cases of compounds: a)?retell; b)?forget-me-not; c)?enlarge; d)?subdivision.Tick off the cases of reduplicated compounds: a)?too-too; b)?lie-in; c)?rope-ripe; d)?fingerprint.Tick off the cases of noun-forming suffixes: a)?government; b)?twofold; c)?tiresome; d)?northwards.Tick off the cases of productive suffixes: a)?dressy; b)?shorten; c)?childhood; d)?realize.Tick off the cases of prefixes of negative meaning: a)?disconnect; b)?nonformals; c)?unfree; d)?decolonize.Tick off the cases of Greek prefixes: a)?hyper-; b)?over-; c)?de-; d)?re-.Tick off the cases of suffixes that express smallness: a)?gangster; b)?auntie; c)?manikin; d)?booklet.Tick off the cases of conversion: a)?to cook; b)?to comb; c)?to beg; d)?to finger-print.Tick off the cases of intensifiers: a)?rather; b)?quite; c)?extremely; d)?least.Tick off the cases of limiters: a)?scarcely; b)?almost; c)?mildly; d)?slightly.Tick off the cases of moderators: a)?utterly; b)?kind of; c)?ever; d)?a bit.Tick off the cases of the Internet abbreviations: a)?ASAP; b)?IMO; c)?NATO; d)?UNO.Tick off the cases of syncope: a)?mag (magazine); b)?fridge (refrigerator); c)?specs (spectacles); d)?tec (detective).Tick off the cases of apheresis: a)?phone (telephone); b)?Nick (Nickolas); c)?flue (influenza); d)?maths (mathematics).Tick off the cases of consonant-interchange: a)?food – to feed; b)?to speak – speech; c)?blood – to bleed; d)?to sit – to set. Tick off the cases of vowel-interchange: a)?defence – to defend; b)?offence – to offend; c)?importance – important; d)?to rise – to raise. Tick off the cases of nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek: a)?sherbet; b)?toreador; c)?crisis; d)?foyer.Tick off the cases of phraseological fusion: a)?cried for the moon; b)?make a sensation; c)?a tall story; d)?two heads are better than one.Tick off the cases of phraseological expressions: a)?to do some cooking; b)?take my temperature; c)?bird in hand is worth two in the bush; d)?speaking smb’s mind.Tick off the cases of verbal phraseological units: a)?to sit pretty; b)?cat-and-dog life; c)?calf love; d)?like a dream.Tick off the cases of adverbial phraseological units: a)?cool as a cucumber; b)?as large as life; c)?with a bump; d)?in cold blood.Tick off the cases of prepositional phraseological units: a)?as drunk as an owl; b)?in the course of; c)?spick and span; d)?brand new.TEST 11Tick off the cases of non-idiomatic compounds: a)?chatter-box; b)?green-house; c)?airbus; d)?skinhead.Tick off the cases of idiomatic compounds: a)?free-for-all; b)?middle-of-the-road; c)?brain-drain; d)?hard-cover.Tick off the cases of morphological compounds: a)?do-or-die; b)?astrospace; c)?Eurodollar; d)?knee-deep.Tick off the cases of syntactic compounds: a)?here-and-now; b)?honey-sweet; c)?up-and-doing; d)?nuclear-free.Tick off the cases of neutral compounds: a)?to windowshop; b)?to baby-sit; c)?off-the-record; d)?motocross.Tick off the cases of subordinative compounds: a)?criss-cross; b)?breast-high; c)?no-no; d)?spring-fresh.Tick off the cases of coordinative compounds: a)?fifty-fifty; b)?woman-doctor; c)?top-heavy; d)?love-sick.Tick off the cases of “stone wall” combinations: a)?out-of-the-way villages; b)?a crew member; c)?spring flowers; d)?volley-ball.Tick off the cases of graphic abbreviations: a)?Mon (Monday); b)?capt. (captain); c)?l.p. (long-playing); d)?fan (fanatic).Tick off the cases of acronyms: a)?CLASS; b)?Three –Ds; c)?USA; d)?B.A.Tick off the cases of compound abbreviations: a)?AIDSophobia; b)?UNO; c)?Interpol; d)?F2F.Tick off the cases of apocope: a)?expo (exposition); b)?fax( facsimile); c)?chute (parachute); d)?fanzine (fan magazine).Tick off the cases of blends: a)?trank (tranquilizer); b)?copter (helicopter); c)?dramedy (drama comedy); d)?Medicare (medical care). Tick off the cases of metonymy: a)?vandals; b)?a Don Juan; c)?sandwich; d)?roentgen.Tick off the cases of metaphor: a)?bottleneck; b)?the White House; c)?an iron; d)?head of an army. Tick off the cases of fusions: a)?old salt; b)?in a big way; c)?corridors of power; d)?on Shank’s mare. Tick off the cases of unities: a)?the winds of change; b)?to play the first fiddle; c)?at sixes and sevens; d)?to have butterflies in the stomach.Tick off the cases of collocations: a)?to have green fingers; b)?in brown study; c)?cash and carry; d)?red tape.Tick off the cases of completely assimilated borrowings: a)?sport; b)?street; c)?zero; d)?correct. Tick off the cases of partly assimilated borrowings: a)?voice; b)?sky; c)?start; d)?gate.Tick off the cases of French borrowings: a)?bank; b)?brochure; c)?cuisine; d)?granite.Tick off the cases of Italian borrowings: a)?autostrada; b)?fascist; c)?ananas; d)?embargo.Tick off the cases of a polysemantic word: a)?synonym’ b)?blanket; c)?thing; d)?table.Tick off the cases of neologisms: a)?hipster; b)?sling bag; c)?trousers; d)?skates.Tick off the cases of archaisms: a)?perchance; b)?ghetto; c)?telemarketing; d)?darksome.TEST 12Tick off the cases of syntactic compounds: a)?job-hopper; b)?baby-moons; c)?wait-and-see; d)?middle-of-the-roaders.Tick off the cases of noun-forming suffixes: a)?breathable; b)?officialdom; c)?tableward d)?sixteen.Tick off the cases of neutral compounds: a)?sportsman; b)?here-and-now; c)?ball-point; d)?to windowshop.Tick off the cases of shortened compounds: a)?ear-minded; b)?job-hunt; c)?eggshell-thin; d)?Eurodollar.Tick off the cases of derivational compounds: a)?intervision; b)?hydro-skimmer; c)?flower-bed; d)?blue-eyed. Tick off the cases of syncope: a)?mart (market); b)?intro (introduction); c)?combo (combination; d)?van (avanguard).Tick off the cases of absolute antonyms: a)?successful – unsuccessful; b)?like – dislike; c)?late – early; d)?to buy - to sell.Tick off the cases of derivational antonyms: a)?to disappoint – to appoint; b)?up – down; c)?selfless – selfish; d)?active – inactive.Tick off the cases of stylistic synonyms: a)?homeland – motherland; b)?exam – examination; c)?to begin – to commence; d)?to perspire – to sweat.Tick off the cases of absolute synonyms: a)?stool – chair; b)?city – town; c)?to moan – to groan; d)?to stare – to glance.Tick off the cases of polysemantic words: a)?blanket; b)?bronchites; c)?both; d)?face.Tick off the cases of monosemantic words: a)?this; b)?his; c)?board; d)?table. Tick off the cases of Spanish borrowings: a)?graffitto; b)?apricot; c)?tango; d)?diletante.Tick off the cases of Italian borrowings: a)?fascist; b)?tobbaco: c)?quartet; d)?guitar.Tick off the cases of French borrowings: a)?barrister; b)?topaz; c)?bronze; d)?gazette.Tick off the cases of borrowings non-assimilated semantically: a)?kvass; b)?taiga; c)?zero; d)?skate.Tick off the cases of verb phraseologisms: a)?loose as a goose; b)?to nose out; c)?to break the log-jam; d)?Catch me!Tick off the cases of adverb phraseologisms: a)?like a dream; b)?in the soup; c)?redbrick university; d)?dull as lead.Tick off the cases of collocations: a)?old salt; b)?at sixes and sevens; c)?cash and carry; d)?in a big way.Tick off the cases of unities: a)?to play the first fiddle; b)?on Shank’s mare; c)?to read between the lines; d)?to speak BBC.Tick off the cases of graphical abbreviations: a)?Aug (August); b)?B.A. (Bachelor of Arts); c)?SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks); d)?IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)Tick off the cases of apocope: a)?expo (exposition); b)?chute (parachute); c)?van (avanguard); d)?intro (introduction).Tick off the cases of apheresis: a)?Afro (African); b)?varsity (university); c)?copter (helicopter); d)?tec (detective).Tick off the cases of ?stone wall? combinations: a)?evening paper; b)?price rise; c)?language teacher; d)?light suitcase.Tick off the cases of subordinative compounds: a)?gold-rich; b)?criss-cross; c)?spring-fresh; d)?nuclear-free.BASIC LITERATUREАн?ке?нко ?.?Г. Практикум з курсу лексиколог?? англ?йсько? мови для студент?в 3 курсу : учебное пособие / уклад.?: ?.?Г.?Ан?ке?нко, Л.?Ф.?Бойцан, Л.?В.?Ганецька ; п?д. заг. ред. ?.?Г.?Ан?ке?нко. – К. : КДЛУ, 1999. – 72 с.Ан?ке?нко ?.?Г. Проблеми англ?йсько? лексиколог?? у роботах пров?дних л?нгв?ст?в / ?.?Г.?Ан?ке?нко, Л.?Ф.?Бойцан, Л.?В.?Ганецька. – Ки?в?: Видавничий центр КНЛУ, 2002. – 215 c.Арнольд И.?В. Лексикология современного английского языка: учеб. для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. / И. В. Арнольд. – 3-е изд., перераб. и доп. – М.?: Высшая школа, 1986. – 295с., ил. – На англ. яз.Арнольд И.?В. Основы научных исследований в лингвистике / И.?В.?Арнольд. – Москва?: Высшая шк., 1991. – 140 с. Баранцев К.?Т. Вправи з англ?йсько? лексиколог?? / К.?Т.?Баранцев. – К.?: Радянська школа, 1954. – 192?с.Биховець Н.?М. Запозичення серед англ?йських неолог?зм?в (70-т? роки) / Н.?М.?Биховець // Мовознавство. – 1988. – №?6. – С. 57–63. Блох М.?Я. 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Лексикология английского языка?/ А.?И.?Смирницкий. – М.?: Московский Государственный Университет, 1998. – 260 с.Стернин И.?А. Лексическое значение слова в речи / И.?А.?Стернин. – Воронеж?: Изд-во Воронежского ун-та, 1985. – 169 с. Тараненко А.?А. Языковая семантика в её динамических аспектах / А.?А.?Тараненко. – Ки?в?: Наук. думка, 1989. – 294 с. Теоретична й практична лексиколог?я сучасно? англ?йсько? мови : навч. пос?б. / ?.??.?Гороть та ?н.; [за ред. ?.??.?Гороть]. – Луцьк : ВНУ ?м. Лес? Укра?нки, 2011. – 419 с. Царев П.?В. Продуктивное смешанное словообразование в современном английском языке?/ П.?В.?Царев. – Москва : Изд-во МГУ, 1984. – 255 с. Чуланова Г.?В. Методичн? вказ?вки з дисципл?ни "Пор?вняльна лексиколог?я" для студент?в спец?альност? 6.020303 "Ф?лолог?я" денно? форми навчання. – Суми : СумДУ, 2013. – Частина ?. – 59?с.Чуланова Г.?В. Методичн? вказ?вки з дисципл?ни "Пор?вняльна лексиколог?я" для студент?в спец?альност? 6.020303 "Ф?лолог?я" денно? форми навчання. – Суми : СумДУ, 2013. – Частина ??. – 65?с.Швачко С.?О. Методичн? вказ?вки до практичних роб?т "Монолексемн? та пол?лексемн? аспекти": для студ. спец. "Переклад" денно? форми навчання / С.?О.?Швачко, Г.?В.?Чуланова.?– Суми?: СумДУ, 2008.?– 46 с.?Швачко С.?О. Методичн? вказ?вки з лексиколог???: для самост?йно? роботи студ. 2-го курсу спец. "Переклад" денно? форми навчання / С.?О.?Швачко.?– Суми?: СумДУ, 2000.?– 37 с.Швейцер А.?Д. Литературный английский язык в США и Англии / А.?Д.?Швейцер.?– Москва : Высшая шк., 1971. – 200 с.Adams V. Introduction into English Word-Formation (English Language Series) / Valerie?Adams.– London?: Longman Publishing Group, 1973. – 240 р.Akhmanova O. Lexicology. Theory and Method / O.?Akhmanova. – Moscow, 1972. – 176 p.Babich G. N. 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The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language / David Crystal. – [2nd edition]. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2003. – 506?р.Rothwell David. Dictionary of Homonyms / David Rothwell. – London : Wordsworth Editions, 2007. – 544?p.Hornby A. S. Oxford Student’s Dictionary of Current English / A. S. Hornby, Christina Ruse. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1994. – 748 p.Longman English Dictionary online [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу : T. Longman Dictionary of English Idioms / T. McArthur. – Harlow, 1979. – 388 p.Online Etymology Dictionary [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу : Collocations Dictionary for Students of English. – Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2002. – 912 р.Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus: A Dictionary of Synonyms / еd. by: D.?Lea, J.?Bradbery, R.?Poole, H.?Warren. – Oxford ; New York?: Oxford University Press, 2008. – 1008 р.Oxid Thesaurus Dictionary [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу : . ................
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