AP Euro: Unit 7
Chapter 23: Ideologies & Upheavals, 1815-1850
Dual Revolution: economic and political changes that merged into major social events
ie; growing industrial middle class encouraged the drive for representative government.
• Industrial Revolution & French Revolution
I. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
A. Quadruple Alliance: Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain
1. Concert of Europe – European powers worked to establish a balance of power
a. defeated Napoleon & worked to establish a lasting peace in the 19th century
b. lenient treatment of France: 1792 boarders, No war reparations (payments to victorious nations)
c. establishment of the “Congress System” – series of international conferences and balance of
power diplomacy that maintained relative peace in mid to late 19th century Europe.
2. Defensive maneuvers against future French aggression – redrawing of the map of Europe
a. established a stronger Dutch monarchy (Holland & Belgium) along northern border of France
b. increased Prussian territories along eastern border of France (the sentinel)
c. created kingdom of Sardinia in Italy and increased Austrian territories in northern Italy along the south eastern border of France
3. Allies were motivated by self-interest and traditional ideas about the balance of power
a. Metternich (Austria), Castlereagh (GB), Tallyrand (France) = idea of balance of power meant
an international equilibrium of political and military forces that would discourage aggression
by any combination of states or, worse, the domination of Europe by any single state.
4. Differences over balance threatened the “Concerts” failure
a. Russia (Tsar Alexander I) wanted to reestablish control over the kingdom of Poland
b. Prussia wanted the kingdom of Saxony.
c. GB, Austria, France joined in an alliance to counter Russian & Prussian aggression
d. Russia & Prussia reduced their demands to avoid war, maintaining the concert system
5. France – Post Napoleon’s One Hundred Days
a. Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) restored to the thrown of France
b. France required to pay 700 million francs in war reparations and to pay for a large foreign
occupying army for 5 years as punishment for allowing Napoleon to return from exile
II. Conservativism – principle ideology of those who repudiated the Enlightenment and the French Revolution
1. valued tradition over reason, aristocratic and clerical authority over equality, and community over the
individual
2. Edmund Burke: Reflections on the Revolution in France – attacked the violence and fundamental
principles of the Revolution
* Burke held that without the restraints of established authority, people revert to Savagery and that
monarchy, aristocracy, and Christianity represent caviling forces that tamed the beast in human
nature.
A. Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1848)
1. German aristocrat who regarded tradition as the basic source of human institutions.
a. defended rights and privileges of the nobility,
b. believed that liberal middle-class stirred up the lower class in revolution
c. felt threatened by the relation between nationalism and liberalism: self-determination (the people’s right to determine the boundaries and identity of their nation)
2. Metternich served as the unifying force of Conservative states in the Congress System
3. Austrian Empire – Habsburgs dynastic state was muti-ethnic: made up of ¼ Germans, Magyars
(Hungarians), Czechs, Italians, Poles, Ukrainians, and several smaller ethnic groups.
a. strength: large population and vast territories
b. weakness: many and potentially dissatisfied nationalities
B. Holy Alliance: Austria, Prussia, and Russia (Absolute Monarchs)
1. led a crusade against liberal ideas and politics spread by the French Revolution and Napoleon
a. repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe
1) Conference at Troppau: Metternich & Alexander I (Russia) proclaimed the principle of active
intervention to maintain all autocratic regimes whenever they were threatened.
a) liberal revolutions in Spain and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies in 1820 forced the
governments (Kings) to grant liberal constitutions
b) Austrian forces marched into Naples in 1821 restoring Ferdinand I to the throne of the
Two Sicilies & French armies did the same in Spain to restore absolute monarchs
2) Carlsbad Decrees – (1819) required 38 German member states to root out subversive ideas in their universities and newspapers, established a permanent committee of spies & informers to investigate any liberal or radical organization
III. Liberalism – called for a constitution that protected individual liberty and denounced censorship, arbitrary arrest, and other forms of repression.
1. believed that through education, social evils could be remedied and that individuals should be judged
on the basis of achievement, not birth.
a. John Stuart Mill: On Liberty – government and the majority have no legitimate authority to
suppress views, however unpopular; they have no right to interfere with a person’s liberty so long
as that person’s actions do no injury to others
A. Liberty & Equality
1. demanded representative government
2. equality before the law
3. protection of specific individual freedoms – press, speech, assembly, freedom from arbitrary arrest
B. Economic Liberalism
1. Laissez faire – unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy
a. classical liberalism
2. Adam Smith; Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)
a. capitalism – free enterprise, free competition = “invisible hand” = self-regulating market –
giving all citizens a fair and equal opportunity to do what they did best
b. limited role of government to: providing a common defense, a system of law and order, and to
provide for essential public works that are not provided by the private economy
b. early 19th century Britain industrial business promoted economic liberalism – used to suppress
unions
1) favored representative government with property qualifications attached to right to vote
IV. Nationalism – espoused the individual’s allegiance to the national community and sought to unify divided nations and to liberate subject peoples
1. by glorifying a nation’s language and ancient traditions and folkways, romanticism contributed to the evolution of modern nationalism
A. Nationalist – sought to turn the cultural unity that they perceived into a political reality by making the
territory of each people coincide with well defined boundaries in an independent nation-state.
1. Cultural Unity – common language, history, and territory
2. movement coincided with industrialism & urbanization that required better means of communication = resulted in standardized national languages
3. stressed the differences among peoples – “we-they” outlook – national superiority roots that have a character of aggression and conflict.
V. French Utopian Socialism – Influenced by the planned economy of the French Revolution, utopian socialists advocated change through government – NOT violent revolution
A. Socialism – believes in economic planning, economic equality, private property should be strictly regulated by the government or that it should be abolished and replaced by state or community ownership.
1. Count Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825): “Key to progress was proper social organization”
a. parasites give way to the doers who will carefully plan the economy and guide it forward by
undertaking vast public works projects and establishing investment banks.
2. Charles Fourier (1772-1837): self-sufficient communities (1,620 people)
3. Louis Blanc (1811-1882): Organization of Work (1839) – workers should unite for universal voting rights & take control of the state peacefully.
a. state should est. government-backed workshops & factories to guarantee full employment
4. Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865): What is Property? “nothing but theft” middle class from the poor
a. aspirations of workers and utopian theorist reinforced each other = genuine socialist movement
emerged in Paris in the 1830’s & 1840’s
B. Marxism – economic and political ideology that advocated for the violent overthrow of capitalism and the
creation of a socialist society (Communism)
1. Communist Manifesto (1848)
a. co-authored by Friedrich Engles and Karl Marx
b. argued “the history of all previously existing societies is the history of class struggles.”
c. proletariat (landless labor class) would conquer the bourgeoisie through violent revolution and
establish a classless society
d. idea’s united sociology, economics, and all human history in a vast and imposing edifice
2. Das Kapital – written by Marx in 1867
a. tries to show the ways in which workers are exploited by the capitalist mode of production
b. argues that the capitalist system is ultimately unstable, because it cannot endlessly sustain profits
c. rejected the liberal focus on individual rights and emphasized instead the unequal class relations
caused by those who had taken from workers control of the means of production (capital, land,
factories, etc.)
d. worker’s oppression would produce class consciousness and lead to revolt against their exploiters
VI. The Romantic Movement
A. Classicism – set of artistic rules and standards that went hand in glove with the Enlightenment’s belief in
rationality, order, and restraint.
1. Believed that ancient Greeks & Romans had discovered eternally valid aesthetic rules – playwrights
and painters should continue to follow them.
a. art movement associated with Absolutism (Louis XIV)
B. Romanticism – belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, spontaneity in both art and personal life – rejection of Enlightened rationalism and classicism
1. Strum und Drang (“storm and stress”) – 1770’s & 1780’s early German romantics
a. bohemian life styles – “ the full development of one’s unique human potential to be the supreme
purpose in life”
2. enchanted by nature – saw modern industrial growth as an ugly, brutal attack on nature
3. fascinated by color and diversity – “history was art of change over time.”
4. Jean Jacques Rousseau – roots of the romanticist movement = he exalted feeling over reason & that
radical change was possible
5. Romantic Architecture – designs sought to capture a preindustrial world
a. Parliament – buildings rebuilt in gothic style after they burned down in 1834 fire
C. Romantic Art and Music
1. Romantic painters – specialized in landscape as a way of calling attention to the sublime wonders of
nature, and often portrayed the struggle between the forces of nature and the means of economic
growth.
a. Joseph M. W. Turner painting: Rain, Steam, and Speed: The Great Western Railway
b. Eugene Delacroix: Massacre at Chios – fueled support for the Greek war of independence against
the Turks
2. Romantic musicians – compositions grew more emotional, more intense, and more pointed in their
cultural or political messages
a. Chopin: Revolutionary Etude – support of the Polish cause
b. Ludwig van Beethoven: music was astounding in its ability to express and stir the noblest of
emotions and whose life was the paradigm of the tortured genius
D. Romantic Literature – specialized in the portrayal of social life in all of its varieties.
1. British romantic writers: poems that were simplistic and emotional expressions of love of nature and
joys of solitude
a. William Wordsworth (1770-1850) Lyrical Ballads – ie. Daffodils (pg. 768)
b. Walter Scott (1771-1832) translated Wolfgang von Goethe’s Gotz von Berlichingen
2. Foreign
a. Germaine de Stael (1766-1817) On Germany (1810)
b. Victor Hugo (1802-1885) Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831) – advocate for personal and political
freedom
c. Amandine Aurore Lucie Dupin (1804-1876) – pen name: George Sand
d. Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837) – forged the modern Russian literary language
e. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – poet / novelist whos’ exploration of the individual hero influenced
many romantic writers
a. along with the brothers Grimm (fables) – Goethe helped to forge German national consciousness
VII. Reforms & Revolutions (1815-1848)
A. National Liberation in Greece
1. Greek revolt in 1821 against the occupying government of the Ottoman Empire
a. Alexander Ypsilanti (leader of the revolt) – Greek nationalist waged a war of independence
from the Ottoman empire starting in 1821
b. Great Powers – led by Austria (Metternich) opposed all revolution – refused support
c. British & French supported Greek independence as a holy cause and due to cultural ties to
classical Greece
d. Romantic writers and painters took up the cause by creating works in support of Greek
nationalism = Delacroix’s painting (pg. 771) Massacre at Chios
2. 1827 – Great Powers support Greece due to popular demand = defeated the Turks at the naval battle at Navarino
3. Great Britain, France, and Russia declared Greece independent in 1830 & installed a German prince as king of the new country in 1832 (King Otto)
B. Liberal Reform in Great Britain
1. British aristocracy – feared radical movements home and abroad influenced by the French Revolution
b. Tory Party (landed aristocracy – majority of House of Lords)
a. After 1815 - attempted to defend its ruling position by repressing every kind of popular protest
1) Corn Laws: regulated foreign grain trade to protect British agriculture during Napoleonic
Wars
2) Post 1815 – Aristocracy used Parliament to further Corn Laws = no longer necessary, unfairly drove up grain prices to profit wealthy landowners.
a) popular protest by urban laborers supported by radical intellectuals against the laws
2. Conservative response to liberal movement in Great Britain
a. 1817: Tory’s suspended traditional rights of peaceable assembly and habeas corpus (requires a
person under arrest to be brought before a judge or into court)
b. Battle of Peterloo – peaceful assembly of urban laborers at St Peter’s field was savagely
broken up by armed cavalry who murdered innocent protestors (Conservative attempt to
stamp out liberal movements in England)
c. 1819: Parliament passed the Six Acts – placed controls on the press, limited nearly all forms of
popular assembly (violating guaranteed freedoms of the English Bill of Rights)
1) Industrial workers pushed for liberal reforms = political and social
a) Chartists – universal male suffrage
d. Social & political tensions between liberals and conservatives threatened all out revolution
3. 1820’s – Tory government accepted liberal demands for better urban administration (city gov’t),
Economic liberalism, and civil equality for Catholics = legislation could solve the problems and
improve social conditions (avoiding class warfare)
a. reforms encouraged middle class to press for reform of Parliament & repeal of the Corn Laws
b. Political struggle between Tories and Whigs (liberal republicans – primarily House of
Commons)
1) House of Lords conceded to liberal reforms to protect status of aristocracy (King
threatened to add seats to the House of Lords diluting the power of the Tory Party)
2) House of Commons – Middle class industrialists accepted work place reforms to maintain
support of liberal working class
a. Factory Act of 1833 & Mines Act of 1842
1) Reform Bill of 1832: redistribution of the seats (representation) in both Houses of
Parliament to reflect the demographic shift of English population from the country side to
the urban cities
a. increased suffrage (right to vote) by 50% = 12% of male population in Great Britain
gained the right to vote (primarily from the middle class)
b. Repeals Charter of 1838 – radical liberals pushed for universal male suffrage, complete
political democracy & rule by the common people as a means to a good and just
society
2) Anti-Corn Law League: 1839 – protested the Corn Laws, calling for lowering tariffs to
decrease food prices
a. resulted in British Repeal of Corn laws in 1846 under Prime Minister Robert Peel
1) British established precedence for tariff free trade
3) Ten Hours Act – 1847: limited the workday for women and teenagers in factories to 10 hrs.
C. Ireland & the Great Famine
1. Ireland fell under English control in the 16th century
a. Irish population predominantly Catholic, poor farmers
b. British landowners (Protestant) – used government to exploit the Irish Catholics
2. 1845-1851: Irish Potato Famine: successive cold, wet growing seasons destroyed potato
crops resulting in mass starvation
a. rapid population growth in the 1700s due to the introduction of the potato
(4 million to 8 million in a century) – magnified the effects of the crop failure in 1845
b. mass immigration of poor Irish to America and England
3. British mismanagement of the famine and exploitation of Catholics led to violent revolts
a. Irish nationalist movement gained momentum (IRA = Irish Republican Army) waged a war of
terrorism against the British occupying army
D. Revolution of 1830 – France
1. Defeat of Napoleon in 1814 and his exile to Elba – followed by the return of King Louis XVIII
(brother of Louis XVII)
a. Constitutional Charter of 1814: guaranteed civil liberties gained during the French Revolution
and established a constitutional monarchy in theory
1) established a two house legislature
2) Louis appointed moderate royalist as his ministers
b. Failures of Louis XVIII’s gov’t
1) Napoleon’s temporary return in 1815 (Hundred Days) – marked the popular support
against Louis XVIII’s government
2) suffrage was only given to 100,000 of the wealthiest French citizens out of 30 million
3) republicanism was pushed to the side for an elite system of government
2. Charles X (younger brother of Louis XVI & XVIII) – succeeded the throne in 1824 following Louis
XVIII’s death
a. a reactionary (Conservative who wanted to undue Liberalism) – he attempted to re-establish
the old order in France
1) Charles tried to rally support for his government by attacking Muslim Algeria in North
Africa = led to a long war of occupation
b. Charles revoked the Constitutional Charter of 1814 in an attempted coup in July 1830
1) issued decrees stripping the wealthy middle class of its voting rights & censored the press
c. reaction: “three Glorious days”- insurrection in Paris by printers, artisans, and small traders
led to the government’s collapse = Charles fled France
1) The upper middle class seated Charles’s cousin: Louis Philippe (r. 1830-1848)
VIII. Revolutions of 1848 –revolutionary political and social ideologies combined with severe economic crisis
and the romantic impulse to produce a vast upheaval across Europe
late 1840’s = food shortages (Irish potato famine) & high unemployment
demanded freedom of the press, expansion of suffrage, self-determination = independence of
smaller states
A. France
Louis Philippe’s bourgeois monarchy” – corrupted upper middle-class dominated the government
led to demands for political and economic reforms by republicans and the working class
1. Skirmish between the Paris National Guard and Parisian protestors resulted in 40 dead
a. Paris mobs built barricades in the streets and captured government buildings
b. Louis Philippe abdicated his throne
2. Second French Republic was established & and The Chamber of Deputies selected a provisional government headed by 9 Republicans
a. proclaimed universal male suffrage and abolished slavery in French colonies
b Louis Blanc (Utopian Socialists) – attempted to establish a “democratic and social republic”
1) believed in the “right to work” – government should assume the responsibility for
providing employment in times of economic crisis, as well as subsidizing workers’
associations.
c. Over 200 political clubs and nearly as many newspapers formed in Paris
1) Triggered economic crisis – businesses close deepening unemployment
2) Blanc’s government established “National Workshops” – paying unemployed workers to repair roads and level hills (pick and shovel labor)
3) Provincial unemployed workers moved to Paris for enrollment
a. Gov’t raised taxes on an emergency basis by 45% to pay for the public works
d. Women political clubs formed demanding right to divorce, better working conditions, and the right to vote
3. April elections – 84% voted for a majority conservative government including monarchist
4. Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) – moderate republican, author of Democracy in America
a. “private property had become with all those who owned it a sort of bond of fraternity”
b. Republican government abolished the “National Workshops” triggering a Paris uprising of the unemployed (given choice to join the army or return to the provinces for gov’t jobs)
c. “June Days” – three days of fighting between the army and Paris mobs resulted in over 10 thousand killed and a failed uprising.
5. Constituent Assembly drafted a new constitution featuring a strong executive (semi authoritarian)
a. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte) won the presidency in 1848
1) Popularity of his name
2) Desire of the propertied classes for order
B. Austrian Empire in 1848
1. Began in Hungary – nationalistic Hungarians (Magyars) demanded national autonomy, full civil liberties, and universal suffrage
a. When monarchy hesitated = Viennese students workers(Austrian capital city, Vienna) took to the streets in protest – peasant uprising broke out in the empire.
b. Habsburg emperor Ferdinand I (r. 1835-1848) – capitulated = promised reforms and a liberal constitution
c. Metternich (conservative finance minister) – fled the Austrian empire for England, and the old absolutist state of Austria crumbled
d. Monarchy abolished serfdom = peasant farmers gained their freedom and land, lost interest in the liberal revolution waged by urban citizens.
e. Urban workers/artisans demanded socialist workshops and universal voting rights – met with greater opposition by a classical liberal middle class.
2. Failed Revolution in Austrian Empire
a. Hungarian nationalism threatened small minority groups who wanted their own independence – Croats, Serbs, Romanians
b. Habsburg monarchy exploited fears of minority groups who joined in opposition to the Hungarian revolution
c. Conservative monarchist rallied to the Habsburg monarch
1) Archduchess Sophia – led an aristocratic takeover of the Austrian monarchy.
2) Demanded her son Joseph be appointed emperor in place of the childless Ferdinand I who had been embarrassed by a student uprising in Vienna
3) Francis Joseph (r. 1848-1916) – crowned emperor
4) Tsar Nicholas I of Russia (r. 1825-1855) – crushed the Hungarian revolution with an invading force of 130,000 Russian soldiers on June 6, 1849.
5) Joseph established a conservative monarchy
C. Prussia and the Frankfurt Assembly
1. Goal of middle class Prussian liberals: transform absolutist Prussia into the liberal, unified nation desired by liberals throughout the German states.
a. Inspired by the fall of Louis Philippe’s government in France – Prussian middle class liberals and artisan workers joined forces in protest in Berlin, 1848.
1) Emperor Frederick William IV (r. 1840-1860) – promised to grant a liberal constitution and to merge Prussia into a new national German state to be created.
2) Middle class liberals rally to the monarchy in a counter revolution - fear the radical, socialist republicans who controlled the National Assembly
b. National Assembly met in Frankfurt to draft the constitution
1) Became distracted by the war with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein – which demonstrated the main focus of the middle class liberals was the unification of a German nation
2) By 1849 – Frederick William IV had reasserted his power – rejected the liberal constitution and the formation of a German state
c. Frederick William granted a limited constitution, but maintained his divine right to rule
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