Textiles As Revision



Contents TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u AQA SPEC 3.1.1 AS Section A: Materials and Components PAGEREF _Toc381184353 \h 63.3.1 A2 Section A: Materials and Components PAGEREF _Toc381184354 \h 6AQA SPEC 3.1.2 AS Section B: Design and Market Influences PAGEREF _Toc381184355 \h 83.3.2 A2 Section B: Design and Market Influences PAGEREF _Toc381184356 \h 8AQA SPEC 3.1.3 AS Section C: Processes and Manufacture PAGEREF _Toc381184357 \h 103.3.3 A2 Section C: Processes and Manufacture PAGEREF _Toc381184358 \h 10Fibres PAGEREF _Toc381184359 \h 14Microfibers PAGEREF _Toc381184360 \h 17Modern microfibers PAGEREF _Toc381184361 \h 17Natural Fibres PAGEREF _Toc381184362 \h 17Cotton: PAGEREF _Toc381184363 \h 17Linen: PAGEREF _Toc381184364 \h 18Sisal PAGEREF _Toc381184365 \h 18Wool: PAGEREF _Toc381184366 \h 19Cashmere: PAGEREF _Toc381184367 \h 20Mohair: PAGEREF _Toc381184368 \h 20Ramie PAGEREF _Toc381184369 \h 21Silk: PAGEREF _Toc381184370 \h 21Cultivated Silk: PAGEREF _Toc381184371 \h 21Wild Silk: PAGEREF _Toc381184372 \h 22Manufactured Fibres PAGEREF _Toc381184373 \h 22Asbestos: PAGEREF _Toc381184374 \h 22Viscose: PAGEREF _Toc381184375 \h 22Lyocell: PAGEREF _Toc381184376 \h 23Modal: PAGEREF _Toc381184377 \h 24Acetate: PAGEREF _Toc381184378 \h 24Rubber: PAGEREF _Toc381184379 \h 24Acrylic: (Polyacrylic) PAGEREF _Toc381184380 \h 25PVC: (Chlorofibre) (Polyvinyl) PAGEREF _Toc381184381 \h 25Elastane: (Elastomeric) (Lycra) PAGEREF _Toc381184382 \h 25Fluorofibres: PAGEREF _Toc381184383 \h 26PTFE: PAGEREF _Toc381184384 \h 26Nylon: (polyamides) PAGEREF _Toc381184385 \h 26Polyester: PAGEREF _Toc381184386 \h 27Polyolefines: (polyethylene) (polypropylene) PAGEREF _Toc381184387 \h 27Aramid: PAGEREF _Toc381184388 \h 28Glass: PAGEREF _Toc381184389 \h 28Carbon: PAGEREF _Toc381184390 \h 29Metallic: PAGEREF _Toc381184391 \h 29Ceramics: PAGEREF _Toc381184392 \h 29Yarns PAGEREF _Toc381184393 \h 30Twist PAGEREF _Toc381184394 \h 30Folded Yarns PAGEREF _Toc381184395 \h 31Blends PAGEREF _Toc381184396 \h 34Woven Fabrics PAGEREF _Toc381184397 \h 35Plain Weave PAGEREF _Toc381184398 \h 35Twill Weave PAGEREF _Toc381184399 \h 36Satin Weave PAGEREF _Toc381184400 \h 36Pile Weaves PAGEREF _Toc381184401 \h 37Brocade Weave PAGEREF _Toc381184402 \h 38Jacquard weave PAGEREF _Toc381184403 \h 38Tartan: PAGEREF _Toc381184404 \h 38Crepe: PAGEREF _Toc381184405 \h 39Traditional and cultural methods of producing fabric PAGEREF _Toc381184406 \h 40Warp and Weft-Knitted Fabrics PAGEREF _Toc381184407 \h 41Plain Weft Knit: PAGEREF _Toc381184408 \h 42Single Jersey Knit: PAGEREF _Toc381184409 \h 42Double Jersey: PAGEREF _Toc381184410 \h 43Rib Knit: PAGEREF _Toc381184411 \h 43Jacquard Knit: PAGEREF _Toc381184412 \h 43Pique Knit: PAGEREF _Toc381184413 \h 43Warp Knit: PAGEREF _Toc381184414 \h 44Tricot: PAGEREF _Toc381184415 \h 44Locknit PAGEREF _Toc381184416 \h 44Velour: PAGEREF _Toc381184417 \h 44Polar Fleece: PAGEREF _Toc381184418 \h 44Panel Knitting: PAGEREF _Toc381184419 \h 45Piece Goods: PAGEREF _Toc381184420 \h 453D – Whole-Garment Knitting: PAGEREF _Toc381184421 \h 45Non-Woven Fabrics PAGEREF _Toc381184422 \h 45Felt PAGEREF _Toc381184423 \h 46Bonded non wovens PAGEREF _Toc381184424 \h 46Tufted non wovens PAGEREF _Toc381184425 \h 47Open-work fabrics PAGEREF _Toc381184426 \h 47Modern and Smart Materials PAGEREF _Toc381184427 \h 48Combination fabrics PAGEREF _Toc381184428 \h 49Technology in textiles PAGEREF _Toc381184429 \h 49Polymers PAGEREF _Toc381184430 \h 49Finishes PAGEREF _Toc381184431 \h 50Mechanical finishing processes PAGEREF _Toc381184432 \h 51Chemical finishing processes PAGEREF _Toc381184433 \h 51Biological finishes PAGEREF _Toc381184434 \h 51Thermochromatic finishes PAGEREF _Toc381184435 \h 51Nanomaterial’s and integrated Components PAGEREF _Toc381184436 \h 51Integrated electronics PAGEREF _Toc381184437 \h 53Decorative Techniques PAGEREF _Toc381184438 \h 53Dyeing and Printing PAGEREF _Toc381184439 \h 53Dyeing of fabrics: PAGEREF _Toc381184440 \h 54Direct Dye PAGEREF _Toc381184441 \h 54Reactive Dye PAGEREF _Toc381184442 \h 54Vat Dye PAGEREF _Toc381184443 \h 54Disperse Dye PAGEREF _Toc381184444 \h 54Acid Dye PAGEREF _Toc381184445 \h 54Colour fastness of textiles: PAGEREF _Toc381184446 \h 55Preparation PAGEREF _Toc381184447 \h 55Dyeing Textiles PAGEREF _Toc381184448 \h 56Hand dyeing PAGEREF _Toc381184449 \h 56Commercial dyeing PAGEREF _Toc381184450 \h 57Continuous dyeing PAGEREF _Toc381184451 \h 57Batch dyeing PAGEREF _Toc381184452 \h 57Printing PAGEREF _Toc381184453 \h 57Joining PAGEREF _Toc381184454 \h 58Fastening and Components PAGEREF _Toc381184455 \h 58Computer Aided Design (CAD) PAGEREF _Toc381184456 \h 60Production PAGEREF _Toc381184457 \h 64One-off Production PAGEREF _Toc381184458 \h 64Batch Production PAGEREF _Toc381184459 \h 64Mass Production PAGEREF _Toc381184460 \h 64Other Production Systems PAGEREF _Toc381184461 \h 65Off-the-Peg Manufacture PAGEREF _Toc381184462 \h 65Just-in-Time Stock Control PAGEREF _Toc381184463 \h 65Industrial and commercial practice PAGEREF _Toc381184464 \h 65Manufacturing Systems: PAGEREF _Toc381184465 \h 65Stages of Manufacture: PAGEREF _Toc381184466 \h 671. Fabric manufacture- PAGEREF _Toc381184467 \h 672. Fabric preparation- PAGEREF _Toc381184468 \h 68Dyeing: PAGEREF _Toc381184469 \h 68Printing: PAGEREF _Toc381184470 \h 69Finishing Processes: PAGEREF _Toc381184471 \h 70Seams PAGEREF _Toc381184472 \h 73British Standards and Health and Safety PAGEREF _Toc381184473 \h 74British Standards Institute (BSI) PAGEREF _Toc381184474 \h 75Health and Safety PAGEREF _Toc381184475 \h 75Health and Safety for the Consumer: PAGEREF _Toc381184476 \h 76Legislation: PAGEREF _Toc381184477 \h 76Textile product maintenance PAGEREF _Toc381184478 \h 77Development of Technologies and Design PAGEREF _Toc381184479 \h 80The effects of major developments in textiles technology: PAGEREF _Toc381184480 \h 80Some examples of major developments are: PAGEREF _Toc381184481 \h 80Marketing PAGEREF _Toc381184482 \h 81Product Life Cycle PAGEREF _Toc381184483 \h 82Marketing and Advertising PAGEREF _Toc381184484 \h 86The marketing function: PAGEREF _Toc381184485 \h 86Role of new technology in marketing and sales of textiles products: PAGEREF _Toc381184486 \h 88Jobs in the Textiles/Fashion Industry PAGEREF _Toc381184487 \h 89Industrial Textiles PAGEREF _Toc381184488 \h 98Technical Textiles PAGEREF _Toc381184489 \h 98Performance Textiles PAGEREF _Toc381184490 \h 98Technological Developments PAGEREF _Toc381184491 \h 99Market Influences PAGEREF _Toc381184492 \h 99Environmental Issues PAGEREF _Toc381184493 \h 100Moral Issues PAGEREF _Toc381184494 \h 101Fashion designers PAGEREF _Toc381184495 \h 102Vivienne Westwood PAGEREF _Toc381184496 \h 102Paul Smith PAGEREF _Toc381184497 \h 103Alexander McQueen PAGEREF _Toc381184498 \h 104John Galliano PAGEREF _Toc381184499 \h 104Christian Dior PAGEREF _Toc381184500 \h 105Coco Chanel PAGEREF _Toc381184501 \h 106Art Movements PAGEREF _Toc381184502 \h 107Arts and Crafts Movement PAGEREF _Toc381184503 \h 107Art Nouveau PAGEREF _Toc381184504 \h 108The Bauhaus PAGEREF _Toc381184505 \h 108Art Deco PAGEREF _Toc381184506 \h 108Memphis PAGEREF _Toc381184507 \h 109AQA SPEC 3.1.1 AS Section A: Materials and Components3.3.1 A2 Section A: Materials and ComponentsFibre types READ AQA BOOKLET & TEXTILE INNOVATIONSource and classification of the main fibregroupsUnderstand that fibres come from a variety of different sources and that their qualities are related to the fibre group to which they belong. Candidates should have sufficient outline knowledge of the manufacturing process to enable them to understand how this affects properties, eg melt spinning of synthetic fibres produces smooth continuous filament. Detailed knowledge of processes is not required.Natural fibres-Plant/cellulose: cotton, linen, ramie-Animal/protein: wool, silk, hairManufactured fibres-Regenerated fibres: eg viscose, acetate, modal-Synthetic (including microfibres): eg nylon, polyester, acrylic, elastomerics, PVCCommercial names of fibres and fabricsBe aware of popular names of natural, man-made and synthetic fibres and fabrics, including Tactel, Lyocell, Tencel, Lycra, polar fleece and Trevira Fibre Classification and Generic Names READ AQA BOOKLET & TEXTILE INNOVATIONClassification of fibres from both traditional and non-traditional sources for identification of and an understanding of the products developed from thesefibresNatural fibres–– generic terms – Cellulose (vegetable); bast, leaf and seed fibres–– Protein (animal); wool, silk (cultivated and wild varieties)–– luxury hair fibres, including cashmere, mohair, angora, llama, Vicuna–– Mineral; asbestos.Man-made fibres–– Regenerated fibres Natural polymers – Regenerated cellulosic; viscose, modal, lyocell, cupro, acetate and triacetate, rubber, alginate,–– SyntheticSynthetic polymers; elastomeric, fluorofibres, polyamides, polyacrylic (acrylics), polyesters, Chlorofibres(polyvinyl), polyolefines (polyethylene, polypropylene) Aramid fibres–– Inorganic, including glass, carbon, metallic, ceramics read textiles innovation–– Shape and formation of fibres – An understanding of the different cross-sectional and linear formation that fibres can occur in both natural form and those that can be engineered during synthetic and man-made fibre productionCommercial Names of Fibres and FabricsA knowledge of commercial names of fibres and fabrics used in sales and marketing and the recognition of brand familiarity and fibre and fabric promotion.Yarns READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Carding, spinningUnderstand that fibres need to be made into yarns to manufacture woven and knitted fabrics.The importance of twistYarn typesKnowledge of basic yarn types and how they influence the qualities of the fabrics made from them, eg staple and filament yarns, single and plied yarns, textured and bulked yarns, fancy yarnsBlending and mixing of fibresStaple fibre blends, core spunTechnical Terms Related to YarnsTex, denier systems for numbering yarnsFabric manufacture READ AQA BOOKLET& TEKOT HANDOUTKnowledge of the structure of the main construction methods and the differences between them.Understanding of the qualities given to the fabrics by the construction methods, including typical end-uses WovenPlain (Tabby)Twill and satin weavesPile weaves, eg cut/loop pileSpecial effects achieved with coloured yarns andBlended fibres, boucle and crepe fabricsKnittedWeft knits, eg single and double jerseys, rib knit, hand and machine knitsWarp knits, including, tricot, velour Non-wovensProduction of felts and bonded fabricsFabric Construction Methods READ AQA BOOKLET & TEXTILE INNOVATIONKnowledge of Industrial and hand methods of fabric construction methodsUnderstanding of a wide range of woven structures, including basic and fancy weaves, twill and satin variations, brocades, jacquards, three yarn system woven fabrics, double cloth and pique fabrics Special woven effects: yarn dyed stripes, plaids, tartans, madras, checks and crepeKnowledge of global cultural woven traditions; including the Ashanti strip weaving, the Back strap looms used in South America, Ikat weaving in IndonesiaUnderstanding of a range of knitted structures – weft knit; plain, single jersey, double jersey, pique, rib knits, jacquard knits, warp knit, locknit, atlas, Raschel lace and net structuresHand and machine knitted methods, panel knitting, fully fashioned panels, whole garment knittingNon-woven methods of fabric manufacture – felted, bonded (adhesive or heat), needled. Methods of bonded manufacture, lamination, stitch bondedMethods of creating open work fabric – leno, lace,net, crotchet, macramé Braid and narrow fabricsInfluence of new technology, micro fibres, breathable membrane systems.Smart materials created to provide specific properties READ TEXTILE INNOVATION& AQA BOOKLET Awareness of a range of different smart fabrics, eg heat reactive, fabrics developed for health and safety applications, performance fabricsFabric finishes READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Knowledge of the effects of finishes and the reasons they are needed in relation to the fibre/fabric properties and end use of the product. Detailed knowledge of the chemicals involved and methods of application is not required.Brushing, calendering, flame retardancy, water resistance, non-iron/crease resistance, stain resistance, shrink resistance, heat setting to give permanent pleatsSurface decoration READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUTDyeing; domestic and industrial methods (vat, discharge and resist), stages at which dye is applied (fibre, yarn, fabric, finished product), dye fastness Printing (screen, roller, transfer, ink jet, stencilling)Embroidery, quiltingProduct components READ TEKOT HANDOUTCandidates should have knowledge of a variety of components and their appropriateness for a range of products in relation to the end-user, fabric and design considerations.FasteningsIncluding buttons with buttonholes/loops, zips, poppers, clips, buckles, clasps, Velcro, D-rings, hooks and eyes, fabric and ribbon tiesTrimsIncluding braids, ribbons, piping, edgings, petersham,bindings, fringing, lace, beads, sequins, diamantes, motifsThreadsIncluding sewing threads, embroidery threads, special effect threadsWorking properties of fibres and fabrics READ TEXTILE INNOVATION Knowledge and understanding of the properties of fibres and fabrics and their physical characteristics in relation to their choice for various design solutionsFibre propertiesStrength, extensibility, elasticity, fineness, electrostatic charge, lustre, thermal insulation, flammability, moisture absorption, shrinkage Fabric qualitiesStrength, durability, elasticity, flammability, thermal qualities, creasing, absorption, stretch, formability, handle, drape, weight, pattern repeat, directional pile, nap, texture, lustreTesting of materials WATCH DVDExperience of basic testing to determine appropriate properties in relation to chosen end useAwareness of fabric testing undertaken in industryWorking PropertiesProperties of fibres, yarns and fabricsAn understanding of how properties of different fibres, yarns and fabrics can affect their use in a wide range of commercial applicationsAn awareness of new performance codes in relation to the selection of materials for a range of end usesIdentify, test and compare the relative properties of fabricsKnowledge of commercial testing to meet British Standards (BSI fabric testing)Consumer advice in relation to the performance of different fabricsEvaluate the use of materials testing as set out in British StandardsManipulating and combining materials READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUTUnderstand the need to combine materials and have outline knowledge of the main methods used.Mixtures, blends and laminatesFibre content, properties and typical applications, reasons for useCombining materials Interfacings, underlinings, linings, interlinings; types and applications in relation to fabric weight and construction, and end use of productManipulating and Combining MaterialsYarn creationUnderstanding of yarn types; folded/plied, cabled, core, fancy, colour effects, structure effects (slub, bourette, boucle, chenille), lustre effects, texturing and textured yarnsCategories of yarns – novelties, specialised, performance.The importance of mixtures, blends and laminates to include the development of new technologiesUnderstand the need to blend fibres or produce mixture fabrics or laminates to create aesthetic effects, performance fabrics, improved care and maintenanceThe impact of new developments, including smart and reactive materials such as phase changing materials, phosphorescent materials, microencapsulated fibres and fabricsAQA SPEC 3.1.2 AS Section B: Design and Market Influences3.3.2 A2 Section B: Design and Market InfluencesDevelopment of design History of designStudy to include some of the major developments of design throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuriesUnderstanding of influences on aesthetic attitudes to style and fashion up to the present dayProduct evolution and product analysisA study of manufactured products to illustrate the way in which the demands of a product have evolved as a result of new materials and technologies.Appraisal of functional, aesthetic, technical and economic considerations in the design and manufacture of productsConsideration of aspects of physical surroundings as shaped by designers, craftsmen and technologistsDevelopment of Technologies and DesignThe effects of major developments in textiles technologyDevelopments in the production of fibre, yarns, fabric, product manufacture, finish, colour application and decoration, production systems, computer control and increased automationNew technological developments in textiles productdesignThe work of past and present textile designersAs related to textile and fashion products in particular, but also to include design movements and the inherent influences on product design, including trends, street culture, music and the media, world events. To have an understanding of the developments of fashion in clothing, accessories and furnishings. To appreciate the influence and contribution of leading fashion and textile designers.Design in practiceDesign methodologyAnalysis, research, inspiration, idea generation, illustration, modelling, planning, evaluating and testingThe role of the designerAn understanding of the varying roles of the commercial designerExploring different approaches to designingUnderstanding of manufacturing constraints on product designAn awareness of the environmental issues in relation to the design of textile productsSocial and moral implications of product designDesign sourcesCandidates should be able to respond to a variety of stimuli drawing from direct observation of natural and man-made forms, secondary sources in relation to specified design briefs.Aiding the design processUse of inspirational moodboards, designer sketchbooks. Analysing working and aesthetic characteristics of a range of materials and surface decoration techniques. Understand industrial process used to produce these effects. Recognising design faults in existing productsMarket researchClient profiling, identifying target market,consumer and product research, eg opinion polls, questionnairesThe marketing functionCustomer identificationAn awareness of the use of new technology in the marketing of textile productsProduct costing, calculation and profitPresentation of colourwaysProduct life cyclesUnderstanding the expected life cycle of productsCopyright protectionThe issue of copyright, patenting and their importance to the designer and manufacturerDesign in PracticeProduct life cycleAn understanding of life cycle analysis – concepts of product introduction, growth, maturity, decline and replacement, product disposal – relating to the life cycle of a product – impact of recycling and environmental issuesFashion cyclesSales and marketing cycles for product groups including – fad, classic, standard. Industry development cycles from colour, fibre trends and predictions to products at the point of sale, eg Influence of trends from fashion, cultural and media sources. Importance and purpose of trade fairs,influence of trends and changes in lifestyle on textile products, lifestyle analysisUnderstanding target markets, analysing existing productsThe marketing functionMarketing and branding of new fibres and other textile productsThe importance of labelling, packaging and corporateidentificationThe advertising and promotion of textile products using a wide range of media and the use of new technologyThe purpose of marketing mix of product, place, promotion, price – use of visual merchandising – different retail markets and points of saleRole of new technology in marketing and sales of textiles productsDevelopments in virtual reality and product simulationNew technology marketing and product promotion –e commerceAn awareness of multi-national textile companies and the concept of global marketingMeeting customer requirements/profitability through identifying socio-economic groups and demographictrends, niche marketingThe role of professionals within the textiles industryThe role of buyer, merchandiser, fabric and garment technologist, visual merchandiserThe role of the designerThe professional interfaces between client/designer, designer/manufacturer, manufacturer/retailer, manufacturer/userAn awareness of constraints placed upon designersincluding environmental issues Social, political, ethical influencesSelection of materials and components appropriate tospecific market requirementsWorking to client specifications, designing within BudgetsProduct classificationTextile product groups – garment product groupsincluding menswear, womenswear, childrenswear,workwear, sportswear, accessories, foundationwear,leisurewear, formal dress, suitability of products foridentified market? Furnishing textiles for domestic and public places? Industrial textiles? performance textiles – protective textilesRetail point of sales – High street independent department stores and boutiques, multiple retailers, multiple department stores, chains, mail order, web sites, interactive mediaCommunication methodsCandidates should be able to communicate the detail and form of products, environments and systems so that they may be manufacturedThey should be able to identify and use appropriate means to communicate ideas, design proposals and evaluations to a range of audiences, including clients and potential users of the product, eg presentation boards, fashion illustration, interior sketches, swatches, colourwaysIllustrationSelection and use of appropriate 2D/3D techniques, eg sketching, drawing, use of mixed media, collageEnhancementRendering – use of line/tone/colour/formTexture – to represent materials, surface finishes and applied decorationPresentation – two-dimensional and threedimensional Products Information drawingQuantitative – graphs, pie charts, bar charts, pictogramsOrganisational and topological – flow charts, sequential/schematicModellingUsing three-dimensional form – mock-ups, prototypes, scale modelsUse of ICTSelection and use of CAD, word processing/DTP, spreadsheets, databases and modelling softwareDesign in the human contextHuman needsDesigning to meet physiological, psychological and sociological needs of various groups of people, eg young, elderly, physically handicapped in different environments and communitiesHuman factorsErgonomic and anthropometric influences and constraintsThe relationship between people, products and the environmentHealth and safety READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUTRisk assessment in relation to the design and manufacture of productsSafety standards imposed by BSI, recommended by the DTI for product designRecommendations for health and safety at work for employees and the implications for the employerApplications/material areasApparel fabrics to satisfy basic clothing requirements, eg protection, adornment, fashion, utility, sportswear (performance sport and leisurewear), footwear, accessoriesHousehold fabrics, eg table/bed linen, furnishing accessories, furnishings, flooringsIndustrial textiles, eg fire protective wear, components for vehicles/machines, automotive fabrics, tents, awnings, harnesses, medical textiles READ TEKOT HANDOUTEnvironmental concerns READ AQA BOOKLET Use of natural resources, materials utilisation, conservation, waste disposal/management, pollution in broad terms, recycling Green technology, environmental problemsDesign in the Human ContextHealth and SafetyIssues of health and safety in relation to industrial, commercial and trading practices – health and safety of users of textile products – COSHHBSI standards for product testingImpact of technological developmentBalance between gain and loss for the individual and the community in terms of ethical, social, environmental and economic considerations.Environmental concernsUse of natural resources, organic production, materials utilisation, conservation, waste disposal/ management, pollution, recycling, Green technology, environmental problems, planned obsolescenceAQA SPEC 3.1.3 AS Section C: Processes and Manufacture3.3.3 A2 Section C: Processes and ManufactureIndustrial and commercial practiceREAD AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUTManufacturing systemsOne-off, batch, mass/line production, vertical, in-house production, pre-manufactured components, manufacturing specificationsResponse to market demandsManufacturing sub-systemsJust in time production (JIT)ICT applicationKnowledge and understanding of CAD/CAM for designing and manufacturing processes, fabricproduction, pattern production, embroidery, garment manufactureCAD (Computer Aided Design); design of fabrics, products, colourways, product modelling pattern constructionCAM (Computer Aided Manufacture); understanding of fabric manufacture, lay planning, computer controlled cutting, sewing, pressing, decorationICT used in the integration of manufacture (CIM)Pattern draftingBasic pattern/template drafting, including the knowledge and use of technical terms (basic block, labelling and notching, balance marks, seam allowance and ease)Principles of gradingBasic adaptation to create unique individual stylesProduct manufactureFabric preparation, lay planning, marking and cutting out, methods of joining, shaping, finishing of edges, selection of construction techniques appropriate to the fabric being used and the product being made.Pressing – use of correct toolsLabelling and packagingTo plan appropriate methods and processes for the manufacture of chosen products, includingamendments and adaptations of prototypes and the use of industrial manufacturing processesProduct maintenanceCare and maintenance of productsInformation shown on care labels, including symbols usedRelationship between care recommendations and fibre/fabric propertiesEnvironmental concernsAn awareness of the environmental issues in relation to fibre/fabric production and the dyeing of fabrics and piece goodsHealth and safetyRisk assessment and health and safety issues related to the manufacture of textile productsIndustrial and Commercial PracticeAppreciation and understanding of the use of CAM for fabric printing, knitting and weaving, pattern drafting and grading, robotic control for garment constructionUse of ICT in manufacturing data control (EDI)EDP (Electronic Data Processing)EDI (Electronic Data Interchange)CAA (Computer Aided Administration) stock controlCAD (Computer Aided Design) design of fabrics,products, colourways, product modelling, patternconstructionCAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) understandingand application of fabric manufacture, lay planning,size grading, controlled cutting, controlled decoration,controlled construction, controlled pressingPPC (Production Planning and Control) networkingFuture implications – CIM (Computer IntegratedManufacture)Global ProductionGlobal production – offshore production – imports and exports, branded – contracted goodsManufacturers – Sub-contractors, wholesalers, CMT(Cut, make and trim) operationsProduct MaintenanceCare and maintenance of products HLCC International labelling, symbols, descriptionsUnderstanding of temperature requirements for different fibresTesting for colour fastnessHealth and SafetyRisk assessment, Health and Safety issues related to production. Role of the HSE and Health and Safety legal requirementsProduct ManufacturingFibre, yarn and fabric manufactureKnowledge of the processes used to manufacture fibres and yarns – use of texturing processes including false -twist, knit de knit, air jet – production of stretch yarns, bulked yarns, formation of fancy yarns including chenilleFabric manufactureDyeing: Preparation of fabric (desizing, scouring, bleaching), batch dyeing processes (jig, winch, jet dyeing methods), continuous dyeing, semicontinuous, resist methodsDye affinity to different fibres, including direct, reactive, vat, disperse, acidGrey or greige goods, the dyeing of fibres (stock and top), yarns (skeins), fabric (piece goods), garments –Dyeing in response to consumer demand, dyeing in relation to seasonal trendsPrinting methods: direct, discharge, transfer, resist, hand (block, stencils), roller, rotary/flat bed screenprinting, digital printingFinishing: Intermediate processes including fixation, washing, drying and heat settingMechanical finishing – including raising, calendering, embossing, pleating, shrinking, beetling, stone and sand washing, laser cuttingChemical finishing – including water repellency, laminating, stain resistance, flame resistance, antistatic, mothproofing, anti-pilling, rot proofing, antifelting, hygienic (sanitised)Coating and laminationNew developments in finishes, including smart and reactive finishes, reflective finishes, photochromicdyes,Product manufactureProduction systems and distribution – organisation of manufacturing companiesUnderstanding of Unit production, quantity production; understanding of bespoke productionProduction Organisation Systems: synchronised, section, progressive bundle, UPS (Unit production system), to include line and team working, QRM teamsProduction Planning and Control: line balancing,factory load, warehouse – packing and dispatchResponse to market demands (QRM)In-depth production planning to include inputs,processes, outputs, loops and feedbackUnderstanding of the processesSystems and control READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUTQuality assurance and quality controlQuality control checks throughout the manufacturing processSystems diagrams – input, process, outputLoop feedback systems which ensure qualityAwareness of quality and finish in the manufacture of own productsSystems and ControlQuality control systemsControl of quality throughout the manufacturing process – quality built into design – inspection checks for qualityQuality assurance, conformance and nonconformance. TQM control systems. Quality control data systems for garment/product manufactureAwareness of quality and finish in the manufacture ofown products3.1.1 AS Section A: Materials and Components3.3.1 A2 Section A: Materials and ComponentsWarmth(comfort)Absorbency(comfort)Comfort(comfort)Handle and drape(aesthetics)Strength(functional)Elasticity(functional)Aftercare(functional)Natural fibresWoolWarm to wear.Slow, can absorb 13 its weight in water and not feel wet. Repels water droplets. Very slow drying.Fine wool, very comfortable. Coarse wool, scratchy.Very soft or coarse handle. Good drape.Medium strength, not durable.Very good. Creases drop out.Wash and iron with care, may shrink. Dry clean.SilkCool, but good insulation so warm as well.Fast, can absorb 13 its weight in water.Very comfortable.Soft handle and elegant drape.Good strength.Very good, creases drop out.Wash and iron with care, best dry cleaned.CashmereVery warm. Excellent thermal insulation.Slow absorbency.Soft and luxurious. Excellent comfort.Luxurious handle, light, good drape.Not-durable.Good elasticity. Crease resistant.Wash with care.MohairGood thermal insulation. 35% warmer than wool.Poor.Excellent, luxurious.Luxury handle, light and good drape.Durable, hardwearing. 10% stronger than wool.Good. Crease resistant.Use extreme care.CottonCool to wear unless brushed.Highly absorbent. Slow drying.Very comfortable unless wet. Soft handle. Good drape.Good strength, abrasion resistance, and durability.Poor. Creases easily.Wash, boil, iron damp. May shrink.AngoraVery warm. 2 X warmer than wool.Slow.Very softSoft handle. Average drape.Durable.Fair elasticity.Hand wash, cool. Do not tumble dry.RamieAverage warmthGood absorbencyVery comfortable especially in warm weatherCan have stiff or brittle handle. Doesn’t drape well due to stiffness.One of the strongest natural fibres. Even stronger when wet. Not very durable.Little elasticity.Can be washed or dry-cleaned.LinenFresh and cool to wear.Highly absorbent. Fast drying.Stiffer and harder than cotton.Firm handle. Smooth surface. Good drape.Good strength and durability.Poor. Creases very badly.Wash, boil, easily ironed.Manufactured fibresViscoseLow warmth.More absorbent than fortable to wear.Soft or firm handle. Good drape.Lower strength than cotton.Poor. Creases easily. Washable. Easy to iron.Lyocell(high performance viscose fibre)Low warmth.Very good absorbency. More absorbent than cotton.Very comfortable.Excellent handle. Good drape.Stronger than other cellulose fibred, including cotton and many types of polyester.Poor.Disposable. Totally biodegradable, can be recycled. Biodegrades in 8 days.Rubber(natural – from latex)(synthetic – from petrochemicals)Good, high warmth.Low absorbency.Uncomfortable due to lack of breathability. Warm, pliable and soft.Stretchy, poor drape.Good natural stretch. Excellent. Does not crease.Sensitive to light, oils, solvents and grease. Can’t be washed easily. Recyclable.Modal(regenerated)Low warmth.Highly absorbent. 50% more absorbent than cotton.Very comfortable. Very soft.Silky, soft handle. Good drape.Lower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton.Poor elasticity. Creases easily.Washable. Do not bleach. Easy to iron. Can be dry-cleaned and ironed.Asbestos(mineral fibre – mined)Good thermal insulation.Poor.Itchy, often uncomfortable.Rough handle. Poor drape.Excellent.Poor.Difficult. Easy-care finish can be applied.AcetateLow warmth.Low absorbency. Fast fortable, but prone to static.Soft handle and elegant drape.Low strength. Poor abrasion resistance.Higher than viscose, but creases.Wash and iron with care. Thermoplastic.PolyesterLow warmth, unless textured.Very low absorbency. Hydrophobic. Fast fortable, but prone to static. Micro fibres breathable.Soft or firm handle.Very strong and abrasion resistant.Very good. Crease resistant.Machine washable. Iron with care. Thermoplastic.Aramid(Kevlar)Low warmth. Excellent heat resistance.Average.Flexible and comfortable.Soft, flexible handle. Good drape.Five times stronger than steel. Excellent.Flexible.Machine washable. Use detergents with care to ensure properties are not reduced.Polyamide (Nylon)Low warmth, unless textured.Very low absorbency. Hydrophobic. Fast fortable, but prone to static. Micro fibres breathable.Soft or firm handle.Very strong and abrasion resistant.Very good. Crease resistant.Machine washable. Iron with care. Thermoplastic.Elastane(elastomeric fibres) (Lycra)Low % always used in blends.Absorbent. Dyes well.Adds stretch comfort.Soft or firm handle.Good strength.Very high. Crease resistant.Machine washable. Thermoplastic.FluorofibresLow warmth.Non-absorbent. Doesn’t dye well.Breathable. Flexible.Soft, fine handle.Durable.Fair elasticity.Degrades slowly. Used as a coating.Chlorofibre (polyvinyl)(PVC)Provides good insulation. Warm.Low absorbency. Hydrophobic. Waterproof.Breathable and flexible.Strong, firm, fine handle.Very strong and durable.Flexible.Machine washable. Fast drying. Iron with care. Do not tumble dry.Polyolefines(polyethylene)(polypropylene)Low warmth.Non-absorbent.Soft when finely spun.Good drape.High strength. Durable.Good stretch. Crease resistant.Good soil and stain release, but not oil or grease.Acrylic(polyacrylic)Warm to wear.Fast fortable to wear.Very soft wool-like handle, good drape.Good strength.Very good. Crease resistant.Machine washable. Iron with care, may shrink. Thermoplastic.FibresFibres are the basis for all textiles. You need to know the difference between natural and synthetic fibres, how each fibre is used, and which fibres can be combined together.Textile materials are made in three stages:spinning: fibres are spun into yarnsweaving or knitting: yarns become fabricsfinishing: fabrics are finished to make them more usefulA fibre is a fine and flexible textile raw material, which has a high ration of length to thickness. All fibres can be classified as natural or manufactured. Fibres can be short or very long, depending on where they came from and how they were manufactured.Staple fibres are relatively short in length. Natural staple fibres can range in length from a few millimetres, to around a metre.All synthetic fibres are manufactured as continuous filaments of indefinite length, which run the whole length of the yarn. Some synthetic continuous filaments are cut into staple lengths.Silk is the only natural continuous filament fibre. It can be as long as one kilometre, when it is taken from the silk cocoon.Working Properties Of Fibres And FabricsFibre Properties:Aesthetic (to do with the look)FunctionalComfortStrength- whether or not a fibre will break under tensionExtensibility- how much a fibre can stretch until it breaksElasticity- how much a fibre will stretch and regain it’s original shapeFineness- the thickness of the fibreElectrostatic charge- if a fibre contains ‘static’, it will be clingy and not drape well. Synthetic fibres are prone to static.Lustre- a slight shineThermal insulation- whether the fibre is a good or bad conductor of heatFlammability- all fibres burn, flammability is to do with whether the fibre will catch fire quickly or not and how it reacts to heat, i.e. will it melt?Moisture absorption- the amount of liquid the fibre will absorb, important to know because of comfort of wearer and ease of washing/drying time etc.Shrinkage- whether or not a fibre will shrink when washed, tumble-dried or ironed etc.Fabric qualitiesDurability-whether the fabric will withstand wear and tear, is it resistant to abrasion, will rubbing cause the surface to pill (go bobbly)Creasing- will the fabric keep creases in or shed them easily Stretch- how far the fabric will stretchFormability- does the fabric hold it’s shape well?Handle- is the fabric soft? How does it feel when handled?Drape- how the fabric hangs, is the fabric supple and flexible? Weight- is the fabric heavy or light, is the weight suitable for it’s purpose?Pattern repeat- is the printed pattern a large or small repeat? This will effect how economical it will be to cut out the fabric pieces so that the pattern lines up when made into a garmentDirectional pile- the raised surface of a pile fabric or brushed fabric, does it look different when looked at from different directions, e.g. velvet that looked different from different angles.Nap- the raised surface of a pile fabric or brushed fabricTexture- what the fabric feels like, is it smooth, bobbly, rough etcMicrofibersMicrofiber technology combines a high number of very fine fibres into one yarn of decitex or less. This means that 10 kilometres of the filament weigh one gram or less. A microfiber is around 60 to 100 times finer than a human hair. Microfibers can be:Manufactured from polyester, polyamide or acrylic.Blended with other synthetic fibres of with natural fibres.Used in fabrics that have an enormous variety of appearances and end-uses.Used in smart and technical fabrics for active wear, all weather wear and for a range of industrial uses.Modern microfibersElastane (Lycra) is always used in a blend with other fibres. It is used to make sportswear, body-hugging clothes and bandages. It has good handle and drape, is durable, crease resistant, stretchy (more comfortable) and is easy care. It has low warmth and is absorbent.Tencel is a 'natural' microfiber made from cellulose derived from wood-pulp. It is used for shirts and jeans. It has soft handle, good drape, is breathable, durable, crease-resistant, easy-care and biodegradable. It is absorbent and has low warmth.Natural FibresVegetable Fibres (cellulose)Animal Fibres (protein)Mineral FibresSeedCottonWoolWoolSilicateAsbestosStemLinen (flax)Fine hairCashmereMohairLeafSisalSilkCultivatedWildCotton:Cool to wear unless brushedHighly absorbentSlow dryingVery comfortable unless wetSoft handleGood drapeGood strength, abrasion resistance and durabilityPoor elasticity – creases easilyNatural cellulose from the seed of the cotton plantProduced as a staple fibreAbsorbs up to 65% of own weight without drippingNon-static because it always contains some moistureNaturally breathableBiodegradable and recyclableFabrics: calico, corduroy, denim, gingham, drill, terry towellingFinishes: mercerising – for higher strength and lustresynthetic resin treatment – non-iron and crease resiststain-resist finishes using Teflon or siliconeflame retardant finish using ProbanCotton is harvested by hand or by picking machines and may need to be dried if harvested wetCotton plants require a tropical climate and wet soil for growthThe fibres are separated from the seeds by a process called ginning. The separated fibres are called lint. Typically blended with polyester, polyamide, viscose, modal, Elastane. Common blend ratios – 50/50 60/40 70/30Typical cotton fabrics include, calico, corduroy, denim, gingham, drill, terry towellingTypical end uses include household linen, curtains and towels, shirts, underwear, trousers and jeans, work wear, awnings and sewing thread.Washable, can be boiled and bleached, dries slowly, best ironed damp, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried (may shrink)Linen:Natural cellulose from the stem of the flax plantProduced as staple fibresFresh and cool to wearStrong, durable, long lasting, smooth surface, good drapeHighly absorbent, fast drying, fresh and cool to wearNon-static because it always contains some moistureCrisp, firm handle, stiffer and harder than cottonShrink proof, washes, irons and dyes wellLow elasticity, so creases very badlyDirt-repellent, anti-microbialBiodegradable and recyclableSynthetic resin treatment – for crease-resist finishStain-resist finishes using Teflon or siliconeFabrics:interlining, Holland (for window blinds), mattress ticking, pure linen for clothingTypical blends include Linen 50% Cotton 50%, Linen 70% Nylon 25% Elastane 5%, Linen 70% Modal 30%, Linen 50% Cotton 46% Acrylic 4%.Typically blended with viscose, Tencel, polyester and silkTypical linen fabrics include interlining, Holland (for window blinds)Typical end uses include, household linen, tablecloths, curtains, and tea towels, shirts, skirts, and suits, ropes, sewing thread and geotextilesWashable, can be boiled and bleached, quick drying, irons easily when damp, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried.Sisal:This is a natural sustainable fibre, produced from the leaves of the agave cactus. Sisal is high strength, durable, easy to dye, water resistant, has good abrasion resistance, good anti-static properties and is fairly easy to keep clean. It is used for agricultural twines, ropes, hairbrush bristles, baskets and natural floor coverings, which can be blended with wool to make them softer and warmer.Wool:Wool from the fleece of a sheepProduced as staple fibresHydrophilic – can absorb 13 of its weight in water without feeling wetNaturally breathable, rapidly absorbs moisture vapourHydrophobic – repels raindropsMostly non-static because if always contains some moistureVery soft or coarse handle, depending on fineness.Good drapeMedium strength, not durableSmooth – can be coolBulky – warmInbuilt UV protection and fire-resistanceAt least 40% inbuilt natural stretch and elasticity – good crease resistance, creases drop outBio-degradable and recyclableMachine washable wool – for woven’s and knitwear at 40°C, using the wool cycle and approved detergentsTotal Easy Care Wool – for woven’s and knitwearSilicon treatment – for weatherproofingTypical wool fabrics include ‘cool wool’, felt, herringbone, flannel, ‘sport wool’, tartan, tweedTypical end uses include blanket, carpets and upholstery, suits, jumpers, overcoats, sports garments, ties, scarves, hats and socks, industrial felts, agricultural blankets and geotextilesWashable (with care, unless easy finish), do not bleach, very slow drying, steam iron under a cloth or fabric goes shiny. Can be dry-cleaned. Do not tumble dry, dry in direct sunlight or over heat.Woollen ProcessWorsted ProcessCoarse, hairy, irregular, rustic appearance because they are made from shorter, sometimes coarse staple fibres which are rubbed during manufacture. Woollen fabrics are finished to give a felted, hairy surface, suitable for jackets, blankets or overcoats.Almost any spinnable fibre can be spun using the woollen system. Compressed bales of washed and sorted raw wool, recovered wool or other fibres are fed into a willowing machine for opening and cleaning the loose fibres.Different fibre and colour types are mixed and oiled to improve spinning capability.Fibre portions are fed into a carding machine for orientation and cleaning.A fibre web is divided into ribbons and rubbed to form the slubbing yarn, which is drafted to the required fineness, twisted and wound into yarns.Smooth, uniform, regular, fine and lustrous because they are made from longer types of staple wool fibres, which are combed, doubled and drafted smooth and fine during manufacture. Worsted fabrics are finished to give a smooth-faced fabric, which shows the yarn colours clearly. They are used for suits, trousers and skirts.The fleece wool is sorted according to quality, separated into tufts, cleaned and dried.These are fed into a willowing machine for opening and cleaning the loose fibres.Different fibre and colour types are mixed and oiled to improve spinning capability.Fibre portions are fed into a carding machine for orientation and cleaning.Fibred are doubled, drafted and mixed to improve their regularity.The short fibres are combed, drafted and twisted into a yarn roving of the required fineness, twisted and wound into yarns.Cashmere:The fine under hair of the Kel goat from India, Mongolia and Iran, shorn once a yearProduced as staple fibresOne goat produces 200-250 grams per year (just enough for a scarf!)Two goats produce enough yarn for a 1-ply sweaterIt takes 24 goats to produce enough cashmere for a coatSoft, luxurious handle and appearanceLight, lustrousGood thermal insulatorCrease-resistant, dirt-repellentNon-static, fire-resistantExpensive due to limited supplyTypically blended with wool, silk and polyesterExpensive luxury fabric for coats, and suitsLuxury knitwearLuxury interior textiles for cars, planes and yachtsMohair:Hair of the angora goat, from Texas, South Africa, Turkey, shorn twice a yearProduced as staple fibresSoft, silky, luxury handle and touchGood thermal insulator – 35% warmer than woolDurable, hardwearing – 10% stronger than wool, crease-resistant, dyes wellDust-repellent, fire-resistantExpensive due to limited supplyTypically blended with wool, cotton and silkExpensive worsted fabrics for suitingEveningwearScarves and knitwearRamieHigh natural lustre which is improved by washingNatural stainSometimes stiff or brittle handleDoesn’t drape well due to stiffnessOne of the strongest natural fibres – even stronger when wetNot very durableCreases very easily – poor crease resistanceLittle elasticityNot harmed by mild acidsDyes easilyCan be bleachedResistant to sunlightResistant to rotting and all types of bacteriaKeeps shape and doesn’t shrinkCan be washed or dry-cleanedAbsorbentComfortable to wear especially in warm weatherInsulates wellHigh cost to the environmentSilk:Cool but insulating so can be warmHighly absorbent so slow dryingVery comfortable unless wetSoft handleGood drapeVery elegantGood strengthVery good elasticityCreases drop outWash and iron with care – best dry cleanedCultivated Silk:Silk fibres from the cocoon of the Mulberry silkwormProduced as filaments up to 1km in length and as spun silkFine, smooth, lustrous, soft handle, elegant drapeElastic, fairly crease-resistant, creases drop outCan absorb up to 13 of its weight in water without feeling wetNon-static because it always contains some moistureStrong, durable, lightCool, but a good insulator, so it also provides warmthPolyurethane coating – to make silk fabric waterproofTypical fabrics include chiffon, crepe, damask, satin, twill, voileEnd uses include, luxury day and evening wear, underwear, wadding for performance skiwear, racing bike tyre reinforcement, scarves, ties, hats, handbags, umbrellas, sewing and embroidery threads.Can be affected by perspiration causing it to rot. Wash carefully, do not bleach, iron on back of fabric, steam and water can leave stains, best to dry-clean, do not tumble dry or dry in direct sunlightWild Silk:Silk filament fibres from the cocoon of the wild Tussah silk mothFilaments ad spun silkCoarse, ‘rustic’, uneven, thicker fibreHarsh handle, heavier than cultivated silkAbsorbent and non-static because it always contains some moistureDyes to dark, dull colours, dull lustreMore sensitive than cultivated silk to perspiration – could stainManufactured FibresNatural polymersSynthetic polymersInorganicRegenerated celluloseViscose modalPolyvinylAcrylicCarbonCarbon fibreCellulose esterAcetateChlorofibrePolyvinyl chloride (PVC)glassGlass fibrelatexRubberPolyurethaneElastaneMetallicMetal fibresFluorofibreTeflonceramicCeramic fibresPolyamideNylonpolyesterpolyesterAsbestos:Mineral fibre – minedNon-flammableResistant to chemicalsResistant to insects and microorganismsGood thermal insulationUsed where heat resistance was required n products such as car brake linings, roof insulation, fire-resistant clothing, theatre safety curtains and ironing boardsNo longer in use because it is a serious health hazardOccasionally found in buildings and has to be removed with great care by expertsModern fibres such as Nomex can provide superior heat and flame resistance, combined with high-strength and easy-careViscose:Natural cellulose from wood pulp from pine or eucalyptus treesProduced as staple and filament yarnsMore absorbent than cotton, non-static because it always contains some moistureNaturally breathable, absorbing 14% of water vapourFine, with soft handle and good drapeLow ability to trap air – low warmthLower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton, can tear when wetPoor elasticity, so creases easilyDyes and prints to bright coloursShrinksBiodegradable and recyclableInexpensive to produceSynthetic resin treatment – to reduce creasing and shrinkage although absorbency is reducedWide range of finishes can be applied – such as textures and crimpsTypically blended with cotton, linen, wool, polyester and ElastaneFilament viscose produces lustrous and crepe fabricsStaple viscose produces cotton, linen and wool-type fabricsEnd uses include curtains, shirts, dresses, lingerie, ribbons and trimmingsWashable, do not bleach, easy to iron, can be dry-cleaned but not tumble driedFabrics: filaments – lustrous and crepe fabrics staples – cotton, linen and wool-type fabricsViscose filaments are manufactured fibres. The spinning process for viscose fibre involves coagulating, or setting the liquid fibres in a bath of chemicals. The fibres set at an irregular rate which makes tiny grooves or striations, along the length of the filaments. These striations give the fibre and irregular cross-section. Viscose has a relatively smooth surface which is able to reflect light. As this can be an unwanted property, a de-lustring chemical is often added to the spinning solution to reduce this ability to reflect light. The shape and the cross section of a fibre effects its lustre and handle. The shape of the cross section of manufactured fibres can be changed using spinnerets with different cross sections.ProductionRaw material, cellulose, is extractedThe cellulose is purified, bleached, pressed into sheets and dissolved in sodium hydroxideIt is then pressed again, shredded and agedChemicals are then added and liquid is extruded through the holes of a spinneret in a spinning bathThis is Wet SpinningThe cellulose solidifies and is drawn into filaments and washed to remove chemicalsWet spinning is used for Viscose and AcrylicsIn wet spinning the polymer solution is extruded into a chemical fluid which solidifies the filamentsLyocellTencelThe generic name given to a new family of cellulosic fibres and yarns that have been produced by solvent spinning. Marketed under the Tencel brand name, it is a high performance staple Viscose fibre produced from renewable sources of wood pulp.The process is widely regarded as being environmentally friendly and the product offers a number of advantages over traditional cellulosic fibres.The brand name for a high performance Viscose fibre made from 100% regenerated cellulose from trees. Tencel is stronger than Viscose cellulosic fibre and is characterised by its stiffness and drape.Lyocell:High performance staple Viscose fibreProduced from renewable sources of wood pulpMade using an environmentally friendly process that recycles non-toxic solvent used in its manufactureCan be recycled, incinerated or biodegradedLyocell can be digested in sewage and the fibre degrades completely in eight days to leave water and carbon dioxide only, which can be used to power the sewage plant itselfCharacteristicsFibrillationThe ability for the fibres to spilt to give micro-fine surface hairs. Manufacturers of technical products can develop these microfibers to suit specific end-uses.Surface effectsFinishing processes such as dying, milling, felting, sueding, sanding and brushing are used on woven fabrics, non-wovens and paper.StrengthLyocell is stronger than other cellulose fibres including cotton and outperforms many types of polyester.AbsorbencyLyocell is easy-care, dyes well, has good ‘wicking’ properties and is breathable.DisposalTotally biodegradable and can be recycled.Modal:Natural cellulose from wood pulpProduced mainly as staple fibreMainly used in blendsAbsorbs up to 50% more moisture than cotton, non-static because it always contains some moistureNaturally breathableSilky, smooth, very soft handle and good drapeLow ability to trap air – low warmthLower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cottonPoor elasticity, so creases easilyDyes to brilliant coloursShrinks less than viscoseBiodegradable and recyclableInexpensive to produceSynthetic resin treatment – to reduce creasing and shrinkage, although absorbency is reducedWide range of finishes can be applied such as textures and crimpsTypically blended with cotton, polyester, wool silk and ElastaneLustrous fabrics, blended knitted and woven fabricsEnd uses include bed and table linen, terry towelling, shirts, jumpers, socks, nightwear, jackets, sports and active wear and soft denimWashable, do not bleach, easy to iron, can be dry-cleaned and tumble driedAcetate:Cotton cellulose and acetic acid95% of the acetic acid can be recycledProduced as filaments and microfibersLow absorbency, fast drying, prone to staticNaturally breathableSubdued lustre, smooth, very soft handle with elegant drapeLow warmth, dyes wellMore elastic than viscose but creases easilyThermoplastic, sensitive to dry heatBiodegradable and recyclableInexpensive to produceEnd uses include, silk type fabrics for eveningwear etc., microfiber performance fabrics and embroidery yarns, ribbons and trimmingsTypically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for summer fabrics, polyester and ElastaneRubber:Natural rubber is made from latex, although synthetic rubber from petrochemicals is mainly used today. Its natural stretch and pliability have made rubber useful for flooring, waterproof coverings, types and Wellington boots. In the past, rubber yarns were used to provide stretch in swimwear and underwear. Rubber can be printed onto garments and accessories and can be used as moulded hoods and pockets. It can also be applied to specific areas of a product, such as the fingers of work gloves. Natural rubber is:Warm pliable and softAntistatic, antibacterial and anti-slipSensitive to light, oils, solvents or greaseNot breathable, so ventilation is neededJoined by stitching or adhesivesrecyclableAcrylic: (Polyacrylic)sourced from petrochemicalsinexpensive to manufacturecan be manufactured as filament of spun fibrescan be spun as microfiberslow absorbance, fast drying, prone to staticgood strength, crease-resistantsoft wool-like handle with good drapewarm, easy carethermoplastic, sensitive to steam and heat, can result in shrinkagenon-renewable resourcetypically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for summer fabrics, polyester or ElastanePVC: (Chlorofibre) (Polyvinyl)Sourced from petrochemicalsManufacture uses chlorineCan be manufactured as filament or spun fibresCan be manufactured as a coatingStrong, flexible, durableBreathable, easy care and waterproofProvides good insulationThermoplasticNon-renewable resource, although PVC bottles can be recycledSpun fibres always blended with other fibres including cotton, linen, viscose, modal, wool and silkElastane: (Elastomeric) (Lycra)Sourced from petrochemicalsMade from segmented polyurethaneComposed of soft, flexible segments bonded with hard, rigid segmentsElastane yarn is always covered by another yarnInbuilt capacity to stretch up to 7 times original length, then recover when tension is releasedProvides lively, supple fabric with enhanced drapeAdds comfort, softness and crease-resistanceImproves body-shaping and shape retentionCan be engineered to provide precise combination of yarn thickness, texture, brightness and stretch performance to suit the end use of fabric or garmentFor example can provide chlorine resistance and comfort in swimwear, lasting fit in leather, washable and crease resistant linenAbsorbent, dyes well, easy careNon-renewable resourceElastane fibres are always combined with other fibres, natural or synthetic. Common blends include maximum 20% for swimwear, 15% for hosiery, 2-5% jersey fabrics, 2% for woven fabrics and 1% for flat knitsFluorofibres:Sourced from petrochemicalsSynthetic polymer used mainly as a coatingFlexibleDurableBreathableEasy careDoesn’t dye wellWater repellentOil, chemical and stain resistantWindproofWater-basedCNC freeDoesn’t harm the environmentsNon-renewable resourceDegrades slowlyUses: to protect all fibres and leather, garments, upholstery, curtains, sportswear, ties, mattresses, work wear, shoesPTFE:Sourced from petrochemicalsSynthetic polymer used mainly as a coatingFlexible, durableBreathable, easy care, hardly dyesWater repellent, oil, chemical and stain resistant, windproofWater-based, CFC-free, doesn’t harm the environmentNon-renewable resource, degrades slowlyUsed to protect all fibres and leatherNylon: (polyamides)Sourced from petrochemicalsInexpensive to manufacture and produced as textured filament, staple fibres and microfibersCan be engineered to provide a wide range of properties and characteristicsNon-absorbent and prone to static; textured filaments transport moisture away from the bodyFineness ranges from microfibers to coarse fibres – can be fine and soft or firm, depending on fibre fineness, fabric construction and finishingFlat filaments trap little air so are cool; textured filaments trap air so provide warmthVery strong, excellent abrasion resistance, tear resistance and durabilityWindproof, hydrophobic, water-repellent, easy care, lightweight, flammable, soft, good drapeGood elasticity, so good crease recoveryThermoplastic, can be textured and heat set, sensitive to dry heatCan be engineered to provide breathable comfortDyes well, yellows and loses strength with long exposure to sunlightResistant to alkalis, solvents, mildew and fungus, but degraded by concentrated acidsNon-renewable source, non-bio-degradableAnti-static treatmentflame-resist treatmentWide range of treatments to engineer specific propertiesTypically blended with wool, cotton, linen, silk and other syntheticsTextured filament fabrics, staple fibre fabrics and microfiber fabricsEnd uses include, carpets, curtains, tights, underwear, socks, active sportswear, all weather wear, fleece, tents, clothingPolyester:Sourced from petrochemicalsThe most used and versatile synthetic fibreInexpensive to manufactureAbout 60% produced as staple fibresAlso produced as textured filaments and microfibersCan be engineered to provide a wide variety of properties and characteristicsNon-absorbent and very prone to static; textured filaments transport moisture away from the bodyFineness ranges from microfibers to coarse fibres – can be fine and soft or firm, depending on fibre fineness, fabric construction and finishingFlat filaments trap little air so are cool, textured filaments trap air so provide warmthVery strong, excellent abrasion resistance, tear resistance and durabilityWindproof, hydrophobic, water-repellent, easy-care, lightweight, good heat resistance, soft, good drapeVery good elasticity so very good crease resistanceThermoplastic, can be textures, bulked and heat set, sensitive to dry heatCan be engineered to prove breathable comfortDyes well, yellows and loses strength with long exposure to sunlightResistant to acids, alkalis, solvents, mildew and fungus, but attacked by concentrated acidsNon-renewable sourceCan be recycled – 25 PET bottles makes one jumper!Anti-static treatmentsFlame-resist treatment for interiors end useWide range of treatments to engineer specific propertiesSome PET fabrics can be laser cut and heat weldedFilament fibres usually texturesStaple fibres are blended with wool, cotton, viscose, modal, linen and silkStaple fibre fabrics, textured filament fabrics, microfiber fabricsEnd uses include furnishings, upholstery, carpets, bedding, children’s nightwear and transport textiles, garments, ties, scarves, rainwear, linings, net curtains, sports and leisure wear, all weather wear, microfiber fleece garments, work wear, 100% staple yarn sewing thread, wadding for duvets and pillows, medical textiles such as artificial ligamentsMachine washable, launders well at low temperatures, do not bleach, fast drying, iron with some care, can be dry-cleaned and tumble driedTrevira – a branded type of Polyester, produced by Hoechst Fibres Inc. It offers better pilling performance than regular polyesterPolyolefines: (polyethylene) (polypropylene)SyntheticMade from petrochemicalsThermoplastic with a low melting pointHigh strengthResistant to chemicalsNon-absorbentVery good wicking propertiesCrease-resistantSoft when finely spunGood soil and stain release but not oil or greaseNon-allergenicEngineered for use in a wide range of end produces and is extensively used for carpet backing, sacks, webbing, twine, fishing nets, vegetable bags and ropesUsed for upholstery and for the pile of carpets as it is very durable and has excellent soft touch and crush recoveryThe good wicking properties of polypropylene enable it to be used in medical and hygiene productsOther end-uses include awning, synthetic surfaces for sports, sportswear and geotextilesPolypropylene has about 70% of the geotextile marketAramid:Generic name for a family of synthetic polymer fibres made from petro-chemicalsExpensive high-tech aramid fibres can be engineered to produce woven, knitted, non-woven or cabled technical textiles which provide high strength and heat-resistanceKevlarBrand name for a family of Aramid fibresHigh strengthLightweightFlame and chemical-resistantFlexible and comfortableImportant in a wide variety of industrial end-usesFive times stronger than SteelFlexibility and comfort make it suitable for a range of protective wear, such as chemical-resistant work wearUsed for bulletproof vests because of its bullet stopping powerOther end uses:Equipment used for high-risk activities such as hot-air ballooningHigh-tension cables and ropes for bridges and shipsProtective glovesStrong lightweight protective equipment such as ski-helmetsTennis racquetsGlass:Powdered compounds of mineral originGlass fibre reinforced polyester produced for over 40 yearsGlass fibre painted with silicon to keep it pliableDurable, strong, shatterproofPoor abrasion resistanceHeat and cold resistant so does not soften or become brittleGood electrical propertiesNon-stick, non-toxicReflectiveResistant to chemicals, mildew and fungusUsed with an anti-static treatmentRequires a surface finish to reduce skin irritationEnd uses: aerospace and military industries, flame and heat barriers, roof coverings, sterile hospital wall coverings, outerwear protective garmentsAftercare: machine washable, can bleach, can be dry-cleaned and tumble driedFibreglassMade of extremely fine fibres of glass. It is used as a strengthening agent, e.g. glass reinforced plasticCommonly used as an insulation material and to produce flame retardant fabrics for specialised applicationsCarbon:Made by burning acrylic fibre to produce carbonFirst produced over 20 years agoUsed to replace metalsVery strongLightweightAbrasion and tear resistantFlame-resistant at very high temperaturesResistant to chemicals, low shrinkage in heatNon-renewable resourceNew blend developments are ongoingEnd uses: transport, upholstery, sports products, protective clothing for the emergency services and armed forcesAftercare: machine washable, can bleach, can be dry-cleaned and tumble driedGraphite FibresExtremely thin and composed of mostly carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are bonded together in microscopic crystals which make the fibre very strong for its size. Several thousand carbon fibres are twisted together to form a yarn, which may be used by itself or woven into a fabric. Carbon fibre is very strong but lightweight and these properties make it very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However it is relatively expensive when compared to similar materials such as fibreglass or plastic. Carbon fibres are used in the production of electro-conductive fibres used to make intelligent fabrics or wearable computers. Because the fibres are flame retardant they are used to make some specialised fabrics such as those used for aeroplane interiors.Metallic:Aluminium, copper and steel most commonly usedSilver and gold used for more expensive end usesSilver is the most effective anti-microbial materialThin sheet metal cut in strips or fine wire used as yarnMetal thread spun round core yarnA metallised polyester yarn called Lurex has been used since the 1980’s and is often coated with fine plastic to prevent tarnishingStrongLightweightAbrasion resistantProtects against electromagnetic pollutionConductive and delectable by radar – useful for wearable electronics and GPSAnti-staticProtection for active sportsAluminium provides shape memoryEnd uses: decorative textiles, active sportswear, work wear and protective industrial clothing, medical end usesAftercare: can be washed and tumble driedCeramics:Powdered compounds of metal oxide, metal carbide, metal nitride or their mixturesBecoming more widely incorporated into garment fabricsCeramic content fabrics can regulate the body temperature – wearer is cooler in heat or warmer in cold temperaturesResistant to very high temperaturesProvides UV protectionGood insulationResistant to chemicalsLow thermal conductivityEnd uses: swimwear, UV protective clothing, industrial work wear, electrical, thermal and sound insulationAftercare: machine washable, can bleach, can be dry-cleaned and tumble driedCeramics are noted for their high temperature resistance as they can withstand temperatures of more than 1000°C. They are also extremely lightweight, have low thermal conductivity and chemical stability – they can resist attack from most corrosive chemicals. They are widely used in thermal insulation industry. Ceramic molecules can be incorporated into synthetic fibres, either by coating them with ceramic particles or by encapsulating them within the fibre. The inclusion of ceramic molecules in a synthetic fibre can give the fabric UV protection properties e.g. Esmo and sunfit fabrics. Ceramic molecules can also make fabrics which are able to regulate body temperature, e.g. Thermolite, a lightweight fibre with a hollow core.YarnsYarn is defined as a fine continuous length of fibres or filaments, with or without twist. To be useful, yarns need to be strong enough to be made into fabric. Generally, lengths of fibres are produced through the process of spinning into a variety of different yarn types, such as singles, ply, cabled, core spun or fancy yarns. The thickness of yarn (the yarn count) and the tightness of the yarn twist, affect a fabric’s weight, flexibility, handle, texture, appearance and end use.All staple yarns are spun from fibres into a variety of different yarns such as singles, piled, cabled, core or fancy yarns.The thickness of yarn (yarn count) and yarn twist affect a fabric’s weight, flexibility, handle and end-use.Too much twist may make a yarn hard, whereas too little twist may result in a weak yarn. Soft knitting yarns usually have less twist, but warp yarns for weaving need a higher twist so they are strong enough to withstand the tension in the loom.Staple yarns are made from fibres such as cotton, flax, wool, spun silk or cut manufactured fibres.Filament yarns are made from continuous filaments of silk and manufactured synthetic fibres such as polyester or nylon.Blended fibres like acrylic/cotton can be made permanently bulky using heat to increase the volume of thermoplastic acrylic. This gives a warm soft handle, suitable for knitwear.Thermoplastic continuous filament synthetic yarns can be textured using a heat process. This gives an elastic, warm, soft handle, suitable for tights, swimwear, underwear, outerwear and carpets.TwistTwist is put into yarns during spinning to make them stronger, so they are suitable for weaving or knitting. Yarns can be spun clockwise (‘Z twist’) or anti-clockwise (‘S twist’). Fabrics made from spun yarn usually have ‘Z twist’ in the warp and may have ‘S twist’ in the weft. Light is reflected in opposite directions from the two types of yarn, so striped effects can be produced in fabrics by having alternate stripes of ‘S’ and ‘Z’ twist in the warp.Continuous filament yarns are made by lightly twisting filament fibres together.Staple yarns are made from short staple fibres; these have to be carded or combed, so that they all lie in the same direction, before being twisted together to form a yarn.Filament fibres can be chopped into short staple fibres; this means that they will need to be twisted together to make a yarn. If a filament fibre is to be blended with a staple fibre, the long filaments need to be cut into staple before being spun into yarn.Filament yarns are smooth but staple yarns are hairy. Hairy yarns are good at trapping air between the fibres – this means that they are good insulators and will make fabrics which are warm. Smooth yarns are not so good at trapping air and so make fabrics which are not good at insulating. The hairy yarns can also trap moisture between the fibres.Folded YarnsFolded or piled yarns are made by twisting together at least two single yarns, in order to:Improve the strength and regularityEliminate “twist liveliness”Make heavier structuresAchieve special effectsThe direction of twisting is designated as S or Z, just as in single yarns. Normally the folding twist is in the opposite direction to that of the single yarns. Folding twist may be soft, normal, or hard, according to the number of turns per metre compared to that in the single components. Balanced twist is when the folding twist is approximately equal and opposite of the singles. In single yarns, or in folded yarns with unbalanced twist, the yarn contains residual torque resulting from the twisting together of the fibres. This can cause the yarns to snarl during processing, and garments to become distorted after laundering. Thus the highest quality knitted fabrics are made from two-folded yarns with balanced twist.Cabled yarns are made by twisting together folded yarns.Folded Yarns-Folded yarns are made in a single processing step, combining 2, 3 or more single yarns into one by twisting them together.Cabled Yarns-Cabled yarns require more than one twisting stage. Two or more folded yarns may be twisted together to form a cabled yarn.Core Yarns-Core yarns have long been used for burnt out effects in woven fabrics. The covering component is made of a different material from the core and can be selectively removed, according to a printed pattern.Stretch fabrics can be made from core yarns in which the core is an Elastane filament and the covering is made from natural fibre, or textured filament yarn.Core-spun yarns are made by covering a core filament yarn with staple fibres in a single spinning process.17081599504500Sewing threads are often made from core or core-spun yarns. The synthetic filament core gives high strength whilst the cover yarn or covering fibres prevent the needle from over-heating and protect the core from softening or melting at the needle during high-speed sewing.Colour EffectsStructure EffectsLustre EffectsMixture of Ingrain yarns are made by mixing fibres of different colours during spinning. This results in a heather effect. For example: MarengoSlub yarns are single or folded yarns having long thick places, regularly or irregularly disposed. The slub effect is made either in spinning or folding. Fabrics may have the character of linen or wild silk, which is favoured in furnishings.Matt/lustre effects are obtained by mixing matt and bright fibres. Lustre and Glitter effects can also be obtained by the use of metal fibres (uncommon today) or metallised plastic films such as Lurex, or clear films, or man-made fibres with special cross-sections. Fabric examples: brocade, lame.Melange or Vigoureux yarns are spun from combed silver or top which has been printed with stripes. The appearance is somewhat like a mixture.Bourette or Knop yarns are folded yarns containing short, often coloured bunches of fibres or yarn at regular or irregular intervals. The knops may be formed during carding, during spinning, or during folding. Fabrics have a structured surface. Example: Donegal tweed.Mottle or Marl yarns are made by spinning from two-colour roving’s or from two roving’s of different colours. The appearance is like mouline but with less sharp contrast.Bouclé or Loop yarns are compound yarns made by a special folding process which results in wavy or looped projections. Fabrics have a more or less grainy handle and a textured surface. Examples bouclé, fries, frotté.Jaspé or Mouliné yarns are made by folding two or more differently coloured yarns, or yarns made from different fibres with different dyeing behaviour. They give a mottled appearance. For example: fresco.Chenille is a cut pile yarn, it is soft and voluminous. These yarns are made by cutting special fabrics into strips. They are used in furnishing fabrics and knitwear.Crêpe yarns are used to make fabrics with a wrinkled surface and a sandy handle. They are made from highly twisted yarns. Fabric examples: crêpe de chine, georgette, crepon, marocain.BlendsMost modern fabrics contain more than one fibre. This is because there is no such thing as the perfect fibre so manufacturers include different fibres in a blend. Blending is achieved by spinning two or more fibres together to make a yarn.This enables a fabric to be made which will be better suited to the product.In order to make a successful blend, the fibres must be the same length so that they can be mixed together before they are spun into a yarn. Continuous filament yarns can be twisted together to make a multi-filament yarn, e.g. polyester and nylon.The main reasons for blending fibres are:To help reduce the cost of the fabricTo give different effects in the texture and handle of the fabricTo allow for novelty effects when the fabric is dyedTo make a fabric with specific qualities for a particular end useTo make the fabric strongerTo make a fabric easier to care forTo enable fabrics to be more crease resistantTo allow fabrics to be heat setPopular blends include:Polyester and cotton blends are commonly used to make a wide variety of fabrics. Different percentages of cotton and polyester are included according to what the fabric is to be used for. The polyester helps cancel out the shrinking, creasing and slow drying of cotton. The cotton makes the fabric better at absorbing moisture and makes the fabric feel nicer next to the skin.Elastomeric fibres like Lycra are blended with many other fibres. The Lycra gives the fabric some stretch – the higher the percentage of Lycra, the more the fabric will stretch. Only very small amounts of Lycra are needed to give a lot of stretch – Lycra is never used on its own to make a fabric because of its high stretch. Elastomeric fibres are combined with other fibres by core-spinning, wrapping or interlacing. The Lycra also makes the fabric more crease resistant. Fabrics containing Lycra should not be washed and ironed at high temperatures as this may damage the Lycra.Viscose fibres are used in many blends. They help make the fabric more absorbent and soft to handle. As viscose is cheap to manufacture, it can help reduce the price of the fabric.Wool is often blended with nylon for products such as socks, trousers, jackets and coats. The wool makes the fabric soft and warm, and makes it a bit more luxurious. The nylon gives improved strength and resistance to abrasion, makes the fabric lighter in weight and helps prevent the wool from shrinking when it is washed. The inclusion of nylon will also reduce the overall cost of the fabric.Woven FabricsMost fabrics are made by weaving or knitting yarns, although non-woven fabrics are made by bonding or felting fibres together. A fabric's appearance, properties and end use can be affected by the way it was constructed.1583055152336500Woven fabrics - Woven fabrics are made up of a weft - the yarn going across the width of the fabric - and a warp - the yarn going down the length of the loom. The side of the fabric where the wefts are double-backed to form a non-fraying edge is called the selvedge. Plain WeaveThe most used weave structure and is made from most fibre types. Plain weave fabrics are strong, firm and hardwearing. They are used for many types of end-uses, including garments, household textiles and accessories.In plain-weave fabric the warp and weft are aligned so that they form a simple criss-cross pattern. Plain-weave is strong and hardwearing, so it's used for fashion and furnishing fabrics.Twill WeaveProduces fabric with diagonal lines, which generally run bottom left to top right of the fabric face. Weaving twills in different directions produces chevron or herringbone fabrics. Twills are made from many fibre types and drape well. They are used for a variety of end-uses including jackets, suits, trousers, jeans and curtains.In twill-weave fabric the crossings of weft and warp are offset to give a diagonal pattern on the fabric surface. It's strong, drapes well and is used for jeans, jackets and curtains.Satin WeaveWarp faced, with a smooth, shiny face and a dull back. Satin fabric drapes well so it is used for curtain linings, evening wear, upholstery, ribbons and trimmings, depending on the fibre used. Satin can be made from cotton, polyester/cotton, acetate, polyester or silk.In satin-weave fabric there is a complex arrangement of warp and weft threads, which allows longer float threads either across the warp or the weft. The long floats mean the light falling on the yarn doesn't scatter and break up, like on a plain-weave.The reflected light creates a smooth, lustrous (shiny) surface commonly called satin. The reverse side is invariably dull and non-shiny. Weave variations include jacquard and damask.Pile WeavesPile weaves have tufts or loops of yarns which stand up from the body of the fabricThey are classed as three yarn system woven fabricsWarp Pile WeavesWeft Pile WeavesUncut Loop Pile WeavesWarp pile weaves have cut loops e.g. velvet (see below)One method of producing velvet is to weave two cloths face to face with the third (pile) warp alternating between the two fabrics. The pile warp is specially woven in to form the pile. A knife moves back and forth at the bottom of the loom and cuts the pile warp as the fabric moves forward as it is woven. This produces two separate pieces of velvet at the same time.Weft pile weaves have cut loops produced after weaving e.g. velveteen, corduroy and needle cordVelveteen has a short pile produced by cutting the third (pile) weft after weaving.Corduroy is a ribbed cut weft pile. The pile runs parallel to the selvedge. The cords can vary in width to give jumbo cord or needle cord.e.g. terryThe pile warp remains slack and loops above and below the fabric to form the pile.Towelling fabrics are produced using this weave.Cut PilesVelvet has a cut warp-pile on the face of the fabric. This gives a smooth, rich, soft, dense and lustrous fabric. Velvet should be used in one direction only, so pattern pieces run along straight grain with the pile stroking downwards from head to toe. Cotton velvet is used for luxury products, such as evening wear. Polyester velvet is used for upholstery.Needle cord has a cut weft-pile on the face of the fabric. The fine ribbed pile runs along the length of fabric, which may be brushed. Needle cord is usually made from cotton and is used for dress-weights.Brocade WeaveBrocade is a heavy, jacquard type fabric with a raised pattern or floral design. The pattern appears in low relief. Traditionally the pattern was produced with gold or silver thread.Brocade is typically woven on a draw loom.It is a supplementary weft technique, the ornamental brocading is produced by an additional, non-structural weft that supplements the standard weft that holds the warp threads together. The purpose of adding this is to give the appearance that the weave was actually embroidered on the surface of the fabric.Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized and sometimes product the effect of low relief. Sometimes when you turn the fabric over to inspect it from the reverse you can see floating threads of the brocaded parts hanging in loose groups.Brocade weaving is used to give texture and detail.Jacquard weaveLarge figured weaveUsed for reproducing patterns on a fabric The repeating motif involves a large number of threads both for the warp and for the weft. These weaves are produced on looms with Jacquard machines. The contours of the patterns are plotted and then filled in with the graphic elements of the various weaves (the raiser). The finished pattern indicates where to place the Jacquard machine. The warp repeats of certain Jacquard weaves can consist of several hundred threads. Complicated patterns often designed and controlled by computer programmesTartan:Tartan is a pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours. Tartans originated in woven wool, but now they are made in many other materials. Tartan is particularly associated with Scotland. Scottish kilts almost always have tartan patterns.Tartan is made with alternating bands of colored (pre-dyed) threads woven as both warp and weft at right angles to each other. The weft is woven in a simple twill, two over – two under the warp, advancing one thread each pass. This forms visible diagonal lines where different colors cross, which give the appearance of new colors blended from the original ones. The resulting blocks of colour repeat vertically and horizontally in a distinctive pattern of squares and lines known as a sett.Each thread in the warp crosses each thread in the weft at right angles. Where a thread in the warp crosses a thread of the same colour in the weft they produce a solid colour on the tartan, while a thread crossing another of a different colour produces an equal mixture of the two colours. Thus, a sett of two base colours produces three different colours including one mixture. The total number of colours, including mixtures, increases quadratically with the number of base colours so a sett of six base colours produces fifteen mixtures and a total of twenty-one different colours. This means that the more stripes and colours used, the more blurred and subdued the tartan's pattern becomesThe shades of colour in tartan can be altered to produce variations of the same tartan. The resulting variations are termed: modern, ancient, and muted. These terms refer to colour only. Modern represents a tartan that is coloured using chemical dye, as opposed to natural dye. In the mid-19th century natural dyes began to be replaced by chemical dyes which were easier to use and were more economic for the booming tartan industry. Chemical dyes tended to produce a very strong, dark colour compared to the natural dyes. In modern colours, setts made up of blue, black and green tend be obscured. Ancient refers to a lighter shade of tartan. These shades are meant to represent the colours that would result from fabric aging over time. Muted refers to tartan which is shade between modern and ancient. This type of tartan is very modern, dating only from the early 1970s. This shade is said to be the closest match to the shades attained by natural dyes used before the mid-19th century.The WarpThe WeftWarp and Weft Fabric ImageCrepe:A fabric characterised by a crinkled or puckered surface. Crimp: The waviness of a fibre or filament.A term used to describe a variety of lightweight fabric in various fibers and blends characterized by their puckered surface obtained by highly twisting either the yarn, or chemical treatments or weave construction.A variety of lightweight fabrics characterized by a crinkly surface, obtained either via use of hard twist yarns, chemical treatments, weave, construction, or some form of embossing or surface treatment. Crepes are available today in an unlimited variety of fibers and blends, and in many different constructions.Crepe is a silk fabric of a gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance.A fabric characterized by a broad range of crinkled or grained surface effect.(Flat Crepe) - Also called French Crepe or Lingerie Crepe but not exactly the same. It is the flattest of all the crepes with only a very slight pebbled or crepe effect hard twist alternating 25 x 22 in filling; warp has ordinary twist. It is very soft and pliable, which makes it good for draping. It is very light weight - 2 times as many ends as picks. Most of it launders well and is often used in accessories, blouses, dress goods, negligees, pajamas and other pieces of lingerie and linings.(Moss Crepe or Sand Crepe) - Has a fine moss effect created by plain weave or small Dobby. Made with a spun-rayon warp and a filament rayon filling. The two-ply warp yarn is very coarse and bulkier than the filling. Mostly made in rayon and synthetics but some in silk.(Georgette Crepe) - Lightweight, sheer fabric that is stiffer and with body giving an excellent wear. Has a dull, crinkled surface achieved by alternating S and Z yarns in a high twist in both warp and filling directions. Georgette has a harder, duller, more crinkled feel and appearance than crepe de chine.Traditional and cultural methods of producing fabric Ashanti Strip Weaving:Also known as a Kente cloth. Made by the Ashanti people of Ghana and is the most labour intensive weaving in the world. It became a true art form and represented the concept of royalty and status. Traditionally the Ashanti people only worked around geometric patterns. The spider Anansi taught the art of weaving to two brothers who had discovered his web while on a hunting trip. Anansi also taught them how to spin and dye the threads. Since then the Ashanti have used the strip looms Anansi taught them to build. Men traditionally do the strip weaving in West Africa.Ikat Weaving:Ikat is the method of weaving that uses a resist dyeing process similar to tie-dye on either the warp or weft fibers. The dye is applied prior to the threads being woven to create the final fabric pattern or design. One of the oldest forms of textile decoration. Ikat weaving styles vary widely. Many design motifs may have ethnic, ritual or symbolic meaning or have been developed for export trade. Traditionally, Ikat are symbols of status, wealth, power and prestige. Because of the time and skill involved in weaving Ikat, some cultures believe the cloth is imbued with magical powersBack Strap Looms:Blackstrap weaving is an ancient art practiced for centuries in many parts of the world. Peru, Guatemala, China, Japan, Bolivia, and Mexico are a few of the places they use the blackstrap loom. Today it is still used on a daily basis in many parts of Guatemala by Mayan women to weave fabrics for clothing and other household cloths. The looms are simple - typically 6 sticks- usually handmade by the weaver. A blackstrap loom is easily portable because it can simply be rolled up and laid aside when not in use. The back rod is tied to a tree or post while weaving and the other end has a strap that encircles the waist and the weaver can move back or forward to produce the needed tension. The weaver usually sits on the ground but as the person ages that is more difficult and they may use a small stool.In the western highlands of Guatemala the women have typically used cotton yarn for their weavings and used natural plants from their area to dye the yarn various colors. They still tint yarn by hand but also buy cotton yarn that's already been chemically dyed. The natural tints are softer colors than chemical dyes. These natural tints come from plants and bark such as: sacatinta - a blue colorcoconut shell - browncarrots - orangeachote - soft orange/peachhibiscus flower - rosy pinkchilca - soft yellowbark of the avocado tree - beigequilete - celery greenguayabe - brown / goldsacatinta & coconut shell – grayWarp and Weft-Knitted FabricsWeft- knitted fabric is made from a single yarn, which is fed across the width of the fabric. Weft knits are stretchy, with a right and wrong side and may ladder. Weft knitting, done by hand is used to make one off designer products, such as jumpers of cushions. Industrial computer controlled knitting machines, using CAD/CAM systems produce around 90% of jersey, rib and jacquard fabrics used for T-shirts, underwear, socks and knitwear.Warp-knitted fabrics are made on straight or circular knitting machines. Each loop of the fabric is fed by its own separate yarn. The loops interlock vertically, along the length of the fabric. Warp knits are stretchy but do not ladder and can’t be unravelled. Warp knits such as velour and Terry are used for leisure and sportswear, furnishings and sheets. Weft-knitted fabric is made by looping together long lengths of yarn. It can be made by hand or machine. The yarn runs in rows across the fabric. If a stitch is dropped it will ladder down the length of the fabric. The fabric is stretchy and comfortable and is used for socks, T-shirts and jumpers.In warp-knitted fabric the loops interlock vertically along the length of the fabric. Warp knits are slightly stretchy and do not ladder. Warp-knitted fabric is made by machine. It is used for swimwear, underwear and geotextiles.Plain Weft Knit:The simplest typeCan be produced by hand, on a domestic knitting machine or industrially. It is made up when one yarn travels the width of the fabric in the same way that a weft thread goes across from selvedge in a woven fabric. Each successive row of loops is drawn through the previous row of loops in the fabric.Single Jersey Knit:Weft KnitIt has a lot of stretch and is easily distorted, especially when washedIt drapes softly and easily takes the shape of the figureFabrics do not crease easilyFabrics trap air and are good insulators in still air. But moving air is able to get through the gaps in the fabric, making it cool to wear in wind.Ladders easily if snaggedThere is a distinct back and front (face) of the fabricThe front is smooth and the back shows loops and the fabric has a tendency to ‘curl’ at the edges. It was first made by hand in Jersey for fisherman’s clothing – in hand-knitted single jersey, the front is called ‘plain’ and the back is called ‘purl.’ Single jersey is made industrially using a single set of needles, to produce fabric that is generally plain without any rib. It has relatively low stretch in the width and can be made from cotton, cotton blends, acrylic, polyester, modal, viscose or wool. 2-5% Elastane blends provide added comfort, crease-resistance, enhanced drape and better shape retention. Single jersey is generally used for T-shirts, jumpers and underwear.Double Jersey:Weft KnitDoubled jersey fabric is made on two sets of needle beds, in which the needles are opposite each other and work alternately. It takes two courses to produce one row of loops on the face and back, which look identical. Double jersey fabrics are compact, stable, durable and retain their shape, although they are not very elastic. They can be cut like woven fabrics and can be used for T-shirts, underwear, polo shirts, sportswear, skirts and leggings.Rib Knit:Weft KnitRib fabrics are made on two sets of needles, which are staggered. Alternate loops are knitted in opposite directions, to form vertical lines in the fabric. The most popular form of knitted rib is 2X2, in which both sides of the fabric look the same. The fabric is very elastic widthways, making is suitable for jumpers, waistcoats, underwear and socks.Jacquard Knit:Weft KnitJacquard fabric has a patterned design in three of more colours. It is made by selecting needles to knot coloured yarns in a specified pattern, using CAD/CAM systems. In each succeeding course, the pattern is built up and if the colour is not required on the face, it floats at the back. There is a limit to the length of float and the fabric is not very elastic. Jacquard knits go in and out of fashion for winter knitwear.Pique Knit:Weft KnitThis is the fabric that is most associated with the original Lacoste Alligator Polo shirt.? Also sometimes called mesh, pique is characterized by a textured fabric face with lots of tiny holes and a fabric back that is smooth.? The construction is designed to pull moisture from the skin and wick it into the air, keeping the fabric, and the wearer, relatively dry and cool.? Before the days of high tech and high performance Polyester yarns, Pique was the original performance fabric.?In the 1920’s,? pique fabrics were an innovation that was used in the first use-specific athletic wear, particularly in the original tennis and polo shirts, as athletes began to move away from participating in sports in long sleeve button down shirts that covered up all skin.The extraordinary comfort of this fabric soon popularized it for less serious athletes. Today, pique knit polo shirts are especially popular for everyday wear and corporate apparel.?Warp Knit:Warp-knitted fabrics are made on straight or circular CAD/CAM knitting machines. Each loop of the fabric is fed by its own separate yarn, which is fed into the knitting zone parallel to the fabric selvedge. These loops interlock vertically, along the length of the fabric. Warp knits have some elasticity, do not ladder and can’t be unravelled. Although they can be cut like woven fabrics, warp knots have a limited application for clothing, being mainly used for swimwear, leisure and underwear, linings, laces, ribbons and trimmings. They are also used for net curtains, furnishing and bed linen. Warp knits are mainly used in industrial end-uses including geotextiles.More complicated structure using many separate yarns which are interlaced sideways. The loops are formed along the length of the fabric. In the same way that the warp thread runs parallel to the selvedge of a woven fabric.In more complicated warp knits, the needles travel sideways for two or more wales before making a new loop.It is less stretchy than weft knit and therefore produces a firmer fabric.Fabrics do not ladder and cannot be unravelled ‘row by row’Faster than weft knitting and is the cheapest method of fabric production using yarns.Tricot:Warp KnitTricot is industrially proceed warp-knitted fabric, mostly using synthetic yarns, with each yarn working in a zigzag fashion. It is used for gloves, lingerie and lightweight furnishing.Locknit:Warp KnitA combination of Tricot and 2X1 plain knit stiches, made from filament yarns. The resulting lustrous fabric is used for lining and underwear. The face of the fabric has vertical wales of small loops, whilst the back shows a zigzag stitch formation.Velour:Warp KnitKnitted pile fabric made from continuous filament fibres, has a raised fleecy surface effect, formed from cut loops that stand up from the fabric.Polar Fleece:Warp KnitModern manufactured polar fleece, made from acrylic, nylon, or polyester, is a type of double boucle knit, densely raised on one face or both, producing a fleece effect. Polar fleece is a lightweight, high bulk, breathable and warm fabric used as insulation in leisure and sportswear. This modern fleece should not be confused with natural fleece, the entire wool coat of the sheep, which is shorn off in one piece.Panel Knitting:Garment length knitting is where the fabric is knitted in individual panels of a width to suit the end product. The start of the knitting is secured with a ribbed edge. This type of knitting produces some fabric waste.Piece Goods:Cut-and-sew blanket knitting is where long lengths of knitted fabric are produced in the form of a tube on a circular knitting machine. The fabric can be processed in tubular form or cut open (usually after dyeing). It is then cut to shape and sewn to make the product. Although this type of knitting produces higher levels of fabric waste, this is kept to a minimum through the use of CAD lay-planning systems.3D – Whole-Garment Knitting:3D knitting is where whole products are knitted in one piece, incorporating all the garment shaping. There is minimal sewing necessary and no fabric waste.Non-Woven FabricsNon-woven fabrics are textile structures made directly from fibres rather than from yarn.Non-woven fabric is made by bonding or felting.Felt is a non-woven fabric made from animal hair or wool fibres matted together by moisture, mechanical action and heat. Wool felt is expensive, but blends with acetate, nylon or acrylic to reduce its price. Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity, but it does not fray and is warm and resilient. It retains its shape and can be made flame-retardant. It is used for blocking into hats, for slippers and toys.Bonded-fibre fabric is made from a web of fibres, bonded with adhesives, solvents or by the thermoplastic property of some or all of the fibres. Bonded-fibre fabrics are used mainly as fusible interlining, which are air-permeable, dimensionally stable, crease resistant, stable to washing and dry-cleaning and easy to use.Bonded-fibre fabrics are made from webs of synthetic fibres bonded together with heat or adhesives. They are cheap to produce but not as strong as woven or knitted fabrics. Bonded-fibre fabrics are mainly used for interlining. They are easy to sew, crease resistant, do not fray and are stable when washing and dry cleaning.Wool felt is a non-woven fabric made from animal hair or wool fibres matted together using moisture, heat and pressure. Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity but it is warm and does not fray. Wool felt is expensive. It is used for hats and slippers and in handcrafts.Pressed wool felt is made from animal hair or wool fibres matted together by moisture, mechanical action, and heat.Felt fabric is made from fibres containing at least 50% animal hair, usually wool, so wool felt is expensive.The fibre web is squashed together in a felting machine, then milled using mechanical pressure, heat and moisture.The fibres become entangles through repeated treatment until the required density of felt is achieved.Woven or knitted felt is made from fabrics containing animal hair or wool, which are matted by moisture, mechanical action and heat in a milling machine. The original fabric construction is covered by a smooth surface, making the fabric warm and windproof. The woven fabric called Loden (used for overcoats) is produced in this way.Needle felt is made from fibres matted together by mechanical action using barbed needles to entangle the fibres. Almost any type of fibre can be used, but in practice, synthetic fibres are generally used.In the mechanical process, a bulky web (batt) of fibres is repeatedly punched by a bank of barbed needles. Every needle drags fibres to the base of the web to form loops in the fibres. This entangles the fibres to form the fabric, which is usually given additional strength by a fibre-bonding technique.In hydro-entangled needle felt, staple fibres are entangled in a web with high-pressure water jets (also called spun laced fabric.)Needle felts are elastic and lightweight and are mainly used for floor coverings, waddings, interlinings, upholstery materials, mattress covers and filters.Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity, but does not fray and is warm and resilient. Acetate, nylon and acrylic can be blended with wool in felt, to improve the drape, reduce shrinkage and make it more economical to produce. Felt retains its shape and absorbs sound and can be made flame-retardant. It is used for blocking into hats, for slippers, toys, insulation materials and soundproofing in speakers. Felt made from animal hair, such as from rabbits is called fur felt – this is used for hats.FeltBonded non wovens Bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded with adhesives, solvents or by the thermoplastic property of some or all of the fibres. Bonded webs for garments are layered in a carding machine, to build up a batt of the required thickness with the layers built either across or down or a combination of both. This kind of non-woven fabric is mainly used for fusible interlinings, which are air-permeable, dimensionally stable, crease-resistant, stable to washing and dry-cleaning and easy to use.Adhesive bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded together by the application of adhesive. The adhesive may be applied to the web by spraying, dipping or foam spreading, followed by pressing the web.Thermally bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded together through the thermoplastic property of some or all of the fibres – under pressure and heat the fibre surfaces soften and fuse together permanently.Solvent bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded together using a solvent – the fibre surfaces soften and fuse together permanently at their touching points.Tufted non wovens Tufting is the most used manufacturing process for making carpets and rugs. They are made by machines that insert pile yarns into a backing fabric. The pile, which can be looped or cut, fixed into the backing with an adhesive coating.Open-work fabricsThese fabrics include lace, braid and crotchet, all of which are minor textile techniques in comparison with knitting and weaving.Lace is a fine, open fabric of mesh or net, which can be patterned. Bobbin lace is traditionally produced by hand, using pins on a pillow, around which the lace bobbins work the lace. Embroidery lace is made by hand or machine, by working an embroidered pattern onto a ground fabric. The ground is removed by cutting is away or by using a burnt-out technique. Raschel lace is made on a warp-knitting machine. Lace is used for curtains, bedspreads, and as decorative edging on garments.Braid is made by the diagonal interlacing of at least two sets of warp yarns. It is used for trimmings and ribbons.Crotchet is a hand-made chain of loops, produced from a single thread using a hook. The chains of loops can be linked to make crotchet fabric. When crotchet is in fashion, it is generally machine-made and used to make accessories such as bags and hats.Modern and Smart MaterialsModern and smart fabrics are designed to maximise characteristics such as lightness, breathability, waterproofing etc., or to react to heat or light. They are usually manufactured using microfibers.AQA definition A smart material is defined as one which is able to react to external stimulus / changes in the environment without human intervention. Smart Materials include ones that:-monitor body functions and administer medicines/give warnings;maintain a personal micro-climate, eg Stomatex, Outlast;can provide buoyancy and support, eg bodysuits for medical/physiotherapy support ;have chromatic properties and change colour in response to specific situations;have shape memory, eg Corpo Nove shirt which adjusts to differing temperatures;are self-cleaning, eg nano-technology fabrics triggered by sunlight;use biomimetics that imitate nature, eg Fastskin, Stomatex;can generate solar power when exposed to sunlight;can sense and track movement, eg SensFloor Smart carpets.TechnologyPropertiesEnd-useMicrofiberWoven polyesterLightweightSoftGood drapeBreathableShower-proofRaincoatsActive sportswearPolar fleeceBrushed polyester, warp knitLightweightSoftBreathableWarmFleece, jumpers and blanketsGore-TexLaminated membraneBreathableLightweightWaterproofAll-weather jackets and shoesMicro-encapsulatedDifferent micro-capsules embedded in the fibresGives off an aromatic scentCan reduce body odourCan provide vitamins, medicines or reduce skin irritationUnderwearAnti-bacterial socksMedical textilesHeat sensitiveThermochromaticMicro-encapsulated dye can change colour in response to heat (lasts about 5-10 washes)Children’s clothesSports clothingFire-fighters clothingWound dressingsLight sensitivePhotchromatic dyesSmart pigments change colour in response to sunlightt-shirtsmilitary clothingCombination fabrics - Fabrics can be layered and combined to improve their handle, appearance or performance. For example:An interfacing fabric such as Vilene can be stitched or laminated to other fabrics. This reinforces, stiffens and gives strength to collars and cuffs to prevent the fabric from stretching or sagging.A quilted fabric has two or more layers sewn together to give an attractive appearance and added warmth.Gore-Tex can be laminated to another fabric using adhesive or heat. Gore-Tex is used for all-weather clothing and shoes because it is breathable and waterproof.Kevlar is a high-strength, lightweight and flexible fibre. It is used in bicycle tyres, racing sails and police bullet-proof vests because of its high strength-to-weight ratio.Thinsulate is a highly insulating but thin fabric. The microfibers in Thinsulate are fine and capture more air in less space, making it a better insulator. It traps air between the wearer and the outside. It can be machine washed and dry cleaned, and is breathable as well as moisture resistant. Scuba divers wear a Thinsulate suit under a dry suit when diving in cold water.Technology in textiles - Textiles manufacturers use new technological developments to improve fabrics by giving them new properties. These might be developed for a special reason, but then adapted to be used in everyday products. For example:Memory foam moulds to the user's shape and can return to its original state. It was originally developed for NASA astronauts and is now used in memory-foam mattresses and seats.Smart-shape-memory alloy returns to its original shape when heated. Smart memory fibres are woven with nylon to make smart-memory shirts that don't need ironing.Fastskin is used in swimsuits to simulate the texture of sharkskin. It increases a swimmer's speed by reducing drag through water.PolymersTextile materials are made from natural or synthetic fibre-forming polymers. A polymer is the generic name for a combination of large molecules, made from a chain of smaller repeating chemical units called monomers.Natural polymers exist as short fibres, which need to be combed, lined up and twisted to make longer, usable lengths.Vegetable fibres, such as cotton and linen, are composed of the glucose polymer celluloseThe animal fibre wool, from the fleece of a sheep, is composed of the protein polymer keratinHair fibres, such as cashmere and mohair, are also based on the protein polymer keratinRegenerated natural fibres, such as viscose and modal are manufactured from the cellulose in wood pulp. This is dissolved in chemicals and extruded through the tiny holes in a spinneret into an acid bath, to produce fine continuous filaments or pure regenerated cellulose.Most synthetic polymers are manufactured from petrochemicals, using the process of polymerisation to produce long chains of fibre-forming linear polymers. These are converted by solution or melted and extruded through spinnerets to form continuous filaments of synthetic fibres. There are two main methods of polymerisation, called addition polymerisation and condensation polymerisation.Acrylic, PVC and PTFE are made by addition polymerisation – in which similar monomers are added to each other to form long chains, called homopolymers.Polyamide and polyester are made by condensation polymerisation – in which two different monomers are added together to form long chains, called copolymers.Elastane is made by block polymerisation – in which two different monomers are pre-formed into blocks and then added together, to form block copolymers.elastomersThermosetting polymersThermoplastic polymersElastomers can be stretched and return to their original shape, such as the branded Elastane fibre Lycra.Thermosetting polymers have cross-links between the long chain molecules. They set with heat and cannot be softened when re-heated. They are not used for textiles.Thermoplastic polymers have long chain molecules that are not cross-linked. They soften when heated and become hard again when cool. Acetate, acrylic, polyamide and polyester are all thermoplastics and should be ironed with care.FinishesAll fabrics used in products will have been ‘finished’ in some way to make them suitable for their end use. Good finishing can greatly improve the aesthetic and functional properties of fabrics, enhancing their handle, drape and aftercare properties.Finishing processExample of how finishing benefits fabricsPhysical finishing processes use heat, pressure or steam and machine processes.Cotton or nylon is brushed (or ‘raised’) to give a soft, warm handle.Wool fabrics are shrunk to make them compact and to reduce further shrinking.Chemical finishing processes involve the use of chemicals, which can cause environmental damage.Viscose fabrics may be given an easy-care treatment.Silk ties can be Teflon coated to make them stain resistant.Biological finishing processes involve the use of natural enzymes, such as those used in biostoning denim, which causes little environmental damage.Most denim products in Europe are biostoned. This is less expensive than traditional stonewashing and reduces damage to the fabric.Dyeing and printing involve the use of chemicals to enhance the aesthetic characteristics of textiles.Most fabrics are dyed to improve the aesthetic characteristics and to make them fashionable.Printing makes fabrics attractive to the target market.Decorative and stitch techniques.Appliqué and embroidery add to the style of the product.Textile products are also finished as part of a quality assurance process. Product finishing ensures that the product is fault-free, clean and matches specifications. Finishing improves the properties and quality of the product, and can be:Aesthetic, like pressing to improve the ease of manufacture. Final pressing improves presentation of the product.Decorative, like applying logos, braid or fringing to add to the style of image of the product.Functional, like self-finishing seams by over locking to improve the product quality.Finishing - Finishing is done to improve the appearance, properties and quality of a product. It covers many different processes, some mechanical and some chemical.Mechanical finishing processes - Mechanical finishing uses heat, pressure and rollers to improve the appearance of the fabric.Brushing - Brushing cotton or nylon fabrics makes them fluffy and warm, with a soft handle. The fabrics pass through rollers with wire brushes that lift the fibres to form a nap.Calendaring - Calendaring is the industrial equivalent of ironing. It smoothes the fabric and improves its lustre. Engraved calendar rollers are used to emboss relief patterns on the fabric surface.Heat-setting - Heat-setting is used for thermoplastic fabrics (polyester and nylon). The fabrics are set in permanent shapes or pleats.Chemical finishing processes - Chemical finishing involves the application of chemical solutions or resins to improve the appearance, handle or performance of a fabric.Bleaching - Cotton and synthetic fabrics are bleached before dying. This makes it easier to dye pastel shades.Mercerising - Cotton or linen fabrics are mercerised using the alkali caustic soda. Mercerised fabrics are stronger, dye well and have improved lustre.Shrink resist - Wool can be given a shrink-resist finish using silicone or Teflon. This results in soft, smooth, lustrous yarns and fabrics that are machine washable.Crease resist - Cotton and viscose fabrics are given a crease-resistant finish using resin. This makes them easy care. They dry fast and smooth and need little ironing.Flame resistant - Children's nightwear and cotton/viscose furnishings must by law be given a flame-resistant finish. This often makes the fabric stiffer and weaker.Smart finishes - These are new, high-tech methods for finishing products.Anti-bacterial finishes - Anti-bacterial finishes are applied to the fabric surface to slow down the growth of bacteria. They control odours in sports shoes and reduce infection in medical products.Coating - Coating involves applying a layer of polymer to the surface of the fabric. Teflon coating makes fabrics stain resistant, water repellent and breathableBiological finishes - Biological finishes use natural enzymes to change a fabric's appearance. Bio-stoning gives a stone-washed finish to denim fabrics.Thermochromatic finishes - Thermochromatic substances change colour due to a change in temperature.Nanomaterial’s and integrated ComponentsNanomaterial’s - Nanomaterial’s are those broadly defined as having tiny components with at least one measurement below 100 nm. Sometimes nanomaterials are used as thin films or surface coatings, as on computer chips or as nanowires, nanotubes, or as blobs of tiny nanocrystalline particles.In the clothing sector special functional textiles are under development, for example self-cleaning textile surfaces or protective insulating clothing. Antimicrobial silver nanoparticles are already used in socks, shoe insoles and a few clothing textiles. By using nanostructured polymer coatings on textile surfaces, textiles and other products may be enhanced to include new properties like these listed below.Two key factors cause the properties of nanomaterial’s to be special: their quantum effects and their structure. Their tiny structure means they have a greater relative surface area than other materials and this can alter or improve properties such as strength and electrical characteristics or reactivity. Their quantum effect can affect the electrical, magnetic or optical performance.Properties vary but can include improvements such as:magnetic/optical performanceelectrical conductivitystrength/elasticitythermal conductivityabsorbencyThis has resulted in the development of:harder and tougher toolswater-repellent and anti-bacterial coatingswear- and scratch-resistant hard coatingsUV absorbent and reflective transparent-looking nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc oxide in some sunscreensa military battle suit that that will withstand blast waves (currently being developed by the Institute of Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT)Nanomaterial finishesCharacteristicsUsesZANOUV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer.ZANO is a fungistat.Summer clothingHammocksTentsMountain wearClimbing wearSportswear SwimwearTentsNanoGrainCeO2UV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer.Summer clothingUmbrellasNanoGrain TiO2 (rutile) or OptisolPartial UV-absorbers for fabrics, protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer.Summer clothingTentsNanoGrain TiO2 (anatase)Can combat malodours on textiles by stopping decomposition of food, sweat, etc.Socks and underwearShoe insolesSportswearChildren's clothingIntegrated electronics - LEDs and other electronic components such as sensors are being integrated into textile and other products, and can offer a dual-purpose product like a wearable light-emitting garment or a roll-up illuminated mat.Testing of materialsBritish Standards Institute (BSI)- develops the tests that set the standards that products have to meet to ensure their safety and quality. Products have to meet these standards and will be awarded a number eg. BS 3320 (seam strength test). The BSI helps develop British, European and International standards which are used to ensure safety and quality of a wide range of products. Standard tests are often set at the request of individual manufacturers and retailers and form an essential part of a quality assurance system. Testing of materials and components, processes and prototypes prior to manufacture requires the use of standard tests under controlled conditions.Tests done in industry- tests are carried out on fibres, yarns and fabric before they are manufactured. Testing is carried out under strictly controlled laboratory conditions. Tests include; tensile strength, seam strength, burst strength, tear strength, crease resistance, flammability, drape etc etc. Consumer testing of garments is also carried out to asses the performance and acceptability of the product.Consumer advice- information given to the buyer of the product about the performance of particular fabrics, e.g. a symbol or logo on the label to explain that the product meets certain BSI standards. The kite mark shows that the product has been independently tested under strict conditions and complies with BSI standards. The CE mark shows that the product meets European safety standards.Testing before manufactureTesting before manufacture ensures the production of quality textile products avoids costly mistakes and protects the consumer against faulty or unsafe goods. Tests make use of Manufacturing specificationsFibre testing processes, to identify fabric content and to avoid counterfeiting of expensive fabricsFabric testing procedures to identify processes and properties such as abrasion resistance, aftercare, colourfastness, crease resistance, drape, durability, elasticity, flammability, pilling, shrinkage, stain resistance, strength, thermal insulation, water and wind resistanceManufacturing prototypes to test for performance ease of manufacture, aftercare and fitness for purpose. Quality control is the standard method of putting quality assurance into practice. It can involve statistical sampling, to inspect a sample of garments across a colour and size rangeConsumer testing to test for performance in wear and acceptability of the product.Testing textiles under controlled conditionsTests on textiles need to be carried out under controlled conditions, to make sure that they are fit for the purpose – in other words, that they meet the quality and safety requirements for the specification.Product specifications are only of use if there are appropriate methods available for testing of properties. Performance properties can be measured by a number of test methods. For example, for fluorochemicals, standard tests exist for oil and water repellence and stain release. Performance durability can be measured by testing after repeated laundering, dry cleaning or abrasion cycles.Testing under controlled conditions meansUsing tests that can be repeated time and time againTaking into account physical and chemical properties, yarns and fabric construction, fabric finishes and the end use of textilesControlling variablesBeing objective about resultsTaking account of the scale and dimension – for example, small fabric swatches may not behave in the same way as fabrics are used in a productComparative testingIt is very difficult to carry out objective testing outside a textiles laboratory, although two methods are appropriate – testing against specification and testing against known properties. Common tests carried out include – tensile strength, yarn snapping, seam strength, tear strength, crease resistance, drape.Fire testingMade from safe non-toxic materialsMust comply to a range of standards depending on their useDecorative TechniquesFabrics usually need to be washed, bleached and dyed before they are made into textile products. Garments are assembled using various joining techniques including sewing, fusing and heat-sealing. Finishing improves the appearance, handle and performance of fabrics, while pressing is used to shape and stabilise fabrics.Dyeing and PrintingBefore dyeing and printing the fabric is prepared by washing, bleaching and mercerising, in which the yarn is treated to improve strength, lustre and receptivity to dye. Fabrics can be dyed by hand or by machine.Dyeing of fabrics: - there are many different dyes available for colouring fabrics; most of them have been developed for a particular application. Textile dyeing involves the permanent application of a colorant to a fibre to give a uniform colour. In order to be successful, the colorant must be able to be absorbed by, or react with, the textile fibre. It must also be soluble so that it can go into the spaces between the fibre molecules.Dyes are classified according to their ability to dye different fibres:Direct Dye – cellulosic fibres, including cottonSoluble in water and used for dyeing viscose, cotton and modal fibres. They are moderately fast to light but have poor wash fastness. Salt can be added to the dye bath to help the fibre absorb the dyeReactive Dye – cellulosic and protein fibres, nylonWater soluble dyes which form a strong chemical bond with cellulosic and protein fibres. They give bright colours which are fast to washingVat Dye – cellulosic fibresNot soluble in ware and give excellent wash and light fastness. Indigo, used to dye denim blue, is one of the best known vat dyes. In order to get the dye into the fibre. It has to be converted into a soluble form by removing oxygen. Once the dye is in the fibre, it is converted back to its insoluble form by oxidation, which makes the molecules too big to get out of the fibres. A lot of indigo dye sits on top of the fibre rather than being absorbed into it, and this is what causes it to rub off onto other fabrics and to lose some colour when washedDisperse Dye – Acetate, polyamide, acrylic, polyesterUsed to dye fibres which have hydrophobic (water-hating) properties. These dyes are almost insoluble in water and are applied to the fibre in the form of a fine aqueous dispersion. They are held inside by chemical bondsAcid Dye – Protein fibres, polyamideSoluble in water and are applied to the fabric in an acidic dye bath. They have good fastness to light but the wash fastness variesSolvent dyes have been developed which are applied to fabric using organic solvents instead of water. This sis because water usage and disposing of it afterwards in a form which will not cause pollution has become very expensive. Solvent dyes are also very expensive to use because there is a cost involved in recovering the organic solvent so that it can be used again. The equipment used is also very expensive, making these dyes not especially economical to use.There are a number of issues to consider when selecting dyes to use on a fabric for a particular end use:Colour requirements – shadeFastness requirements – how well will the dye stay on/in the fabricCostGenerally dyes with better properties are more expensive but sometimes, in order to meet consumer demand, dyes with poor properties are used because they are the only ones available that will give a certain shade.The process of dying consists of three steps:Immersing the textile in the dye bathThe dye attaching to the textile fibreFixing the dye to the fibreThe strength with which the dye is held in the fibre depends on the physical forces resulting from the shape of the dye molecule and structure of the fibre, and also to the chemical forces that nay be present. The strength with which the dye is retained within the fibre is related to the property of washing fastness.Colour fastness of textiles:When selecting dyes for a particular end use, colour fatness must be considered. Fabrics may need to have fastness to the following –Bleaching, dry cleaning, washing (important for clothing products worn regularly), light (important for furnishing products), perspiration (important for fashion products), gas fumes, rubbing (important for seating and some clothing products), miscellaneousPreparation – when the fabric comes from the loom or knitting machine it is not ready to be dyed or used straight away. At this stage it is referred to as Grey (greige) or loomstate cloth and it often has a natural creamy colour. Fibres, especially the natural fibres, have natural impurities in them, e.g. fats, waxes and salts. There will also be other impurities picked up during the processing, e.g. oil and dirt from machines, and starch added to strengthen the yarn before weaving. These have to be removed before the fabric can be dyed or finished, otherwise the colour or finish will not attach itself evenly to the fabric.Preparation processesDesizingSize is a starch, gum or gelatine type of substance which is applied to warp yarns before they are woven into fabrics. This helps to strengthen them so that they will be more able to stand up to the constant movements of the loom. Most of these substances are soluble in water so they can easily be removed by washing.ScouringScouring removes fatty and waxy impurities which would prevent the fabric from being ‘wetted’. Cotton fabrics are scoured by boiling them in caustic soda solution. This method would not be appropriate for wool fabrics as they would be damaged by the heat and the alkali; instead they are moved through warm detergent solutions to remove the fatty deposits in the fibres. More modern methods involve ‘washing’ the fabrics in solvent to remove the oils and grease.BleachingFabrics are sometimes bleached to obtain a fabric which is evenly white before colour is added. Cotton fabrics are bleached using carefully controlled amounts of hypochlorite bleach or hydrogen peroxide. Both of these are oxidizing bleaches (they remove unwanted colour by adding oxygen to the stain to make it colourless.)WoolIs often left in its naturally creamy colour. It is never treated with chlorine bleaches as these will damage the scales on the wool fibres. It can be bleached using hydrogen peroxide (as used to bleach human hair), or by using sulphur dioxide gas, a reducing agent which works by removing oxygen from the stain to leave it colourless.Fluorescent whitening agentsCommonly used to whiten all fibre types, especially where a very white fabric is required. These are colourless dyes which cause the fabric to reflect and ultraviolet light which makes it appear to be whiter and brighter. These fluorescent dyes will be broken down by the bleaches commonly used in home laundering, and this is the reason why consumers are sometimes advised not to bleach white cotton fabrics.Dyeing Textiles – dyeing can occur at various stages during processing during which they are transformed from the fibre to the finished article:Dope Dyeing – dope or spun dyeing is a process whereby the de is added to the spinning solution of man-made fibres prior to spinning the fibre. This method results in the textiles having good light and wash fastness.Stock Dyeing – when textile fibres are dyed in a loose form the term stock dyeing is used. This method is relatively cheap and has the advantage that if the dyeing is uneven it will be removed by the blending process that follows when converting the fibre into yarn.Yarn Dyeing – yarns are dyed before being made into fabric.Piece Dyeing – this is when woven or knitted fabrics are dyed in the piece.Garment Dyeing – made-up garments are dyed as required. This allows manufacture of fashion products to apply colour at the last minute as and when there is consumer demand for the latest shades.Hand dyeingIn hand dyeing, fabrics are immersed in hot or cold dyes in a dye bath. The dye bath is agitated so the dye reaches all areas. When the desired colour is achieved the fabric is removed and rinsed to remove excess dye. Then it is fixed with a mordant or a fixing agent such as salt. The strength of a dye colour is determined by the:amount of time in the dye bathabsorbency of fibresoriginal fabric colourconcentration of the dye colour in the dye batheffective use of a mordant or fixativeCommercial dyeing- In industrial production fabric is dyed by continuous or batch dyeing.Continuous dyeing -The fabric is passed through a dye bath, and then squeezed between rollers to spread the dye evenly and remove excess. Continuous dyeing is used for colours that do not need to change too quickly with fashion.Batch dyeing -Fabrics are produced without dye. Instead, they are dyed to order in large batches according to the colours required. Batch dyeing is used for fabrics that have to change in colour frequently because of fashion.Printing -Fabrics is printed by block or screen printing.Block printing - Block printing is done using metal or wooden blocks, one for each colour. The background shapes are cut away to leave a raised design on the block. Dye is applied and stamped onto the fabric. This is a slow process used by specialised craft industries.Screen printing - In screen printing a pattern is printed onto fabric through a stencil held in place by a screen. Each screen prints one part of the design in one colour. After printing the dyestuff must be fixed using steam or dry heat.Manual flat-bed screen printing - Manual flat-bed screen printing is a slow process, done by hand. It is used by designer-makers for complicated fabric designs or for small runs.Mesh is stapled to a frame to make a screen.Masking tape is stuck to the underside of the screen.A stencil is made from paper.The stencil is placed under the screen but on top of the paper.Ink is poured at one end of screen.A squeegee is used to press down and draw ink across screen.The screen is carefully lifted.The print is checked before the process is repeated.Industrial flat-bed screen printing - Industrial flat-bed printing automates this process, with the fabric moved through the machine on a conveyor belt and the print repeating rapidly. Rotary screen printing - Rotary screen printing uses CAD and roller squeegees. One roller is used for each colour. This is a very fast process used in the continuous printing of furnishing and clothing fabrics.JoiningTextile materials are joined by stitching, fusing or heat-sealing.Stitching - Stitching two fabrics together produces an unfinished seam. Finishing the seam prevents fraying and produces a hard-wearing, neat finish.Fusing - Fusing is used to permanently join two fabrics together using an adhesive resin.Fusing by hand is used to join Vilene to fabric to make it stable and strong. It is also used to reinforce and strengthen fabrics for garments, bags and accessories and allows hems to be turned up without stitching.In a factory there are two types of machine used for fusing. A flat-bed press is used to join short fabric lengths for batch production, and a conveyor press is used for fusing long fabric lengths for mass production.Heat-sealing - Heat-sealing is used for synthetic fibres made from thermoplastics, such as polyester or nylon. It is used to set a material into a shape, e.g. pleats. It is also use to seal the seams on tents and all-weather gear to make them waterproof.Fastening and ComponentsTextile products are made not only from fabrics but also from a variety of components and fastening. The main purpose of this is to enhance the products style and performance.Type of fasteningTypical end-usePolyester buttonShirts, blouses and underwearNylon buttonsCoats and jackets, sports and leisurewearMetal buttonsBlazers, jeans and knitted waistcoatsLeather buttonsSports jackets and knitted cardigansWooden buttonsKnitted and sports garmentsMoth of pearl buttonsWomen’s outerwear and underwearPlastic zip fastenerLightweight and fine fabrics used in garments and household productsMetal zip fastenerSports goodsSingle and double-sided zipsLeisure and sports productsNylon VelcroA range of fashion garments, sports and leisure goodsMetal hooks and eyesTrousers and skirtsMetal or plastic press studsA range of garments and household goodsMetal, leather or plastic bucklesBelts and clasps3.1.3 AS Section C: Processes and Manufacture3.3.3 A2 Section C: Processes and ManufactureComputer Aided Design (CAD)Computer-aided design - The term computer-aided (CAD) design includes all the computer applications and hardware devices that can be used to aid digital design. CAD speeds up the design process by making it quick and easy to test and modify ideas before production starts. This reduces mistakes and cuts costs. Uses of CAD in textiles design include:Wire-frame modelling, surface modelling or solid modelling can be used to texture map or simulate virtual products in 3D, from which clients can choose one to be sampled in fabric. This saves the time and cost of sampling a large selection of real products.Graphics applications enable ease the production and storage of accurate working drawings and lay plans.Colour ways can be accurately modelled at the design stage.Material quantities and costs can be easily puter networks improve communication between designers, clients and manufacturers thus speeding up the design-feedback loop.Use of CAD:(read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 2 p.175)Fabric design/ColourwaysUsed to store colour and style informationCreate and modify ideas quickly and easily2D modelling of fabrics and colourwaysUsed for texture mapping of fabric designs onto virtual productsProduct design/Product modellingShow 3D virtual products to clients on screenTo present a virtual catwalk show to clientsTo make accurate drawings for manufacturing specificationPattern production and gradingAdapted patterns are digitised onto computerAutomatic grading of patterns – increasing or decreasing flat pattern pieces to create larger or smaller sized garments, e.g. 8,10,12 etc.Use of CAM:(read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 3 p.197)Knitting Computer controlled knitting machines – flat knitting, circular knitting or whole garment knitting (p.225)Weaving Computer controlled looms – e.g Jacquard weaving to produce complex patterns in woven clothLay-planningComputers used to work out the most efficient position of the pattern pieces. They can give maximum utilisation of fabric to save on wastage and costs. The marker (the actual plan) can then be sent by computer to automated cutting machines.CuttingLayers of fabric are layed out flat by an automatic spreading machine. Computer controlled cutting machines use information from the lay plan to cut through layers of fabric using a laser.SewingAutomated sewing machines can perform tasks like making buttonholes, bar-tacking (a re-inforcement like on a belt loop) or constructing a double seam without the need for pinning or tacking. Machinists still have to feed the garment into the machine.PressingIndustrial pressing equipment can include;Pressing unit with high pressure steam ironFlat-bed press for trousersA steam dolly for finishing a whole garment (the garment is placed on a form which is inflated with steam for one or two minutes)A tunnel finisher – garments are conveyed through a chamber in which they are steamed and dried.EmbroideryComputer controlled embroidery machines to rapidly produce badges or embroidered fabric. Many threads are used at once.Use of ICT:(read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 1 page 166)CIMComputer Integrated Manufacture – CIM systems integrate the use of all the different functions of computers including CAD/CAM to enable fast, efficient and cost-effective manufacturing. CIM includes:Management of product design and developmentProduction planning and controlQuality assurance and controlMaterials and stock controlCost controlEDI Electronic Data Interchange: allows computers to communicate directly and enables the transfer of data between business partners, via telecommunications links and networks. E.g barcode is read at the till point and information of stock control goes to manufacturer.EDPElectronic Data Processing – the use of information, eg using databasesCAAPPCGlobal Production:Off-shore productionImports/exportsBranded goodsContracted goodsWholesalersCMT operationsSystems and ControlQuality control systems:Quality control throughout manufacturingQuality AssuranceTQM control systemsProductionOne-off ProductionThis is wear a one-off textile product is made by and individual designer-maker, a craftsperson or a company to meet an individual client’s requirement. It is also called individual production, job production and make through production. It is a traditional method in which a whole garment or textile is assembled by one operator. Each product is only made once or only in small quantities. This process needs highly skilled, experienced operators and versatile machinery. Tailors are one example, producing individually made suits to exact measurements for the customer. Craft workers produce small quantities of items, carrying out each process from start to finish on each one.The product is made by an individual or small team from start to finishTraditional methods of manufacture are usedThe operators are highly skilled and use versatile equipmentHaute couture is an extreme example of this production methodBatch ProductionItems are produced in specific quantities. They may be made in one production run or in batches to be repeated at certain times. A batch can range in number from two or three products to a hundred thousand or more. In a batch production manufacturing system, each piece of equipment may be used to make several different products, for example skirts today, trousers tomorrow. This means that the machinery used must be far more versatile than that used in mass production. The workers who operate the machines are likely to be more skilled because the job they do changes day by day according to the batch run. In a large factory, many batches of different products, of varying quantities, scheduled for different customers and delivery dates, will be processed at the same time. This involves complex planning for the use of machines and the personnel to operate them, so that orders can be met on time.A reasonable number of products are produced, possibly to meet seasonal demand, e.g. swimwearProduction costs are considerably less than for individual productionMass ProductionLarge quantities of products are involved in mass production. Machines are in continuous use for long periods of time, so they are very specialized and expensive. The machinery and the operator skills are highly specific for the job in hand. Equipment, labour and supply of materials and components are well organised to ensure a smooth flow of work through the factory and to minimise the cost of making each product. Increasingly, computers are used to monitor and control processes. Variations in the manufactured products are kept to a minimum, to minimize any changes necessary to the tooling of the machines, which take time and money.Used to manufacture large numbers of identical products over a long period of timeProducts are usually not complicated and can be made cheaply, e.g. tights or vestsTypes of mass production include:Synchronised/ straight-line production – work is passed along a production line where each operator is responsible for one task, which they perform repeatedlyRepetitive flow production – manufacture is divided into sub-assembly lines that each focus on one area of the processContinual flow production – used for massive volume items; the process runs 24 hours a day and is never shut downOther Production SystemsCell production or section systems:Divide the workforce into small teams that all produce the same productRely on each team to take responsibility for the quality of the products produced by themProgressive bundle production:Uses small teams that are each responsible for a particular part of the production processIs like cell production, but for individual parts of the garmentOff-the-Peg ManufactureExcept for Haute Couture and individual/job production, the different production systems are designed to produce ‘off-the-peg’ garments (ready-made garments in standard sizes).Uses templates in standard sizes helps to keep costs down.One-off garments that are made to specific measurements for an individual are called ‘bespoke’ and are usually far more expensive.Just-in-Time Stock ControlJust-in-time stock management means that materials, components and sub-assemblies are delivered a short time before they are needed. This means that less space is required for storage and no money is wasted on surplus stock. With this type of stock control there must be no mistakes; otherwise production can be held up.Industrial and commercial practiceManufacturing Systems:One-off productionAlso called bespoke, made-to-measure, custom made or job production. Means designing and making one-off textile products to a client’s specification. one-off products are often more expensive because materials and labour costs are higheroften made by a craftsperson and quality is checked as work progressestools and equipment may be less auto-matedend product often individual and of high qualityexamples are: hats, bags, cushions, or haute couture products, or made to measure garments (by a tailor)Batch productionWhere fixed quantity of identical products are made either for stock or order. Can be used to respond quickly to market demands for seasonal products,e.g in a particular colourMass/line productionHigh volume production is used for manufacturing large quantities of textile products for stock or order.Cost effective method of making identical productsUses standard materials, components and basic pattern, equipment and processesUsed to make products that don’t change quickly with fashion, e.g. uniforms, work-wear, badges, yarns, underwearVertical productionIn-house productionWhere the same company makes the raw materials (fabrics etc) and the garments and does the distribution. They do not have to rely on suppliers as it is all done by the same company. Progressive bundle systemWhere teams are used to produce parts of a garment, which is then passed on to the next team, literally in a ‘bundle’ of fabric.QRM Quick Response Manufacturing: Used to produce garments quickly in response to customer demandManufacturers use information from EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) tills in the shops which gives details of what is being soldQRM reduces levels of finished goods waiting in stockCuts the costs of tying money up in stockPre-manufactured componentsMost textile products need components. Manufacturers buy in pre-manufactured components such as zips, buttons etc. They will have a stock of basics and make a special order for specialised components. Manufacturing specificationsEach product has a manufacturing specification, this document ensures that the product is made as the designer intends. It provides clear, detailed instructions about the product’s styling, materials and construction. It is an essential part of the production plan and enables the profitable manufacture of identical products. A manufacturing specification should include the following:A description of the productA drawing to show the front, back and side viewsClear design and construction detailsAll dimensions, sizes, seam allowances and tolerancesInformation about materials and components, including a fabric sample.Sub-AssemblyWhere parts of the garment or product are made separately to the main part and joined together at the end. E.g shirt sleeves or collar. This is an efficient use of time, equipment and labour and therefore reduces costs.Just-in-Time production (JIT)Where materials and components are ordered so they arrive at a factory just in time for production. This requires careful planning. JIT is often used in QRM where goods are produced quickly. It’s advantages are:Reduces need to keep stockpiles of materials, components etcReduces space needed for stockReduces levels of finished goods put into stockStages of Manufacture:1. Fabric manufacture-Fibre productionSee diagrams in Chapter 3 p. 88 – 91. Look at the processes involved in; Cotton spinning, Wool production, Viscose production and synthetic fibre production.Yarn productionTexturing processes – a heat process to give the fibres durable crimps, coils or loops along the length. Texturing adds bulk and makes the yarn warmer, more elastic, absorbent and softer. Examples of synthetic fibres and yarns which have been textured or bulked in different ways.2. Fabric preparation-Dyeing: Preparation of fabric for dyeingDesizing: this means getting out the sizing agent which is sometimes starch, used to stiffen the fabricScouring: means washing out the natural fats, waxes, dirt and oils that are in the fabric.Bleaching: this means destroying the natural colour of the fabric using hydrogen peroxide making it pure white.Batch DyeingJig dyeing: passing of fabric through a dye bath from one roller to the other roller, this keeps the fabric flat and gives an even colourWinch dyeing: the fabric is bunched together to form a long ‘rope’ this is then circulated around rollers and winches through the dye bath.Jet dyeing: Fabric moves along a heated tube where jets of dye solution are forced through it at high pressure.Continuous dyeingFabrics are fed continuously into a dye solution. The speeds can vary between 50 to 250 meters per minute. Continuous dyeing is a popular dyeing method and accounts for around 60% of total yardage of the products that are dyed. Resist methodsMeans where methods are used to "resist" or prevent the dye from reaching all the cloth, thereby creating a pattern and ground. The most common forms use wax, some type of paste, or a mechanical resist that manipulates the cloth such as tying or stitching. Examples are Tie-Dye and Batik (using wax)Direct dyeingThe type of dye used for cellulosic and some protein fibresReactive dyeingUsed for natural fibers making them among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature. Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibres.Vat dyeingWhere the fabric or garment is immersed in a bath or vat of dyeDisperse dyeingType of dye used for polyesterAcid dyeingUsed on protein fibres such as wool or silkStages of dyeingDye can be applied at any stage of the manufacturing process depending on requirements. Eg. Fibres, Yarns Fabric or Garment.Printing:Direct printingSimplest printing method, creating a positive image in one or more colours onto a white or pale background.Discharge printingThe creation of a ‘negative’ image, a white or coloured pattern on a dark background. By using bleach or other chemicals to destroy the dye already present.Transfer printingThe transference of an image to fabric via paper (like the heat transfer press in school) sublimation inks are used.Roller printing Where the print is applied to fabric using and inked roller, not used much nowadays in manufacturing. More of a traditional method.Rotary/flat bed screen printingRotary screen printing: dye is applied to the fabric from within a rotary tube which is engraved with the printing pattern.Flat bed screen printing: the printing paste is pushed through a screen onto the fabric. The pattern is created by blocking out areas of the screen with filler.Digital printingUses ink jet printers to print CAD designs directly onto fabric using special printing inks.Finishing Processes:See page 100 of TatCEFixation Where the colour or print is fixated into the fabric (made permanent) can be through chemicals or steam. To make the fabric colourfast (so that the colour doesn’t wash out)WashingFabrics can be washed before they are manufactured into products. They are also tested in laboratory conditions to ensure that they can withstand certain temperatures and conditions.DryingFabrics need to be dried at a consistent heat and air flowHeat-settingSynthetic fibres can be heat treated to set them permanently into shape, for example pleats. Natural fibres have to have a resin treatment first before they can be heat set.Mechanical Finishes:RaisingLike brushing, fabric is passed through rollers covered with fine flexible wire brushes which lift up the fibres to form a soft surface called a ‘nap’.CalenderingLike flattening, fabric is passed through heated heavy rollers under pressure (like industrial ironing) to smooth the surface, and add a sheen. EmbossingSimilar to calendering except the rollers have a raised pattern on them which gets transferred onto the fabricShrinkingSome fabrics need to be pre-shrunk before being made into garments. Eg. Cotton.BeetlingFabric is passed through a machine with revolving wooden hammers that gives fabric a lustrous sheenStone/sand washingA process used to give a newly manufactured cloth or garment a worn-out appearance. Stone-washing also helps to increase the softness and flexibility of otherwise stiff and rigid fabrics such as canvas and denim. The process uses large stones to roughen up the fabric being processed. The garments are placed in a large horizontal industrial clothes washer that is also filled with large stones. As the wash cylinder rotates, the cloth fibers are repeatedly pounded and beaten as the tumbling stones ride up the paddles inside the drum and fall back down onto the fabric.Laser-cuttingLaser cutting provides a clean cut on synthetic materials and seals the edge. Intricate shapes can be cut out or engraving fabric is possible by setting the laser higher.Chemical Finishes:Water repellencyTeflon or Scotchguard resin finish applied to repel waterLaminatingCombining 2 or more layers of different materials which are bonded together by glue or heat. (Using iron-on interfacing is an example of laminating)Stain resistanceTeflon or Scotchguard resin treatment to repel stainsFlame resistanceProban – reduces flammability of fabric, increases stiffness, adds to cost.MothproofingMitin – chemicals applied to make the fibres inedible to moth grubsAnti-pillingFabric is treated with chemicals so that it does not form bobbles3. Pattern Drafting:Basic pattern/templateBasic blockNotches, balance marksSeam allowanceEasePrinciples of grading4. Garment production:lay-planningMarking and cutting outMethods of joiningFinishing edgesPressingLabelling and packagingSeamsA plain seam is the most commonly used method of joining woven fabrics.An overlock seam stitches, cuts and finishes the seam in one process. This is used for a range of products including underwear and knitwear.A flat seam (seam cover) is made using twin needles to create a stitch on top and an overlock stitch below. This binds the cut edges of straps. Belt loops or the hems of fabrics that fray, e.g. for T-shirts or belt loops on jeans.A cup seam is used for the seams of knitted fabrics.A lap seam is commonly used on the seams of jeans and shirts, providing a very strong seam with two rows of stitching.Heat-sealed joins are applied to fabrics made from thermoplastic fibres, like polyester and polyamide (nylon). Heat-sealing is often used in combination with taped seams to help waterproof products such as all-weather wear or tents.9893303810000-2070105969000British Standards and Health and SafetyBS 5722, flammability performance of fabrics and fabric assemblies used in sleepwear and in dressing gowns – mandatory for nightwear for children and the elderly. Flammability performance relates to the whole garment, including all threads, trimmings, decorations and labels.BS EN 23758, the care labelling code. Care labels are voluntary and use symbols that are consistent with those used on washing machines, irons and detergent packs.Regulations require that most textile products be labelled with the type and quantity by percentage of different fibres used. The label must:Use the generic name of the fibre, such as acrylic, rather than a trade name like DralonGive the percentage fibre composition, such as 60% cotton, 40% polyester, with the highest quantity first.Applying British Standards:AnthropometricsImplementingApplying to Hazards and Risk ControlGarment sizes are very important to everyone in the supply chain, from designers, manufacturers and retailers right to the end-users. Clothing sizes are standardised so that is they cannot be tried on at the time of purchase, consumers have a way of assessing which size the require. All the data relating to the size and shape of the human body is called anthropometrics.Anthropometric data needs to be representative of the greatest numbers of people, particularly in relation to garment size.One example of the implementation of BS can be seen in the manufacture of children’s nightwear. This nightwear is described as being made for children over the age of three months and under thirteen years of age.Children’s nightwear includes night-dresses, dressing gowns and bathrobes, all of which must meet the requirements of BS 5722: “flammability performance of fabrics and fabric assemblies used in sleepwear and in dressing gowns”.BS 5722 relates to the whole garment, threads, trimmings, decorations and labels. The test procedures for checking flammability have to comply with British Standards (BS) guidelines and must be carried out under controlled conditions.It is mandatory for all children’s nightwear, baby garments, children’s pyjamas and terry towelling bath robes made for sale, to carry a permanent label to show they meet the flammability standard.Under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, risk assessment is a legal requirement for all manufacturers in the UK. Its use is an essential part of any Quality Management System. In any designing and making process, therefore, it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to ensure that hazards are controlled, both in manufacture and use of a product by a consumer.A hazard is a source of potential harm or damage or a situation with potential for harm or damage.A risk combines the likelihood that a hazard might occur and the consequences of the hazard.British Standards Institute (BSI)The British standards institute (BSI) helps develop British, European and International Standards, which are used to ensure the safety and quality of a wide range of products. Standard tests are often set at the request of individual manufacturers and retailers and form an essential part of a quality assurance system. Testing of materials and components, processes and prototypes prior to manufacture requires the use of standard tests under controlled conditions.Health and SafetyHealth and safety issues for products are related to the production of the consumer.RegulationExample of applicationThe Trade Descriptions Act 1988Can’t say a product is waterproof if it’s not. A fabric can be waterproof.The Textile Products (Indication of Fibre Content) Regulation 1986Fibre content must be accurate, but there is a tolerance of 3%.The Weight and Measures Act 1985 & 1987Stated sizing must be accurate.The Consumer Protection Act 1987The onus of proof of a fault is on the consumer.The General Product Safety Regulations Act 1994Product must have correct labelling description. In normal use children’s wear must not give any risk or potential risk.Health and safety at work is the responsibility of employers and employees. Manufacturers are required to follow strict rules and regulations, based on the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. Employees are required to follow safety procedures to reduce risks in using materials, machinery and manufacturing processes. It makes employers criminally liable for failure to meet regulations. It set up the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) which is responsible for checking that the Act is being followed. HSE and local authority inspectors visit workplaces to make sure that health and safety regulations are being followed. It gives employees the right to be represented on health and safety matters. It places and obligation on employees to use safety equipment. The Act requires business to make a risk assessment of their activities. The company must appoint a Health and Safety Officer who will check the workplace for possible risks and puts into place the necessary procedures and/or equipment to reduce risks for the employers. Many chemicals are used in the textile industry, and these may be dangerous to health is not stored and used correctly. The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations (1994) form part of the risk assessment. All workplaces should appoint a person to be in charge of first aid, and workplaces should have clearly marked and well stocked first aid kit.Health and Safety for the Consumer:Products must also be safe for the consumer to use and must comply with a range of safety standards and specifications. In many cases, safety of products is a matter of law and manufacturers have a responsibility for the goods they produce. BSI provides advice on the safety standards for a wide range of products including products made from flame-resistant materials.FabricFabrics must be considered for their ability to burn and/or melt easily. This can be particularly[y dangerous in certain situations e.g. nightclothes for children and elderly people, furnishings in public buildings.Soft toys may be dangerous for young children, especially the wadding material used inside them.In some occupations where fire is a hazard, protective clothing will be needed. Any places where the public collect together must have flame-resistant furnishings.Babies often put things in their mouth. The fabric therefore has to be safe with no loose fibres or harmful chemicals or fabrics.FasteningsThese can be a hazard for certain people and in certain situations. Small parts may easily be dislodged and swallowed by a small child, small fingers can become trapped in zips and buckles, children have been killed because of drawstrings and toggles, belts and braces have been caught in bus and lift doors.Trousers for small boys should not have a zip fastening.Fastenings and other trims used on clothing for small children should not resemble food.The elderly and some disabled people may have difficulty with some fastenings.TemperatureCertain products need padding to provide insulation against extreme heat e.g. oven gloves.Sharp EdgesFirm corners and sharp edges in a product must be well padded – the user may not realise that under and attractive fabric there is a sharp corner. Wire can be particularly dangerous as it may work its way through the fabric over a period of time. Textile products are checked to ensure that there are no metal objects, e.g. Broken needle parts, in the item before it leaves the factory.Legislation:Nightwear (Safety) Regulations 1985The Furniture and Furnishings (Fire Safety Amendment) Regulations 1993These regulations prohibit the supply of children’s nightwear that do not meet flammability performance requirements. The regulations also specify labelling requirements.These regulations cover the fabric furnishings in public places. In the UK, fire brigade officers usually decide on the flammability requirements for buildings and their contents where the public has access. This kind of public building includes schools and hospitals and places of entertainment such as cinemas, nightclubs and concert halls.Textile product maintenance - A care label on a textile product gives the consumer useful information about product maintenance. Good labels provide details on:Fibre content, which is the percentage of each fibre used to make a fabric, e.g. 50 percent cotton, 50 percent polyester. This is a legal requirement.Flammability. This is a legal requirement for children's nightwear.Standard care symbols (see diagrams).Standard size, which is a standard measurement of the human body. For example, women's clothes might come in sizes 10, 12, 14, 16.All manufacturers use similar symbols to tell the consumer how to look after the product; the care of textile products depends on the fibre content and fabric finishes used.Washing instructionsSymbolInstructionsSymbolInstructionsWash at 95 degrees, whites onlyWash at 40 degrees, dark colours onlyWash at 60 degrees, coloursWash at 40 degrees, viscoseWash at 60 degrees, modalWash at 30 degreesWash at 50 degreesWash by hand onlyWash at 40 degreesDo not washWashing instructions are shown as a washing bowl. Similar symbols are found on washing machines to show different cycles. The number in the washing bowl shows the maximum temperature, and the line underneath the bowl tells you to use a special wash for synthetic fabrics. A hand in the bowl means you can only hand wash the product.Bleaching instructionsSymbolInstructionsSymbolInstructionsBleachDo not bleachBleaching instructions are shown as a triangle. A cross over the triangle means do not wash with bleach.Ironing instructionsSymbolInstructionsSymbolInstructionsIron: high temperatureIron: low temperatureIron: normal temperatureIron: cold, do not use steamIroning instructions are shown by a picture of an iron. The dots on the iron show the maximum temperature at which it is safe to iron the product: three dots is very hot; one dot is cool. A cross over the iron means do not iron.Instructions for dry cleaningSymbolInstructionsSymbolInstructionsDry clean: all methodsDry clean with perc (dry-cleaning fluid, tetrachloroethylene) onlyDry cleaning instructions: a circle symbol means that it's safe to dry clean the product. The letter inside tells the dry cleaners what method should be used. A cross over the circle means do not dry clean.Tumble drying instructionsSymbolInstructionsSymbolInstructionsTumble dry: high temperatureDo not tumble dry: viscoseTumble dry: low temperatureDo not tumble dryTumble dry: low temperature, modalTumble drying instructions are shown by a square with a circle inside. The dots show the temperature at which it is safe to dry the product. A cross over the symbol means do not tumble dry.3.1.2 AS Section B: Design and Market Influences3.3.2 A2 Section B: Design and Market InfluencesDevelopment of Technologies and DesignThe effects of major developments in textiles technology:We have come to expect more from our clothing and other textile products. New textiles are being developed all the time – mostly to try to improve the performance of existing products, therefore to keep the consumer buying new products – maximising sales and profits. Read more about the effects of new developments in Section B, Chapter 1 p.118. And p.213 Modern and smart materialsSome examples of major developments are:Fibre productionE.g Organic cotton, Spider silk, Lyocell, microfibres, nanofibres, Non-traditional fibres sources such as leaf hemp/pineapple/seed etc.More on new fibres in Textile Innovation Book.Yarn productionBlended yarns such as Lyocell and Lycra. Heat treatments on yarn to give texture such as crimping or bulking.Fabric productionBiomimetics – fabrics that imitate nature, read page 96 of Textile Innovation book, examples are;Fastskin by Speedo (fabric for swimwear that acts like shark skin)Stomatex (fabric that imitates the way the surface of a leaf breathes and regulates temperature)Super Microft (fabric that imitates the self-cleaning surface of the Lotus leaf)Anti-gravity fabric (imitates the feet of the Gecko lizard that can climb up walls or hang off ceilings like Spiderman!)Garment productionMass production and automated systems mean that clothes can now be made very quickly and cheaply. Manufacturers can respond quickly to demand (QRM= Quick Response Manufacture) Many made overseas.FinishesE.g. Bio-stoning or resin treatments (such as Teflon stain resistant) Colour applicationPrinting techniques such as; dye sublimation and digital printing mean higher definition of colours, higher quality print. Higher colour-fastness of dyes.DecorationCAD embroidery techniques – quick, efficient, consistent quality.Main effects for consumers are: Higher performance of productsHigher levels of comfortBetter quality productsCheaper products – but we buy more than we needMore choice of products – easily availableIncreased safety especially for high-risk sports etcEasy-care clothingMain effects for manufacturer are:More efficient systems – lower wastage, lower expenditureIncreased sales and profitLess workers needed – again lower expenditureSafer practices in factoriesNegative effects are:More products = more use of resources = adverse effect on environmentEncourage people to regard products as ‘throwaway’ or ‘easy-come, easy-go’Less employment – bad for economyEthical issues - Increased expectation of cheap clothing puts pressure on manufacturers to pay low wages to workers who make the clothing.Design in PracticeMarketing Product life cycle analysisDesigners and manufacturers look at the life cycle of products to identify how well a particular product is doing and decide when to replace it. Most products go through 5 stages –Introduction - a new product, perhaps introduced by style leaders/catwalk designers, new ideas. At this stage the product is only worn by style leaders/trend setters paying high prices for exclusivityGrowth – the product becomes more popular, the style becomes better known, may be simplified and will cost less, worn by style followers.Maturity – the product is at it’s peak of popularity, styles are readily available and worn by average consumer at paying low pricesDecline – the product has passed it’s peak of popularity, is can be picked up in the sales by bargain hunters! Replacement – the product is obsolescent and no longer likely to sell at all. New styles/products are coming in.Disposal/environmental issuesRead more in Textiles at Cutting Edge p.293 onwards.We have to consider whether it is necessary to constantly produce new products which use resources and have an impact on the environment. Should designers try to convert our ‘throw-away’ society into something more sustainable? REFUSE, REUSE, REDUCE. Fad- A fad product is introduced into a store, quickly rises to best seller then almost immediately declines and is unlikely to reappear.Fashion/Standard-A fashion product is a product which is introduced into stores slowly, moves up to a top seller and then quickly declines, but unlike fad may reappear in later years.Classic/Basic-A classic product is introduced into a store, slowly increases and declines at an average rate but never drops off the scale completely. Its top selling point is lower than fad but keeps on selling.Product Life CycleA fashion cycle is a variation of the product life cycle which reflects the sales history of the prevailing style of consumer articles such as clothes, accessories or interior products. A fashion cycle is seen as comprising three stages defined as distinctiveness, primary emulation and secondary emulation. Take up of a new fashion is done by innovators seeking distinctiveness who will then be emulated by early adopters who wish to copy them. In urn if the fashion appears to be attractive to the mass market manufactures will bring out large quantities of similar products at much lower prices which will attract the early majority; with the result that the innovators may well look elsewhere to regain distinctiveness and start a new fashion cycle.Trickle-down effect – the oldest theory of distribution is the trickle-down theory. In this model, a style is first offered and adopted by people at the top of society with status and gradually becomes accepted by those lower classes. Once the fashion is adopted by those below, the first adopters reject that look and find another. Fashion generally works on a trickle-down system as designers are the inspiration that leads to mass production of any particular product.An example is Burberry. Once famed for their upper class status, Burberry’s iconic check fabric was worn by Kate Moss and other fashion icons. However, their iconic print led to their downfall, as the masses knocked off cheap bags, clothes and accessories. Burberry struggled to retain its polished image and resulted in a new advertising campaign, seen today rarely displaying the traditional and iconic check.Bubble up effect – the development of street fashions worn by ordinary people into exclusive fashions for celebrities. The ‘bubble up’ effect in fashion is a term used to denote styles that originate as street fashion before developing into exclusive ‘designer’ versions. In the 21st century there is less trickle down from designers and more bubble up from the street as there is a bigger diversity of styles accepted due to the increase in trend and style groups (indie, fashionistas, vintage, prep.)Technological innovation and the internet – increasingly used to predict trends. Influence of media creates trends and trend groups based on likes and interests. (Rock music – rock-style clothing)Sneezers help to spread fashion trends – they include bloggers, columnists and online advertisements that pop up and make you think ‘I want that’Trend forecasting companies employ ‘trend chasers’ often these are fashion designers and use a wide range of information. Trade magazines such as Drapers Records are especially important for fabric predictions.Trends:The influence of trends on textile and product design is very important, especially for fashion products. Trend forecasting is and essential activity for designer of fibres, yarns, fabrics, accessories, garments and interiors. They use market research techniques to research colour, style and fashion trends, so they can predict what people will want and will then buy.Developing a Fashion Forecast:1. Identify the basic facts about past trends and forecasts2. Determine the causes of change in the past3. Determine the difference between past forecasts and actual behaviours4. Determine the factors likely to affect trends in the future5. Apply forecasting tools and techniques while paying attention to issues of accuracy and reliability6. Follow the forecast continually to determine reasons for significant deviations from expectations7. Revise the forecast when necessaryLong Term Forecasting: ? 5 years or more? Timeline sufficient for decisions related to repositioning or extending product lines? initiating new businesses? reviving brand images? planning new retain conceptsShort Term Forecasting:? 1 year +? Timeline allows for the segments of the textile / apparel pipeline to coordinate seasonal goods around looks that can be communicated to the customer through the press and stores Fashion Scan:? Following the latest fashion news to spot emerging fashion & lifestyle trends? Focus on colour, textiles or style forecastingConsumer Scan:? Attempts to identify clusters of people who share characteristics? Usually combined with demographics, lifestyle, attitudes and behaviour? Used to determine target market? Can be used to better understand consumer behaviourFashion Analysis:? Combines FASHION SCAN and CONSUMER SCAN to determine what is likely to happen next? Brings together expertise of a fashion insider & the insights of consumer behaviourSocial and Economic Trends:? Cultural changes in society involve shifts in lifestyle and reflect changes in generational cohorts or cycles in the economy? Affects mass scale purchasing decisions? Casual lifestyle, trend resistant consumer? Megatrends- large scale shifts that cross industry linesFashion CyclesThe time that it takes for a product to complete it’s life-cycle varies by what type of product it is. In the fashion industry there are three categories as follows:Fad – fad products catch on well and peak quickly, e.g. hot pants in the 1970’s or Jeggings. Classic – practical, easy to use products that are always needed, e.g. tights, duvet covers.Standard – most fashion products follow a standard cycle lasting about 2 years, e.g. pencil skirts, tunic topsIndustry development cycles from colour, fibre trends and predictions to products.Read more in Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.6 onwardsNew products are developed using a design process, similar to how you design and make your own products for Textiles. The design cycle for a one-off designer dress for a catwalk show would be as follows;Start with a predicted colour trends, fabric, fibre trendsideas would be researcheda moodboard would be createdworking sketches, pattern and toile developmentfitting of toile on model and productionfinished garment shown in Autumn/Winter or Spring/Summer catwalk showA mass-produced item would follow a different design cycle:1. identify a need2. market research and analysis3. development of concept4. prototype pattern and sample made and tested5. pattern templates made and graded for different sizes6. marker making (lay-planning)7. production8. distribution and marketingInfluence of trends from fashion, cultural and media sources.Fashion is influenced by many things – designers may get inspiration from street-style; developed by teenagers initially but picked up by designers – e.g punk, grungeother periods in history; also known as revivalist fashion, e.g 50’s skirts, 80’s shoulder padsmodern media, tv, films. E.g men’s kilts from film BraveheartNew technologies, fabrics and processes which give designers opportunities to create innovative products, e.g Gore-TexWorld events. E.g environmental concerns, recessionImportance and purpose of trade fairsTrade shows are held all over the world to showcase the latest fibres and fabrics. Suppliers have stands at which designers, merchandisers and buyers can browse and find inspiration. For example, Premiere Vision which is held twice a year in Paris. This fashion and textile trade show is the ultimate in the industries trend forecasting and innovative design events.Lifestyle analysisAnalysing consumer lifestyles means examining the way people live rather than where they live or their age, income or occupation. Lifestyle analysis is based upon a person's activities, interests and opinions. People of the same age, income, and occupation, who live in the same area, purchase a wide variety of goods and services. Knowing more about your potential customers' lifestyles will help you understand them and thus, serve them better.Target Market groupsRead more in Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.151 & p.286A product will be more successful and therefore more profitable if it is aimed at the needs and wants of a particular market segment. Consumers can be divided up by age group, gender, level of disposable income and end-use. Marketing and AdvertisingRead: Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.277 Chapter 3The marketing function:The aim of marketing is to influence potential customers to buy your product. Advertising and promotion will give a message about how your product is better, more unique than others – it’s USP (Unique Selling Preposition)Marketing and branding of new fibres and other textile productsOften done through campaign that addresses the consumer directly, e.g. use of swing tickets showing the fibre brand logo and giving information on the performance of the fibre, e.g. Lycra, Modal, Tencel. This adds perceived quality to the garment and attracts the buyer.Importance of labelling, packaging and corporate identificationDevelop instantly recognisable ‘style’ this promotes reliability, quality and hopefully develops a ‘band loyalty’ with consumers. Most textile products do not require much packaging other than swing tag. Advertising and promotion of textile products (range of media)Range of media includes; MediaDisadvantagesAdvantagesTVRadioInternetMagazinesIn-storeNewspapersThe marketing mix: product, place, promotion, price.Visual merchandisingProduct: Is your product or service totally unique? Unless so, it's likely that someone else is servicing your potential clients already. Is it new / different / unusual / designed to fill an identified need? Does your product answer a problem customers may have or fulfil a needPrice:Are you less expensive, or more expensive than the competitors? Some people will not buy the cheapest, assuming that cheap means inferior.Promotion:To some people, image is everything and they would rather pay five times the price for something with a designer label or a quality reputation than pay less for an unknown brand.Place: Place represents the location where a product can be purchased. It is often referred to as the distribution channel. Including actual stores and internet stores. Visual merchandising is promoting the sale of goods by how they are presented in store. Visual merchandising starts with the store building itself. Many elements can be used by visual merchandisers in creating displays, including colour, lighting, space, product information. Fashion retail shops will place particular ranges very carefully – e.g. colour ranges together, particular produts placed to entice the customer into the store and spend. Different retail markets and points of saleHigh street independent department stores and boutiques, multiple retailers multiple department stores, chains mail order, websites, interactive media. Role of new technology in marketing and sales of textiles products:Virtual reality product simulationSee Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.184 – bottom of page onwards.Mutli-national textile companies and global marketingCompanies that are globally recognised for example; Lycra, Teflon, Tactel, Nike, Adidas. See Textiles at the Cutting Edge p. 129Identifying socio-economic groups, demographic trends, niche marketing.Done through Market Research (See p. 281) Jobs in the Textiles/Fashion IndustryFashion DesignerFashion designers work on the design of items of clothing and fashion ranges. Some may focus completely on one specialist area, such as sportswear, children swear, footwear or accessories.They produce designs for the haute couture, designer ready-to-wear and high street fashion markets. Developments in technology mean that a design can be on sale as a finished product in the high street within six weeks.Depending on their level of responsibility and the company they work for, designers may work to their own brief or be given a brief to work towards, with specifications relating to colour, fabric and budget.The main areas of work for fashion designers are:High street fashion:?this is where the majority of designers work and where garments are mass manufactured (often in Europe or East Asia). Buying patterns, seasonal trends and celebrity catwalk influences play a key role in this design process. It is a commercial area and heavily media led;ready-to-wear?(also known as prêt-à-porter): where established designers create ready-to-wear collections, produced in relatively small numbers;haute couture:?requires large amounts of time spent on the production of one-off garments for the catwalk - which are often not practical to wear - usually to endorse other brands and create a ‘look’creating/visualising an idea and producing a design by hand or using computer-aided design (CAD);keeping up to date with emerging fashion trends as well as general trends relating to fabrics, colours and shapes;planning and developing ranges;working with others in the design team, such as buyers and forecasters, to develop products to meet a brief;liaising closely with sales, buying and production teams on an ongoing basis to ensure the item suits the customer, market and price points;understanding design from a technical perspective, i.e. producing patterns, toiles and technical specifications for designs;sourcing, selecting and buying fabrics, trims, fastenings and embellishments;adapting existing designs for mass production;developing a pattern that is cut and sewn into sample garments and supervising the making up of these, including fitting, detailing and adaptations;overseeing production;negotiating with customers and suppliers;Managing marketing, finances and other business activities, if working on a self-employed basis.Experienced designers with larger companies may focus more on the design aspect, with pattern cutters and machinists preparing sample garments. In smaller companies these, and other tasks, may be part of the designer's role.BuyerA retail buyer is responsible for planning and selecting a range of products to sell in retail outlets. The buyer must consider the following factors when making purchasing decisions:customer demand (e.g. price, quality and availability);?market trends;store policy;Financial budgets.Buyers source new merchandise and review existing ones to ensure products remain competitive. By fully understanding customer needs, they are able to maximise profits and provide a commercially viable range of merchandise at competitive prices. Keeping up to date with market trends and reacting to changes in demand are key elements of the role.Retail buyers have a considerable amount of responsibility and autonomy in what is often a pressured environment.analysing consumer buying patterns and predicting future trends;?regularly reviewing performance indicators, e.g. sales and discount levels;managing plans for stock levels;reacting to changes in demand;reacting to changes in logistics;meeting suppliers and negotiating terms of contract;maintaining relationships with existing suppliers and sourcing new suppliers for future products;liaising with other departments within the organisation to ensure projects are completed;attending trade fairs, in the UK and overseas, to select and assemble a new collection of products;participating in promotional activities;writing reports and forecasting sales levels;presenting new ranges to senior retail managers;liaising with shop personnel to ensure product/collection supply meets demand;seeking merchandise feedback from customers;Training and mentoring junior staff.MerchandiserMerchandisers are responsible for ensuring that products appear in the right store at the appropriate time and in the correct quantities. This involves working closely with the buying teams to accurately forecast trends, plan stock levels and monitor performance. While the buyer selects the lines, the merchandiser decides how much money should be spent, how many lines should be bought and in what quantities. In smaller companies, the same person may be responsible for both buying and merchandising.Merchandisers play a key role within organisations, as profitability can be affected by how successfully they undertake their work. Merchandisers set prices to maximise profits and manage the performance of ranges, planning promotions and markdowns as necessary. They also oversee delivery and distribution of stock and deal with suppliers.planning product ranges and preparing sales and stock plans in conjunction with buyers;liaising with buyers, analysts, stores, suppliers and distributors;maintaining a comprehensive library of appropriate data;working closely with visual display staff and department heads to decide how goods should be displayed to maximise customer interest and sales;producing layout plans for stores;forecasting profits and sales, and optimising the sales volume and profitability of designated product areas;planning budgets and presenting sales forecasts and figures for new ranges;controlling stock levels based on forecasts for the season;using specialist computer software, for example to handle sales statistics, produce sales projections and present spreadsheets and graphs;analysing every aspect of bestsellers (for example, the bestselling price points, colours or styles) and ensuring that bestsellers reach their full potential;monitoring slow sellers and taking action to reduce prices or set promotions as necessary;gathering information on customers’ reactions to products;analysing previous season's sales and reporting on the current season's lines;making financial presentations to senior managers;accompanying buyers on visits to manufacturers to appreciate production processes;meeting with suppliers and managing the distribution of stock, by negotiating cost prices, ordering stock, agreeing timescales and delivery dates, and completing the necessary paperwork;identifying production and supply difficulties and dealing with any problems or delays as they arise;Managing, training and supervising junior staff.Fabric and Garment TechnologistA clothing/textile technologist works on the design, development and production of fibres, yarns and textiles. They carry out a range of technical, investigative and quality control work to ensure the end product performs to specifications.They also work on the development of products, improving production efficiency and quality while liaising with those involved in the production process.The textile and clothing industries are closely linked and end products range widely from clothing to household and industrial textiles.developing manmade fibres and quality assessing natural fibres;spinning fibres into yarn, and knitting or weaving yarn into fabrics;producing non-woven materials;identifying the latest fabric trends, developments and innovations;overseeing the dyeing, printing and finishing processes;ensuring quality in areas such as strength, durability, colourfastness, and water and chemical resistance;advising commercial colleagues on technical aspects of the business;liaising with designers, and adapting designs to suit production methods;making and sizing pre-production garments;sourcing fabrics and accessories;undertaking quality evaluations of materials and checking the quality of the final product;Responding to product queries, including complaints, from wholesalers and customers.Visual Merchandiser/Display DesignerDisplay designers and visual merchandisers use their design skills to promote the image, products and services of businesses and other organisations.Display designers focus on designing displays, stands and panels for exhibitions, conferences and other events. They also produce point-of-sale displays, which are installed in hundreds of retail outlets.Visual merchandisers create window and in-store displays of goods for retail shops and department stores.The work involves researching to get an understanding of what is needed, and coming up with design ideas. Visual merchandisers also source elements such as lighting, props and accessories.It is important to make the most of the space available, work within a budget and meet deadlines. Installing and dismantling displays may also be part of the job description.making presentations to potential clients to win contractsdiscussing the brief with the client and identifying the key messages they wish to conveygaining an in-depth understanding of the client's organisation, products, image and target marketconsidering factors such as the space available for the display, any special features it should incorporate (such as chairs, models and computers) and the client's budgetcoming up with design ideas, images and graphics incorporating the client's logo and corporate colours, and discussing these with the clientresearching costs and working within a budgetrevising designs according to feedback from clients and other members of the design teamOverseeing the production of the chosen design, checking the quality and making sure the project is completed to schedule.Producing a display usually involves working with printers, exhibition contractors, plastics manufacturers and metal fabricators. The job could also involve arranging for the display to be transported to and from exhibitions, installed, dismantled and stored when not in use. Designers may liaise with suppliers of lighting, furniture, flower arrangements and other accessories.Visual merchandisers create imaginative, eye-catching displays of goods in retail stores. They aim to attract the attention of customers and encourage them to buy. Their tasks can include:researching lifestyle and design trends and making sure designs will appeal to the target audienceworking with other members of the design, marketing and buying team to develop themes and colour schemes for displays - for example Christmas, Valentine's day, sales and special promotionssketching designs and developing floor plans, making the most of the space availabletaking direction from head office on corporate schemes when appropriatesourcing materials such as props and lightinginstalling and dismantling displayspreparing visual merchandising packs, including plans and photographs, for other stores in the chain, to make sure all displays present a consistent imageVisiting branches to train and brief staff on arranging displays.The role of the designer:Read Textiles at the Cutting Edge: p.147-150Job DescriptionFashion designers work on the design of items of clothing and fashion ranges. Some may focus completely on one specialist area, such as sportswear, childrenswear, footwear or accessories. They produce designs for the haute couture, designer ready-to-wear, and high street fashion markets. Developments in technology mean that a design can be on sale as a finished product in the high street within six weeks. Depending on their level of responsibility and the company they work for, designers may work to their own brief or be given a brief to work towards, with specifications relating to colour, fabric and budgetAreas of fashion:The main areas of work for fashion designers are:High street fashion: this is where the majority of designers work and where garments are mass manufactured (often in Europe or the Far East). Buying patterns, seasonal trends and celebrity catwalk influences play a key role in this design process. It is a commercial area and heavily media led.Ready-to-wear: Established designers create ready-to-wear collections, produced in relatively small numbers.Haute couture: This requires large amounts of time spent on the production of one-off garments for the catwalk - which are often not practical to wear - usually to endorse other brands and create a ‘look’. Typical Work ActivitiesTasks depend on the market the designer is working for, but core responsibilities include:creating/visualising an idea and producing a design by hand or using computer-aided design (CAD);keeping up to date with emerging fashion trends as well as general trends relating to fabrics, colours and shapes;planning and developing ranges;working with others in the design team, such as buyers and forecasters, to develop products to meet a brief;liaising closely with sales, buying and production teams on an ongoing basis to ensure the item suits the customer, market and price points;understanding design from a technical perspective, i.e., producing patterns, toiles and technical specifications for designs;sourcing, selecting and buying fabrics, trims, fastenings and embellishments;adapting existing designs for mass production;developing a pattern that is cut and sewn into sample garments and supervising the making up of these, including fitting, detailing and adaptations;overseeing production;negotiating with customers and suppliers;managing marketing, finances and other business activities, if working on a self-employed basis.Experienced designers with larger companies may focus more on the design aspect, with pattern cutters and machinists preparing sample garments. In smaller companies these, and other tasks, may be part of the designer's role.Environmental constraints upon designers – Eco-FashionSimply put, the term “eco-fashion” refers to stylized clothing hat uses environmentally sensitive fabrics and responsible production techniques. Eco-fashion clothes can be defined as, “clothes that take into account the environment, the health of consumers and the working conditions of people in the fashion industry.” Clothes and accessories that meet such criteria are usually made using organic raw materials, such as cotton grown without pesticides, or re-used materials such as recycled plastic from old soda bottles. Eco-fashions don't involve the use of harmful chemicals and bleaches to colour fabrics—and are made by people earning fair wages in healthy working conditions. Working to client specifications, designing within budgetsDesigners need to take into account the resources of the company for which they work. They need to appeal to the customer profile which may have a set price point. They need to work to a set budget, bearing in mind at all times the cost of raw materials and components and manufacturing processes that will be needed – e.g. loads of seams, complex construction = more expensive.Design in the human contextHealth and Safety: Read more: Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.44/45H&S during production of textile productsH&S at work is the responsibility of the employers and employees. Manufacturers are required by law to follow strict rules and regulations, based on the Health & Safety at Work Act 1974. Employees are required to follow safety procedures to reduce the risks in using materials, machinery and manufacturing processes.Risk AssessmentThis means identifying the risks and putting control systems in place to minimise the risk of injury or accident. Each production task to be performed will have to have a risk assessment carried out. Risk assessment is also carried out on textile products to ensure that they do not pose a threat of injury or accident.HSEThe Health and Safety Executive is a government body which advises employers and employees on all aspects of H&S. It also sets the regulations that employers must follow.COSHHControl Of Substances Hazardous to Health. The COSHH regulations require employers to control substances that can harm workers' health.BSI standards for product testingRead more in Chapter 2 Consumer Interests page 266 onwardsBritish Standards Institution (BSI) is the independent regulator of standards for manufactured products. Products must comply with these standards, one to remember is BS5722 which sets out the flammability performance of fabrics used in sleepwear and dressing gowns.Impact of technological development: Balance between gain and loss for individual and community in terms of ethical, social environmental and economic considerationsValues issues and new technology are discussed on page 247 Textiles and the Cutting Edge.Environmental concerns:Read up on this; page 293 Textiles at the Cutting EdgeUse of natural resourcesOrganic productionMaterials utilisationWaste disposalPollutionRecyclingPlanned obsolescenceIndustrial TextilesThese are textile materials manufactured to meet specific technical requirements in a wide variety of industries. They are used for functional end-uses, either as part of an industrial process or incorporated into industrial products. Industrial textiles are often used in the aerospace and transport industries. They often replace existing traditional materials because they provide superior characteristics and properties such as strength, lightness, durability and resistance to heat or corrosion.Examples: Fire resistant space suits, optical fibres, Seat belts, airbags, tyres, belts, carpet backing and upholstery, Conveyor belts, filters, cables and ropesThe average car contains 13-14kg of textiles. These are used not only in carpets, upholstery, seat belts and airbags but also as flexible reinforcements in the tyres, brake pipes, water hoses and belts. The bodywork may be made from glass-reinforced composites and insulation is achieved through the use of heat and sound absorbing textiles. Oil and petrol filters keep the car running smoothly.Technical requirements relate to the functional performance of a textile, matching its properties and characteristics with its end-use. Technical requirements can relate to the way a textile performs, such as its strength, elasticity, breathability, durability or fire-resistance. For example, the technical requirements of a bouncy castle could be strong, hardwearing, waterproof, puncture proof and non-slip.Technical TextilesTechnical textiles are manufactured mainly for their technical performance and functional properties rather than for aesthetic characteristics. Only a small proportion of technical textiles are manufactured from high-tech fibres like Kevlar, Nomex or carbon fibres. Most technical textiles are made from everyday fibres such as polyester, polypropylene, polyamide (nylon), acrylic, viscose or cotton.The properties and structures of technical textiles are usually modified to meet the requirements of specific end-uses. This may include the use of microfibers, which can be blended with other synthetic or natural fibres to make fabrics that are strong, lightweight, easy-care and weatherproof. Technical fabrics can be woven, knitted or non-woven, depending on the end use. Many geotextiles, for example, are warp knitted. Technical fabrics are often coated with Teflon or PVC to give them enhanced properties, like stain-resistance.Technical textiles are used in a wide range of applications including protective clothing, upholstery, furnishings, buildings, civil engineering, sports products, leisure goods, agricultural products, medicine and health care.Performance TextilesTechnical textiles that are used for more fashion-orientated products for outdoor pursuits or sport are sometimes called performance textiles. These are textiles that relate to a products performance in a specific end-use, such as skiing or swimming.Performance textiles are developed from technical specifications that define how the product should perform, such as ‘windproof’, ‘breathable’ or ‘aerodynamic’. The look of these products is also important if they are to sell into a competitive market, so aesthetic properties are an important factor I their design. The development of performance textiles has been the driving force behind many innovations in clothing fabrics. Some of the benefits originally incorporated into performance wear such as ‘breathable’ are now seen to be indispensable in many fashion products. Similarly, Lycra is now used extensively in fashion clothing to provide comfort properties.Performance requirements relate to the functional and aesthetic performance of a textile, matching its properties and characteristics with its end-use. Performance requirements can relate to the way a textile performs such as tensile strength, tear strength, abrasion resistance or shrink-resistance and the way a textile looks such as its style, drape, or comfort properties. For example, the performance requirements of skiwear could be warm, breathable, waterproof, windproof, durable, easy-care and fashionable.Technological DevelopmentsTechnology PushExplained through:Resulting in:New technologies used to develop new productsDevelopments in materials technology or processes e.g. Tencel or Teflon coatingDevelopment of new technologies e.g. using Bio-sensors in sportswear to monitor heart rateUpdating existing products or developing new onesCreating new ‘smart’ productsUsing new styling to develop new products before old ones wear outThe need to increase market share e.g. creating the need to be modern or fashionableUpdating existing products through colour and stylingCreating new ‘modern’ brandsImproving product quality through development of new materials or processesDevelopments in fibres e.g. Sport woolDevelopments in biotechnology e.g. bio polishing cellulose fabrics to reduce pillingUpdating existing productsCreating new brandsNew technologies used to develop new manufacturing systems or processesCAD/CAM enables faster time to marketICT enables Quick Response manufacturingLaser technology results in garment size measuring boothsFaster turn-round of fashionable stylingFast response to customer demandMass-produced bespoke garmentsMarket InfluencesMarket PullExplained through:Resulting in:Market place demand creates a need for:Higher quality productsValue for moneyNew or modern stylingA rise in consumer expectations e.g. more money to spendChanges in lifestyle e.g. an ageing populationThe influence of the work of fashion designer e.g. the need to be fashionableUpdating existing productsCreating new brandsTargeting specific market groupsChanging consumer attitudes creates a demand for:Environmentally-friendly or recyclable productsGreater awareness of environmental, ethical or moral issues e.g. global warming or deforestationUsing different materials of processes to manufacture existing productsCreating new ‘eco’ brandsDemographics creates a demand for:Products with improved performance, function or appealBespoke garmentsChanges in lifestyle e.g. greater leisure time results in need for higher performance sportswearAn ageing population needs clothes with better fit, form and functionUpdating existing productsUsing different or new materials or technologyMass-produced bespoke garmentsEnvironmental IssuesThe manufacture, use and disposal of textile materials and products can have serious consequences for the environment in the following ways:Fibre sources -Growing cotton uses fertilisers and pesticides which can pollute the atmosphere and waterwaysSynthetics are made from petrochemicals which come from non-renewable resources and burning of which releases harmful gassesChanges to the landscape because of intensive farming and deforestationWhen growing cotton crops and producing wood for regenerated fibresManufacturing and finishing processes use chemicals such as those found in dyestuffs, and their effluent can be damaging. Large quantities of water are also necessary for these processesWaste is produced when fabrics are made into products, and this may end up in landfill sitesThe manufacture of components may use plastics and metals as well as energyPackaging of the products can be wasteful of paper, card, plastics, printing inks, and the energy used to produce and transport the packagingCaring for textile products requires the use of detergents, dry cleaning fluids, energy and waterTransportation of raw materials and finished goods produces co2 emissions from transport systemsContributing to global warming and damage to infrastructures as well as pollution to waterDisposal of discarded textile products is often to landfill sitesFabrics and components often take many years to decompose with the consequent methane production, and leeching of heavy metals from components such as zipsThere are many ways in which textiles can be made ‘greener’ and reduce their carbon footprint. These include:Recycling of fabrics and the production of new fabrics from recycles materials can reduce wasteDevelopment of new fibres, such as Tencel, which come from sustainable sources and use ‘clean technology’ in their manufacture. Inego, a new fibre to replace polyester, is made from plant starches and is fully bio-degradableUsing fewer dyes or develop fibres which grow ‘coloured’. Microfibers and dark colours use enormous amounts of dye and water to achieve the desired colourAssessing a products life cycle and considering its impact from ‘cradle to grave’Reducing the amount of packaging; ensure its biodegradable and recyclableUsing detergents which are effective at lower temperatures (30°C) and washing machines which are energy efficient and use less water. Only wash clothes when they are dirty and dry them outside when possibleConsidering using energy produced from renewable resourcesUsing more environmentally friendly forms of transport and consider manufacture of materials and products nearer to the places that they will be soldReducing the need to discard perfectly serviceable products just because fashion has changed by having fewer changes in fashion – no more disposable or fad fashionsMoral IssuesConsumers are becoming more aware of the conditions in which textile products are manufactured. In the UK, there are laws to protect health and safety of workers and prevent them from being exploited by employers.When textile products are made in other countries, especially less economically developed ones (LEDCs), those laws don’t apply.The pesticides and fertilisers used on cotton crops can have disastrous effects on the health of farmers and other workers if they breathe in the spray, or if it comes into contact with their body. Chemicals from the pesticides and fertilisers can pollute water courses, poisoning drinking water.Growing cotton uses vast amounts of water. In many countries where cotton is grown, there is not enough water for the people who live there to drink.Many workers in LEDCs are paid very little and forced to work long hours, often in hot, cramped and dangerous factories. Sometimes these workers are young children. Some manufactures in the UK have been known to employ illegal immigrants to manufacture textile products for little pay in dangerous conditions.Many of the fashion textile products that are sold at low process have been manufactured with no regard for the workers’ health, safety or dignity. People buying such cheap products need to ask themselves if the cheap fashion products, which they will throw away as soon as a new fashion appears, are worth the human suffering involved in their manufacture.Many consumers now look for Fair Trade and eco-friendly products.Fair trade standards specify minimum social, economic and environmental requirements, which producers must meet to be certified.In the Fairtrade system, a company that meets the required standards of manufacture can buy a Licence Agreement with the Fairtrade Foundation. This licence entitles the company to apply the FAIRTRADE Mark to specific products covered by the agreement.Fashion designersVivienne Westwood1941 – present British Fashion DesignerVivienne Westwood is one of the most influential designers of her time. She went to Harrow Art School, before training as a teacher! In the late 1960s, Westwood opened a highly influential shop in the King’s Road, London, selling leather and rubber clothes. In 1976 Westwood produced her ‘bondage’ collection of studded, strapped and buckled clothing. Although these clothes were thought to be shocking at the time, they have since influence much of mainstream fashion and she is credited with setting off the Punk trend. Westwood’s Pirate and New Romanticism themes of the 1980s set fashions that were ten years ahead of their time. These styles included swirling petticoats, buckles, ruffles and pirate hats. Her signature styles have also included underwear worn as over wear, corsets and crinolines and ‘Grunge’, using torn clothing and exposed seams. In 1991 Westwood began showing her collections in Paris, designing for Vivienne Westwood Red Label and Vivienne Westwood Gold Label.In 1965 Vivienne Westwood met Malcolm McLaren who triggered her interest in fashion and experimentation with her image. He introduced her to a range of political and artistic ideas which continue to influence her work today.In 1971 they took over a shop at 430 Kings Road, London. The first incarnation, Let it Rock, modelled itself on the 1950’s Teddy-boy aesthetic. In 1973 let it Rock ceded to Too Fast to Live Too Young to die in tribute to James Dean’s death and stocked fetish wear previously only available by mail order.In 1975 the shop was rebranded SEX, later named Seditionaries’ and became involved with the significant street style of the second half of the 20th century, Punk. It was famous for cruse and evocative garments – bondage trousers, and t-shirts with slogans such as “Cambridge rapist” and “paedophilia” which caused controversy and outrange in the mainstream of British society. The Sex Pistols were a highly effective promotional image for the shop.As punk began to influence the mainstream, she looked towards romanticism. Her pirates collection (1979-1981) was adopted by musicians labelled the New Romantics.In 1983 she turned the subcultural inspiration of the street into a deeper relationship with historicism. It was during this time that Westwood pioneered “underwear as outerwear”, in collections that revelled in the corset.1985 “Mini-Crini” collection designed and shown in the Cour du Louvre, Paris, and the Limelight nightclub, New York.1987 Designs “Harris Tweed” collection inspired by the clothes of the British establishment1990 – her first formal recognition in being awarded Fashion Designer of the Year by the British Fashion Council1991 designs “slash and cut” menswear collection. Awarded Fashion Designer of the Year for the second year running.1992 awarded an O.B.E as well as being made Honorary Senior Fellow at the Royal College of Art1993 designs the Vivienne Westwood iconic Orb2005 joins the board of trustees for Liberty and designs a T-shirt in defence of Liberty and Human RightsIn 2011 she was named Britain's Greatest British Fashion Designer in a poll conducted by Greenall. Over 3000 people voted with the Westwood scooping 24 per cent of the national vote. She dedicated her spring/summer2012 menswear show to the Olympics. Westwood made sure each catwalk look referred to the Games in some manner including T-shirts that came covered in printed torches, medals and statuesque Greek figures. Vivienne Westwood and photographer Juergen Teller went to Africa in 2011 to work on her autumn/winter 2011-12 Ethical Fashion Africa collection. A programme which enlists thousands of local women to use their skills to produce bags for Westwood and earn a fair wage in return. "This project gives people control over their lives," she said. "Charity doesn't give control, it does the opposite, it makes people dependant." In 2011 she joined the Occupy London anti-capitalist protesters outside St Paul's Cathedral. She has often outlined her concerns for climate change and during a talk at the V&A in 2009 Westwood said: "There is hardly anyone left now who believes in a better world." Never shy of controversy, Westwood complained of the lack of style in society. "People have never looked so ugly as they do today, regarding their dress," she told journalists after her Red Label show in London. "We are so conformist, nobody is thinking. I'm a fashion designer and people think 'what do I know?' but I'm talking about all this disposable crap. So I'm saying buy less, choose well, make it last…in history people dressed much better than we do. If you saw Queen Elizabeth it would be amazing, she came from another planet. She was so attractive in what she was wearing." To celebrate the Queen's Diamond Jubilee, she launched a new capsule collection inspired by gowns Queen Elizabeth had previously worn. The range, entitled the Red Carpet Capsule Collection, also paid homage to the British flag. Took out iconic as Alex doesn't like us using it.In 2012 Westwood criticised plans of a London council to ban charity Scope from basing its clothing banks on council-owned land. A keen supported of charity shops she told the Evening Standard: “Charity shops are part of the fabric of our great city, but this short-sighted approach is totally unfair and damages charities at the expense of a quick buck." Vivienne Westwood credited London and its thriving culture scene as her biggest inspiration in a film for the Tate Britain's 'This Is Britain' campaign. "The great thing about London for me is the culture - the museums," the designer said in the film. In 2012 Westwood triggered controversy when she created a T-shirt in support of Julian Assange. The T-shirts were given to her guests to wear front row at her spring/summer 2013 show. "I'm a big supporter of Julian Assange," Westwood told Reuters.She selected the grand setting of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to show her spring/summer 2013 Red Label collection. The choice of the venue was a result of Westwood's involvement in the government's GREAT campaign. The designer fronted an international campaign as part of the initiative, which celebrated excellence in the creative industries, while promoting Britain as the preeminent place to study, visit or invest.In 2012 she partnered with The Woolmark Company to create a luxury 12-piece-collection made from the finest Australian merino wool. "When I first began as a fashion designer, well over 30 years ago, I succeeded in re-introducing into fashion the idea of knitwear, the English twinset," Westwood told British Vogue. "Wool is one of the world's great natural fibres, famous for its versatility and comfort-warm in winter, cool in summer." In January 2013 she helped rebrand the English National Ballet with a new campaign that shows the ballet dancers wearing her creations. "It's a dream come true to be able to collaborate with someone of such stature," said Tamara Rojo, the English National Ballet's artistic director. "Her designs capture the creativity and ambition of our dancers who, in turn, add drama and movement to the clothes." Paul SmithPaul Smith is a label that has become synonymous with classic British tailoring and style. Inspired by the traditional British menswear he admired as young boy - such as his brother's Post Office shirts and the tweeds of the Nottinghamshire country set - Smith's greatest attribute is simplicity. He has described his designs as "well-made, good quality, simple cut, interesting fabric, easy to wear" and often adds a splash of vibrant colour, a floral print or his signature multi-coloured stripes.Born in 1946 in Nottingham, England, Smith's childhood ambition was to become a professional racing cyclist. He left school at 15 with no qualifications and began working in a Nottingham clothing warehouse as an errand boy. He relished his cycle to and from the warehouse each day until aged 17 he was in a serious accident and sustained injuries that put an end to his racing ambitions. Six months in hospital followed, during which Smith made friends with people from the local art college who would introduce him to the world of art and fashion.Returning to his job at the warehouse, he used his newly acquired interest in art and fashion and began making displays for the showroom. Soon after, he was made menswear buyer.Smith also started to take evening classes in tailoring in Nottinghamshire where he learned to cut cloth as well as the basics. Soon after, he joined Lincroft Kilgour in Savile Row after being spotted by Chairman Harold Tillman, where his designs were worn by celebrities including footballer George Best.Paul Smith now has 15 shops and concessions in the UK and 200 shops worldwide, in markets including Japan, Paris, Milan, New York and Hong Kong. The business, still based in his native Nottingham, has turnover of ?325million. As chairman and designer, Sir Paul is still involved in every aspect of it.Known for his positive outlook on business and life, Smith has become a key figure of the British fashion industry. Although he is an internationally celebrated fashion artist nowadays, Smith is known to have remained very much down to earth. He frequently visits his shops, talks to customers, and learns about his clientele's needs.In 1969, Smith met his wife-to-be Pauline Denyer, then a fashion design student at the Royal College of Art. With Denyer's encouragement he opened his first shop called Paul Smith Vêtement Pour Homme on 10 Byard Lane, Nottingham in 1970. It was the only shop outside London to sell labels like Kenzo and Margaret Howell, and Smith soon started selling pieces that he had designed himself and had made up by local manufacturers. "That first shop was only 12ft square and I thought, "There's not much to see. Why would anyone come?" So I'd always have a poster from the Pompidou Centre to sell, or three school notebooks from a trip to Greece," Smith told the Telegraph in 2008.By 1976 Paul showed his first menswear collection in Paris, under the Paul Smith label. He gradually expanded the retail business, being the first fashion brand to open on Floral Street in London's Covent Garden in 1979. His shop offered an eclectic combination of clothes and finds for men which reflected his own magpie personality.In 1990, Smith created his first children's collection.After discovering that 15 per cent of his clothes were bought by women, who were attracted to his modern use of fine and classic materials, he first introduced a women's collection in 1993. In the same year, Smith took over the traditional (established in 1885), but bankrupt work wear company R. Newbold and quickly incorporated many of their famous cuts into his collection.He received a CBE in 1994 for his services to the British fashion industry.In 1995, Paul Smith Limited was awarded The Queen's Award for Industry for export achievement. In the same year, London-based Design Museum opened a retrospective of Smith's 25 years of work in the fashion business, called True Brit, marking the first time the renowned museum devoted an entire exhibition to a single fashion designer.He was awarded the Honorary Freedom of the City of Nottingham in February 1996.In 2000, Smith was awarded a knighthood, an accolade that until then had only been bestowed upon one designer - Hardy Amies. On the same day he wed Pauline, his partner of 30 years.In October 2001, Smith published his first book, entitled You Can Find Inspiration in Everything. The tome was described by Smith as his “brain on to the page".In May 2002, Smith accessorised the England team for their World Cup matches in Japan and Korea. Working with the FA and Umbro he designed a selection of leather wallets, cufflinks, shoes, eyewear, watches and luggage.He won Menswear Designer of the Year and Women's Contemporary Designer of the Year at the British Style Awards in 2003.In September 2004, Paul Smith was named Designer of the Year for the fourth year running at theGQMen of the Year awards. "I am absolutely delighted," he said. "It's a really genuine honour."In February 2007, Smith was awarded an honorary fellowship of the Royal Institute of British Architects - an organisation that rewards outstanding contributions made to the world of art, design and architecture. The lifetime accolade is handed out to just ten people annually. "Receiving the honorary fellowship is a real honour," said Smith. "I am both shocked and delighted because RIBA is an association that I really admire, and architecture is very close to my heart."Smith admires the work of Yves Saint Laurent. "I was fortunate enough to see some of Yves Saint Laurent's first haute couture shows in his Paris salon - one in particular I remember was in homage to the Vietnam War and it was all in black. Then he did the famous see-through blouse in clear silk chiffon. The audience literally took a mass in-take of breath - as if we'd been watching a firework display. Obviously the fact that he pioneered le smoking for women proved how modern his thinking was," Despite his earlier accident, Smith has maintained his interest in cycling and is an avid follower of professional racers. He dressed professional cyclists and Olympic winners Sir Chris Hoy and Bradley Wiggins CBE for their various official engagements, following their successes at the 2008 Beijing games.In May 2009 Sir Paul Smith dressed football team Manchester United ahead of their Champions League Final against Barcelona. He created two suits - one in a grey Prince of Wales check and the other in black wool - which both featured specially created red lining and stripe piping, accompanied by a black raincoat and luggage set for each player. "It is exciting to be involved with Manchester United," Sir Paul Smith said. "They have such an international fan base and I know our customers in Japan, Korea, and Hong Kong - in fact all South East Asia, Europe and the US - will be interested in the partnership. It has been an honour designing and supplying suits for the team."In 2010 Smith was honoured at the Condé Nast Traveller Innovation and Design Awards.He launched Paul Smith Junior in the autumn of 2010. Staying true to his unique vision showcasing a bright, punchy colour palette and silhouettes inspired by the men's and women's catwalk offerings. "It is really exciting to return to designing clothes for babies and children. It is 10 years since we had a children's collection which we stopped because we literally could not keep up with the workload due to the business of our men's and women's collections," said Sir Paul Smith.Alexander McQueenBorn in the East End and the son of a taxi driver, Alexander McQueen was the quintessential bad boy made good. He had brains and brawn, having survived over ten years as a solo designer and being brought into the Gucci Group stable, which bought a 51 per cent stake in his company 2002. In 2008, his company not only turned a profit but was also opening new stores from LA to Beirut. He was awarded the coveted Designer of the Year Award at the British Fashion Awards four times.Alexander McQueen was born in 1970 in the East End of London - the son of a taxi driver.He left school at 16 and trained on Savile Row at Gieves & Hawkes, where he reportedly once embroidered a suit for the Prince of Wales with the words "I am a c**t" (in the lining).In 1991 his entire degree show was bought by influential stylist Isabella Blow, whose later suicide in 2007 led to him dedicating his entire spring/summer 2008 collection to her memory.He earned his master's degree in fashion design from London's Central Saint Martins (formerly Central Saint Martin’s College of Art and Design) in 1992.The of LVMH president, Bernard Arnault, controversially installed McQueen as John Galliano's successor at Givenchy in 1996. McQueen told Vogue in October 1997 that his debut couture offering for the label was "crap", but he stayed with the house until March 2001 - continuing to create challenging collections, including one featuring car-robots spraying paint over white cotton dresses and double amputee model Aimee Mullins striding down the catwalk on intricately carved wooden legs - until the contract which he said was "constraining his creativity" was ended.McQueen won the British Fashion Awards' British Designer of the Year four times and won the Men's Wear Designer of the Year award in 2004. In 2003, he received the CFDA Award for Best International Designer and was honoured with a CBE from Queen Elizabeth II for his services to the fashion industry.His spring/summer 2010 collection, which featured alien-inspired make-up and reptilian prints, was lauded as his best by the fashion press, with Selfridges buying director Anita Barr telling she believed it would be the department store's "bestselling collection ever".McQueen died, aged 40, on February 11 2010, amid unconfirmed reports that he committed suicide.Alexander McQueen delivered collections that were often described in superlatives: "I didn't plan out my life like that," he said. "When people recognise and respect what you do, that's nice, but I don't think you ever do this to be famous. Fame should be left to the film stars. We're just offering a service."Alexander McQueen was one of the most influential and creative fashion designers around. He learned his tailoring skills when working as a pattern cutter for a Savile Row men’s tailor. He then trained as a theatre costume designer and worked for Romeo Gigli in Milan, before training at Central Saint Martin’s College of Art and Design in London. In 1992 McQueen launched his own label and became the ‘enfant terrible’ of the fashion world. Despite the shock value of his designs McQueen is a highly creative designer with finely honed tailoring skills. He designed for his own label and was chief designer for the French fashion house Givenchy. McQueen used cutting edge fabrics, such as laminated lace, vinyl with metal rivets, tartan PVC and synthetic fabric spattered with stainless steel.John GallianoJohn Galliano was born in Gibraltar and graduated from Central Saint Martin’s College of Art and Design in London. He sold his graduation collection to the London designer store Brown’s in 1984. He is one of the most influential and original designers of the late 20th century, whose clothes are often shocking. His collections are sometimes based on themes such as ‘Fallen Angels’. Galliano also bases his ideas on historical themes, using contexts such as the Highlands of Scotland, the Russian Steppes, and American gangsters, to product kilts, frock coats and ball gowns. Although Galliano raids historical themes for his ideas, he uses modern fabrics and precision tailoring with bias fabric cutting to create clothes that influence many other designers. In 1995 Galliano was made chief designer for the French fashion house Givenchy haute couture and RTW, but left in 1996 to design for Dior. He also designs for his own label.Is John Galliano a pirate, Russian émigré, revolutionary, dandy, or soldier? For every collection as chief designer at Dior, he adopted each look as he thoroughly immerses himself in his creative process.Incredibly, after 20 years in the business, he still maintains the drive of the impoverished fashion student he started out as. Superb tailoring and delicate detail are his trademarks.Born in Gibraltar in 1960.His first class degree collection from Saint Martin’s College, 'Les Incroyables', was bought by Joan Burstein for the window of her South Molton Street shop, Browns.John Galliano launched his own label in 1984. He was British Designer of the Year in 1987, 1994 and in 1997 he shared it with Alexander McQueen.Due to frequent bankruptcy, in 1995 he accepted the job of creative director Givenchy in Paris. He was the first Brit to head a French couture house (His designs from that era are now collector's items).In 1996, Galliano was appointed as creative director of Christian Dior. He was made a Chevalier in the French Legion of Honour in January 2009.Galliano is almost as famous for his dramatic final-bow-costumes as he is for his fantastical designs. He has finished his show wearing all from Napoleon and country squire outfits to looks inspired by the artful dodger and an astronaut.In 2011, he helped celebrate its 15th birthday by sharing his 15 favourite fashion memories, from Kate storming the runway in a crinoline to dressing Diana, Princess of Wales.He is known for creating some of the industry's most famous collections, including the Blanche Dubois (inspired by Streetcar Named Desire and starring Kate Moss) in October 2008, the Napoleon and Josephine (inspired by the love story of these famous historic figures) in March 1992 and the Princess Lucretia (inspired by the Russian princess) in October 1993.Last season saw him celebrate 15 years working at Dior - he marked the occasion with a collection inspired by one of Dior's long-term friends and original illustrators, Rene Gruau. For his own label he offered a show that looked like a raid on a Twenties theatre wardrobe, with pantomime wigs, chiffon dresses and floral silk blouses.To achieve his considerable output Galliano relies on an extreme fitness regime, including a daily six mile jog along the Seine. "It helps to concentrate the mind and I find that I have so much more energy and focus."In February 2011, Galliano was arrested for an alleged assault and shortly afterwards a video appeared online of him apparently making anti-Semitic remarks towards people in a Paris bar. As a result, Dior dismissed him from his role as creative director on March 1 2011.Christian DiorChristian Dior was a French couturier, best known for his eponymous fashion house which is often referred to as just Dior.Born in the seaside town of Granville on the coast of Normandy in 1905, he was the son of a wealthy fertiliser manufacturer and was one of five children.?Aged five, he moved with his family to Paris.Although his parents had hopes of him becoming a diplomat, Dior was artistically inclined and began to sell his sketches on the street to make pocket money.?Upon leaving school, Dior took over a small art gallery which his father bought for him, where he and a friend sold work by artists including Pablo Picasso.Following the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, the death of both his mother and his brother, and the collapse of his father's business, Dior was forced to close his art gallery. He then went to work with fashion designer Robert Piguet until he was called up for military service in 1940.At the end of his service in 1942, he began working for couturier Lucien Long, where he and Pierre Balmain were the primary designers. During the war, Lelong - like other French ateliers including Jeanne Lanvin and Nina Ricci - dressed the wives of Nazi officers and French collaborators as a way of preserving the fashion industry throughout the conflict for both economic and artistic reasons.At the same time, Dior's younger sister Catherine joined the French Resistance, resulting in her capture by the Gestapo and subsequent imprisonment at the Ravensbrück concentration camp. She survived and was liberated in 1945. In 1947, Dior named his debut fragrance Miss Dior as a tribute to her.He founded the house of Christian Dior on December 16, 1946 at 30 Avenue Montaigne Paris, backed by?Marcel Boussac, a cotton-fabric magnate. Officially, the house of Dior considers 1947 to be the year of conception as that is when Dior showed his first collection.On February 12, 1947, Dior showed his debut collection, presenting the 90 different looks. Named "Corolle" and "Huit", the lines were quickly christened the "New Look", a phrase coined by US?Harper's Bazaar?magazine editor Carmel Snow. The look consisted of a calf-length, full skirt, a cinched waist and fuller bust than had been seen since the turn of the century. A rebuttal to post-war fabric restrictions - the average dress used 20 yards of fabric - the look received some criticism upon release. The opulence of his designs contrasted with the grim post-war reality of Europe, and helped re-establish Paris as the joyful fashion capital it had once been.The house was inundated with orders and world-famous stars such as Rita Hayworth and Margot Fonteyn bought and wore pieces, raising Dior's profile significantly. Dior was even invited to stage a private presentation of the collection for the British royal family - although King George V reportedly forbade the young princesses, Elizabeth and Margaret, from wearing the New Look in case it set a bad example at a time when rationing was still in force.He was known to be very superstitious, a quality which increased with age. Each collection included a coat named after his place of birth, Granville; in each show at least one model wore a bunch of his favourite flower, lily of the valley; and he never began a couture show without having consulted his tarot card reader.Dior established a luxury ready-to-wear house on the corner of 5th?Avenue and 57th?Street in New York in November 1948. It was the first of its kind. In the same year, he launched Dior Parfums - with Miss Dior being the first fragrance to launch, and Diorama launching the following year.In 1949, Dior was the first couturier to arrange licensed production of his designs. Having realised the importance of the complete look - and that the New Look could not be successfully achieved without the correct Dior shoes, gloves and hat - Dior, together with business partner Jacques Rou?t, licensed his name to a range of luxury accessories. Furs, stockings, ties and perfume were also manufactured in regional centres across the world, spreading his brand name quickly around the globe. Although this move was heavily criticised by the French Chamber of Couture - who denounced the move as cheapening the haute couture industry - licensing became a profitable move for Dior and the atelier's lesson was followed by nearly all of the period's fashion houses.In 1955, the 19-year-old Yves Saint Laurent became Dior's design assistant.?Christian Dior later met with Yves Saint Laurent's mother, Lucienne Mathieu-Saint Laurent, in 1957 to tell her that he had chosen Saint Laurent to succeed him at Dior. She said at the time she had been confused by the remark, as Dior was only 52 at the time.Shortly after his meeting with Saint Laurent's mother,?Christian Dior suffered a fatal heart attack on October 24, 1957, leaving the house in disarray. Some 2,500 people attended his funeral, including all of his staff and famous clients led by the Duchess of Windsor. In an attempt to stabilise the label, Jacques Rou?t appointed the then-21-year-old Yves Saint-Laurent as artistic director.Saint Laurent remained in the position until he was conscripted into the army, during which time he was dismissed from Dior by Rou?t and replaced by Marc Bohan. Bohan proved very successful as Saint Laurent's replacement, defining a new era and new silhouette for Dior, the Slim Look, a more modern and svelte version of Dior's iconic shape.In 1978, the Boussac Group filed for bankruptcy and its assets, including Dior, were sold to the Willot Group. After it went into administration, Bernard Arnault and his investment group purchased the Willot Group's holdings for "one symbolic franc" in 1994.?On assuming power, Arnault drastically altered Dior's operations.?In 1985, Arnault became chairman, CEO and managing director of Christian Dior.?He repositioned it as the?holding company?Christian Dior S.A and in 1988, took a 32 per cent equity stake into the share capital of?LVMH?creating one of the leading and most influential?luxury goods?conglomerates in the world, whilst Christian Dior remains to stand alone as a megabrand in its own right.Gianfranco Ferre was made stylistic director of Christian Dior in 1989, replacing Marc Bohan. He remained in this position until 1997.In 1997, Arnault appointed British designer John Galliano to replace Marc Bohan at the creative helm. "Galliano has a creative talent very close to that of Christian Dior. He has the same extraordinary mixture of romanticism, feminism and modernity that symbolised Monsieur Dior. In all of his creations - his suits, his?dresses - one finds similarities to the Dior style," said Arnault of Galliano.Coco ChanelSo great is Coco Chanel's legacy that fans make pilgrimages to her Paris apartment (although she also lived in the Paris Ritz for 30 years), which is preserved as she left it and endlessly referenced for style - as is every image of her and every tiny thing she ever designed. From her use of monochrome to her oversized 'costume' pearls and cuffs, everything is still sublimely, continuously referenced. As she once said: "Fashion fades, only style remains the same."? Gabrielle Bonheur "Coco" Chanel was born in 1883 and died in 1971? She created a new look for women in the 20th century, creating clothes that were primarily comfortable. A Chanel suit of 1923 or handbag is still seen as a landmark purchase for women of increasingly younger ages? The Chanel No.5 scent is the bestselling in the world? The interlocking Cs of Coco Chanel remain one of the ultimate brand insignia? Since 1983, Chanel has been designed by Karl Lagerfeld? The building where her apartment is in Paris was bought by Chanel in 1920, and still houses the ground-floor shop, the haute couture workrooms in the attic (where 100 seamstresses still work entirely by hand), and what is now Karl Lagerfeld's study?Coco Chanel's bobbed hair, bright red lips and outspoken manner also broke the mould. This smoking, outspoken woman never married - although she had relations with the English industrialist Arthur "Boy" Capel - who lent her the money to buy Rue Cambon - Igor Stravinsky and the second Duke of Westminster Hugh "Bendor" Grosvenor, the richest man in Europe. Keira Knightley followed Kate Moss as the new face of Coco Mademoiselle in 2007. The brand could not be more alive with watches, beauty, fragrance, womenswear and new stores.In?2009?a biopic film?based on her life titled?'Coco before Chanel'?was released.?Audrey Tatou?was given the lead-role and follows as she goes from orphan to Haute Couture designer.1920’3 and 1930’s:In France, the designer Coco Chanel epitomised the modern woman. She designed comfortable, loose blouses, chemise dresses and clothes that were sporty, relaxed, wearable and well suited to the outdoor lifestyle that was being promoted as healthy in the 1920s. These clothes were designed to be worn without corsets and were made with fewer linings to make them lighter and more flexible. Chanel believed that fashion must meet the needs of modern lifestyles and give women freedom of movement. In 1916 she began using knitted jersey fabrics, a relatively cheap fabric previously sued for underwear and by 1918 was producing cardigans and twinsets. Chanel was one of the most influential designers of the 20th century. Her clothes broke away from the fussy over decorated clothing of the 19th century. She adapted men’s tailoring and produced classic suits with short skirts, always relying on good cut, finish and high quality fabric. What we now consider to be a normal part of women’s clothing – trousers, tweeds, pea jackets, berets, blazers, raincoats, the little black dress, slinback shoes and accessories were all introduced by Chanel.In the 1920s fashion clothing became more widely available as clothing by designers like Chanel was copied by RTW. Clothing that once had only been for the wealthy suddenly became available to the woman on the street. This was a dramatic change for ordinary people who had previously only has every day and ‘best’ clothes that had to last for years. Of course, designer clothing was still unaffordable for most people, but its very exclusivity increased its desirability. The production and distribution of affordable RTW fashion was an important turning point in the democratisation of fashion. The very styling of the clothes themselves, together with lower prices meant that social class was not immediately discernible through what you wore.-41656014478000Art Movements Arts and Crafts MovementInspired by socialist principles (everyone being equal) and led by William Morris, the members of the movement used the medieval system of trades and guilds to set up their own companies to sell their goods. Unfortunately, it has the reverse effect and, apart from the wealthy middle classes, hardly anyone could afford their designs.The arts and crafts movement is called a ‘reform movement’ because it was closely associated this the ‘anti-industrial’ movement that came about in the late 19th century.William Morris (1834-1836) was the most influential thinker of the Arts and Crafts movement. His philosophy revolved around a love of simple design inspired by the Middle Ages when art and production were closely connected in medieval craft ‘guilds’Morris saw the effects of industrialisation – environmental pollution, poverty for workers and the production of poor quality products – and proposed the reform of commercial art in order to manufacture well-designed and well-crafted consumer goods.This was the start of the revolt against the over decorated products beloved by well-off Victorians.The Arts and Crafts movement promoted the idea of handcrafted products as being superior to industrial ones.This type of simple undecorated furniture and furnishings created a demand for simplicity of design and fitness for purposeIt had an important influence on Art Nouveau, the Bauhaus, on Scandinavian and UK design and can be said to form the basis of modern design in EuropeThe legacy of William Morris is still seen today. “have nothing in your house that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful”Morris raised the design for everyday domestic accessories and fittings to an art form. He drew his inspiration from the flowing shapes of nature and interpreted them as repeat prints for wallpaper and textilesThese products represented the values of ‘truth to material and form’. Morris’s style has been reproduced and reinterpreted throughout the 20th century, making him one of the UKs most influential textile designers.Today, manufacturers such as Liberty’s and Sanderson are still producing textiles inspired by Morris.Art NouveauArt Nouveau was an important reform movement that developed at the turn of the 19th century in FranceIt developed into an international movement between 1895 and the First World War. Art Nouveau styling was built around the use of simple natural forms, the curved lines and shapes of climbing plants, geometric forms based on Japanese art.Art Nouveau was an influential decorative style, which was used in architecture, wrought ironwork, glass, furniture, fabrics and wallpaper.The paintings of Gustav Klimt, often used as inspiration by textile designers typify the Art Nouveau style.In some ways the Art Nouveau movement was similar to the Arts and Crafts movement. Art Nouveau designers considered themselves to be artists rather than designers, rejected industrial mass production, produced design work that was only available to the wealthy.Art nouveau is sometimes described as being between art and industry, because it encouraged a return to handcrafted [products. Some say that it delayed the development of modern industrial design.The Bauhaus1919 – 1933The Bauhaus school was founded by the architect Walter Gropius in 1919. In 1937 the ‘new’ Bauhaus was founded in the USA, where the Bauhaus style became known as the ‘international style’The place of Bauhaus as the centre of modernism and functionalism is unchangeable, because it laid down the basic principles of design that are still meaningful todayThese design principles influence modern teaching about industrial design – many Bauhaus products still look modern today. The principal aims of the Bauhaus were to use modern materials and to combine the concepts of ‘form and function’Design and education in the Bauhaus school was centred on students experimenting with colour, form and modern materialsIn some ways it has a similar philosophy to the reforming Arts and Crafts movement, because it offered an education in artistic and handicraft skillsThe Bauhaus art training was given by important artists of the day, such as Johannes Itten, Lyonel Feininger, Paul Klee, Georg Muche and Oscar Schlemmer. It was the first time that professional artists were involved in teaching future industrial designers.The key difference from the Arts and Crafts movement was that the Bauhaus linked the design of products to their manufacture by industryStudents chose a commercial workshop and the longest running and most successful was textiles, which was run and attended by womenTextiles in the hierarchy of design was seen as ‘women’s work’. However the Bauhaus textile designers were talented designers who embraced technology and incorporated the use of new or unusual materials, such as cellophane, leather and early synthetics. The result was a rebirth of hand weaving and a new professionalism in designing textiles for mass productionThe Bauhaus textile designers created fabrics that has acoustic and light-reflecting properties, were reversible, were multi-layered with some combining double and triple weaves, were made by the Jacquard loomArt DecoArt Deco was originally a French phenomenon that was influential in the early decades of the 20th centuryAlthough Art Deco style was thought to be highly modern and elegant, it was definitely anti-mass productionIt focused on one-off, expensive products made from precious materials like snakeskin, ivory, bronze, crystal and exotic woods. Later materials like steel, glass and plastics were used, but the aim was to exploit their decorative characteristics rather that any functional propertiesThe Art Deco style was influenced by Art Nouveau, Cubism, Futurism, African Art and Egyptian culturesIn furniture and other products the styling made use of geometric shapes and zigzag patterns or ornamental inlays imitating ivory and tortoiseshellAlthough it was anti-mass production, Art Deco did influence the design of many mass-produced products that were made from new materials such as aluminiumThe Art Deco style was used extensively in domestic interiors and architecture between 1920 and 1939. The great couturiers such as Poiret, Chanel and Schiaparelli were all influential designers of the Art Deco era.MemphisMemphis was the name of a group of designers who established themselves in Milan in Italy in 1981The main figure in the group was the architect Ettore Sottass, a consulting product designerThe Memphis designers were interested in the practical objects of daily life, the mass production of such objects and their promotion and marketing through advertisingInfluenced by comic strips, films, punk music and different combinations of materials, their witty, stylistic designs typified the fast pace of interior fashion in the 1980sMemphis designers combined materials such as colourful plastic laminates, glass, steel, industrial sheet metal and aluminiumEmerging at exactly the right time in the 80s, the Memphis group introduced a new understanding of design, the main purpose of which was decorative and witty, rather than functionalThe group’s sheer innovation and boldness influences any number of bright, interesting ideas that emerged around that time. It sparked a chain reaction across Europe, most notably Spain, Germany, France and the UK. Inspired by Memphis, designers shunned the purely functional in favour of the funky. ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download