The Canadian mining industry has often been at the ...
Needles in a Haystack: How Aerial Camera Technology Shaped the Future of Canadian Mineral Exploration
Researched & Written by: Oliver Jones
Master’s of Public History Program, the University of Western Ontario
Produced for: The Canada Science and Technology Museums Corporation
July 30th, 2014
Table of Contents
Needles in a Haystack: How Aerial Camera Technology Shaped the Future of Canadian Mineral Exploration 3
Works Cited 30
CSTMC Collections: Aerial Cameras & Mineral Exploration Artefacts 32
Conclusion 44
Aerial Surveying and Mineral Exploration Annotated Bibliography 46
Needles in a Haystack: How Aerial Camera Technology Shaped the Future of Canadian Mineral Exploration
The Canadian mining industry has often been at the forefront of innovation in mineral exploration throughout its history. Many new technologies developed by Canadians have helped to make mining operations safer, more efficient, and more profitable. Perhaps one of the most influential of these technological developments was the application of aerial surveying for the purpose of mineral exploration.
Today, aerial surveying comprises an integral part of nearly all stages of a mine’s creation, operation, and decommissioning. A variety of aircraft-based sensors and cameras will pinpoint regions most likely to contain mineral deposits. Once a mine is created, still other airborne sensors will monitor the angle of the various slopes of a mine in order to avoid rockslides. Finally, airborne photography is essential in order to plan for the restoration of the natural environment once a mine ceases to be profitable. For the purposes of this report, however, I will limit myself solely to a discussion of how aerial surveying has affected mineral exploration throughout Canadian history. The report has been broken into several sections in an attempt to delineate what I believe are several distinct stages in the development of aerial surveying technology. Each of these stages is marked by the adoption of new technologies within the Canadian mining industry, whether it be high-speed camera shutters or modern airborne gravimetric sensors.
The Canadian roots of aerial surveying can be traced back as far as the early 1880s. In 1883, Royal Engineer Captain H. Elmsdale used a tethered balloon to hang a camera over the Halifax Citadel, resulting in what are some of the earliest known aerial photographs ever taken in Canada.[1] Aerial photographs alone, however, cannot be turned into an accurate map without a significant amount of mathematical processing.
The science of producing maps from elevated photographs had been pioneered by French Army officer Aimé Laussedat in 1849.[2] Laussedat’s concept was adopted by Édouard-Gaston Deville, the Surveyor General of Dominion Lands, for use in mapping the many uncharted regions of Canada. Laussedat’s method of creating maps involved taking photographs of the surrounding landscape from an elevated location. Once this process was complete, a complex series of mathematical formulae could then be used to determine the size and scale of the landscape. Although Laussedat was the first to develop the mathematical techniques necessary to convert perspective photos into orthographic projections, it was Deville who was the first to apply the method on a large scale, instituting the use of ground-based photography in an 1888 survey of Canada.[3] Deville also developed a number of innovative techniques that improved on Laussedat’s original calculations, which he published in 1895.[4] Deville’s book, Photographic Surveying, is considered an early classic, cementing Deville’s reputation as the father of modern photogrammetry (the science of using photography to determine accurate measurements).[5] To date, Deville’s original ground-based survey was the only extensive photogrammetric mapping program conducted prior to the 1900s.[6] Deville’s foresight would also eventually lead him to adapt many of his techniques to the development of aerial surveying in Canada throughout the 1920s.
Before discussing the application of aerial surveying to the Canadian mining industry, it is important to understand how mineral exploration was conducted prior to the adoption of aerial surveying techniques. Ground-based teams of surveyors and geologists would explore various regions in search of topographical features that might indicate the presence of minerals. Once these likely sites were located, more detailed investigations would be conducted in order to determine the exact size and composition of the deposit.
The use of aircraft for aerial surveying had been a subject of interest for the Canadian mining industry as early as 1919.[7] The demand for both maps and aerial reconnaissance during the Great War had encouraged new developments in aircraft and camera design.[8] These innovations encouraged the Canadian mining industry to look seriously at aerial surveying as a tool that could be leveraged to its advantage. Furthermore, the exhaustion of many of southern Canada’s easily accessible “bonanza [mineral] deposits” in the 1920s prompted an expansion by Canadian mining companies into the more remote northern regions of the country. By this point, it was clear to many of the industry’s leaders that the future of mining in Canada could not rely on the ever-shrinking supply of easily accessible high-grade mineral deposits. Instead, the industry’s long term success depended on the ability to exploit multiple low-grade ore deposits at the same time, thus leveraging the economies of scale in order to remain profitable.[9] The use of aerial surveying likely made this long term success possible, as it allowed Canadian mining companies to identify enough of these low-grade deposits to remain profitable.
Although the practical utility of aerial surveying was recognized by many Canadian mining companies soon after the Great War, the industry would not see the widespread proliferation of commercial aerial surveying until the late 1920s. This nearly decade-long delay can be attributed to a number of causes. Canada experienced an economic downturn in the wake of the Great War, and the reduced demand for base metals in a peacetime economy hurt the Canadian mining industry. This recession also prompted a great deal of labour unrest among miners, further undermining the stability of the industry.[10] The development and adoption of new technologies is often expensive. As a result, the mining industry could not fully leverage the advantages of aerial surveying until the industry had recovered from its financial instability. This stability did not fully return until the beginning of the Second World War.[11]
The Canadian government was also slow to develop a government agency to direct civilian aviation in the wake of the Great War. The federal government’s attitude towards aviation was largely ambivalent, despite the relative success of aerial reconnaissance during the war. This attitude was likely the result of the government’s enormously expensive attempts to save the country’s collapsing rail system, resulting in a hesitation towards endorsing any development of alternative transportation networks.[12] As a result, the vast majority of survey work in the 1920s was undertaken by the Royal Canadian Air Force, leaving government agencies like the Geological Survey of Canada (GSB) and the Topographical Surveys Branch (TSB) reliant on military aircraft for aerial photography and surveying services.[13] It was only in 1926, with the formation of the Committee on Civil Air Operations, that the Canadian mining industry began to exercise more influence in the planning of the RCAF`s surveying activities.[14]
The RCAF itself played a critical role in the development of aerial surveying from approximately 1922 until 1925. It was during this period that the RCAF experimented with a number of innovative techniques and developed, as a 1929 report from the Department of National Defence on civil aviation put it,
Methods for the practical application of air photography to the mapping of forested and mineralized areas, to the revision of old maps, to the preparation of base maps and the supplying of photographs for forestry, geological, waterpower and other investigations connected with the development of the country’s natural resources.[15]
It is important to remember that the percentage of Canada that had been accurately mapped by the 1920s paled in comparison to the great swaths of land that remained both unknown and uncharted. While mapping the more easily accessible southern areas of the country had already been undertaken, the Canadian Shield’s rocky and densely forested terrain, as well as its quagmire of bogs, effectively confined ground-based survey teams to the borders of the region’s many rivers. These rivers offered the only access points from which the wilderness could be reached, but the process of traveling through the Shield was difficult, exhausting, and time consuming. The Shield’s gently rolling terrain also denied surveyors any type of elevated point from which they could take photographs of the surrounding landscape, frustrating their efforts at mapping. Even more daunting was the sheer size of the area that needed to be mapped.
The very conditions that made surveying the Canadian Shield so difficult for ground survey teams made the region perfectly suited for the use of aerial surveying. The RCAF made use of two distinct types of aerial photography for its surveys: vertical photography and oblique photography. Vertical photography involves taking overlapping photos directly downwards at predetermined intervals. While this type of photography provides the most detailed and accurate topographical information, there are a number of limitations and variables that serve to make the process more difficult. First and foremost among these difficulties is the challenge of taking a perfectly level photograph at an exact point in three-dimensional space. The first gyroscopically stabilized cameras were not invented until the 1930s, but even then the technology was not truly accurate.[16] Modern aerial cameras get around this problem through the use of even more accurate gyroscopes coupled with satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Photographers from the 1920s, meanwhile, simply had to level the camera to the best of their ability and try to maintain the camera’s position throughout the flight. This problem of levelling was compounded by the constant vibration experienced inside an airplane, as well as the constant crabbing and change of angle experienced by any airplane in flight. During photographic runs the margin for error with regards to aircraft heading, pitch, and altitude was extremely tight, with nearly any variation resulting in distortion of the final image. Such distortions, although unintentional, could often render the photographs useless for surveying purposes, as the science of photogrammetry requires an exact knowledge of distance and space in order to arrive at accurate measurements. Success in these situations required exceptionally good teamwork between the pilot and the photographer.[17] Unfortunately, many teams were not as successful, leading vertical photography to have highly variable results.
As well as demanding an exacting degree of flight accuracy, vertical photography also required an extensive number of preparations before embarking on a flight. Vertical photography often required the use of purpose built aircraft with high service ceilings and endurance, openings in the floor of the fuselage, and retractable landing gear.[18] All of these modifications added to the final cost of the survey, and any mistakes made by the pilot or the photographer were costly to correct. Finally, the photos taken by the aircraft had to be referenced to a number of topographical control points surveyed by one of several corresponding ground teams. All of these extra measures added cost, thereby making vertical photography an unfeasibly expensive and prohibitively complicated method of surveying the Canadian north.
In order to combat the shortcomings of vertical photography, the RCAF turned to the use of oblique photographs as its primary method of aerial surveying. This technique was perfectly suited to mapping the Canadian Shield for a number of reasons. In oblique photography the camera is angled so that the horizon is placed at the very top of the photograph, as opposed to being pointed straight down. Consequently, a single oblique photograph covers a much greater area than its vertical counterpart. Since fewer photographs are taken, this reduces the need for geographic control points and therefore requires less personnel, equipment, and resources in order to cover the same amount of area as a vertical survey.[19] The angling of an aerial camera also relaxes the requirements for precise flying since variations in flight path, angle, and altitude do not have as much of an effect on distortion.
Both the terrain of the Shield itself and the RCAF’s goals in mapping the area contributed to the latter’s decision to adopt oblique photography wherever possible. Oblique photography requires fairly low-relief terrain in order to keep the horizon in each picture as a reference point.[20] The very same gently rolling and densely packed landscape that made traversing the Shield so difficult for ground crews also made the region ideal for surveying through oblique aerial photography. The use of obliques was beneficial in situations where discerning the general shape of the terrain was more important than mapping every fine detail. Attempting the latter in a landscape dotted with thousands of irregularly-shaped lakes and rivers would have taken an unfathomably long period of time. This particular approach suited the Canadian mining industry perfectly, since the fine detail produced by vertical photography is often not necessary to determine the most likely location of mineral deposits. Moreover, the greater amount of area covered by the RCAF allowed mining companies to earmark far more areas of topographical interest for further exploration by prospectors and surveyors, thereby increasing efficiency and reducing cost. Although the RCAF did make use of vertical photography for other purposes, such as producing detailed maps of settled areas in Alberta, its use of oblique photography in mineral-rich areas, such as northern Manitoba, is far more significant to the development of the Canadian mining industry. [21]
Although oblique photography was better suited to cover large expanses of land, the process of converting the photographs into accurate measurements was still a time-consuming endeavour. In 1922, Surveyor General Édouard Deville began to develop a system to quickly process oblique photographs based on the recommendations made by Chief Aerial Surveys Engineer for the Department of the Interior A.M. Narraway in a report written that same year after a tour in northern Manitoba.[22] Using the principles of perspective, Deville managed to create a system of grids that allowed technicians to calculate the distance of different geographic features from these grid lines and then transpose these measurements onto a two-dimensional grid resembling a map. The result was a relatively efficient method of obtaining accurate measurements from oblique photographs. Unfortunately, differences in airplane altitude and the angle of the camera meant that different sets of aerial photographs had to have their own unique grids produced based on these variables. In response to this problem, Deville and the TSB developed over 1,100 pre-calibrated grids printed onto reusable glass plates by 1926.[23] A skilled technician using this system could transfer up to fourteen photographs per day, whereas one forced to produce his or her own grids could only transfer two.[24] Such was the success of Deville and his colleagues’ method that it is still referred to within the surveying industry as the “Canadian Grid System.”[25] The widespread adoption of this system greatly benefitted the mining industry, as it allowed mining companies to obtain quick and reliable maps that they could depend on in order to make important decisions about further exploration.
Despite these advances, the Canadian mining industry continued to pressure the RCAF for more maps as companies continued to expand into more northern areas of the country. It is clear, however, from the RCAF’s choice of surveying targets, just how influential the mining industry was in determining which areas of Canada were given priority. Many of the RCAF’s surveys focused on mineral-rich areas such as the Rouyn district of Quebec, northern Manitoba, and Red Lake, Alberta. For example, the RCAF produced a vertical photomosaic of the Rouyn district in 1926, however this was two years after the area had begun to be developed by commercial mining operations.[26] Delays such as this indicate just how far behind the RCAF was in terms of providing accurate aerial surveys to the Canadian mining industry.
The success of the RCAF’s aerial surveying efforts can also be attributed to important innovations in aerial camera technology made during the 1920s and 30s. The very first aerial cameras were little more than handheld cameras held by the photographer during flight. Perhaps one of the most influential figures in the history of aerial camera design is Sherman Fairchild. A prolific American inventor and entrepreneur, one of Fairchild’s most significant inventions was also his first.
The shutter design of many early cameras at the turn of the 20th century is commonly referred to as a focal-plane shutter. In this design the camera shutter slides sideways across the lens to expose the film. Compared to more modern cameras, the opening of this type of lens is quite slow. Although slower shutter speeds are rarely an issue on the ground, the design presents a problem when attached to an aircraft traveling at speed. The slow shutter speeds, combined with the forward motion of the aircraft resulted in distortion and uneven exposure, since different sections of the camera film were exposed for both different lengths of time and at different points in space as the shutter slid open and closed. In response to this problem, Fairchild developed an entirely new type of shutter, known as the “between-the-lens” design.[27] Better known now as a leaf shutter, Fairchild’s design involved a series of overlapping blades that would snap open and closed with much greater speed than a focal-plane shutter, thereby minimizing any distortion. The design of Fairchild’s cameras reflected this goal, with the shutter held as close to the lens as possible in order to reduce the amount of time the film was exposed.
Fairchild founded the Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation in 1920 with the aim of producing quality aerial cameras for buyers around the world.[28] Fairchild’s designs quickly became popular with both the United States Government Air Corps and the RCAF.[29] A 1928 Fairchild brochure boasts that, “At the present time, more Fairchild Aerial Cameras have been made, and are being used, than all other makes of aerial cameras in the world combined.”[30] This is not to say that Fairchild did not have any competitors. Some of the earliest cameras likely used by the RCAF were produced by Folmer-Schwing, a division of Eastman Kodak.[31] By the mid–to-late 1920s, however, the RCAF’s military aerial cameras were produced almost exclusively by Fairchild.[32] This dominance is likely due to the fact that unlike its other competitors in the 1920s, who also produced cameras intended for other purposes, the Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation was dedicated exclusively to the production of aerial cameras, and therefore had much more exacting quality standards due to the high demands put on its cameras.[33]
In addition to inventing the between-the-lens shutter, Sherman Fairchild’s other major contribution to the development of the aerial camera came in the form of the world’s first electronically driven intervalometer. The purpose of this device was two-fold. The use of an intervalometer allowed hands-free operation by either the pilot or the photographer, thus freeing up both to perform other duties. The device also ensured that the camera film was exposed at perfectly consistent intervals, making it easier for technicians to obtain accurate measurements from the photographs. The camera that first incorporated this design was the Fairchild Military Fully Automatic Aerial Camera, more commonly referred to as the K-3 after its adoption by the U.S. Air Corps.[34] The K-3 would quickly become the benchmark from which all other aerial cameras would be measured in the 1920s. Other noteworthy Fairchild designs include the K-6 and the K-3A (the military model of the K-8), both of which could be used for oblique photography.[35] It is very likely that the RCAF made use of nearly all of these models while conducting aerial surveys over both remote and populated regions of Canada.
The technological development of aircraft also began to change in the 1920s and 30s in order to meet the growing demand for aerial surveys. After discovering that many of the existing aircraft of the period were not well suited to the task of taking aerial photographs, Sherman Fairchild established the Fairchild Aviation Corporation in order to design and build aircraft that would better suit the need of aerial photographers. Fairchild also founded a private surveying operation named Fairchild Aerial Surveys Inc., which worked in conjunction with the Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation in order to provide services to both the public and private sector.[36] Meanwhile, in Canada, Canadian Vickers Limited developed a line of flying boats designed specifically for RCAF photographic activities. The demands of mineral exploration heavily influenced the design of these aircraft, including the Vickers Viking and Vedette.[37] Both aircraft feature open turrets near the nose, affording a photographer with an oblique camera a nearly completely unobscured view of his surroundings. The choice to use a single hull design for both planes, rather than the pontoons used on other bush planes, also serves to keep the underside of the fuselage free from structures that might obstruct the lens of a vertical camera.
It is important to understand just how revolutionary the practice of aerial surveying was for many of the Canadian government’s departments. J.L Gordon, the Director of Civil Government Air Operations, commented that, “more reliable maps have been produced in four years’ operation of the Air Force with the aid of aerial photography than could be produced in forty years by any other method.”[38] In 1926 alone the RCAF covered an area of 70,000 square miles, an increase of 22% over the area covered the previous year.[39] By 1928 the RCAF had photographed 152,560 square miles of the Canadian landscape. While this might seem like a considerable amount, in actual fact this figure only accounts for 4% of the country’s landmass.[40] The vastness of the Canadian landscape encouraged the RCAF to concentrate on areas from which they could gain practical, useful knowledge. As a result, many of the surveyed areas were targeted due to various mining companies’ interest in exploiting their mineral wealth. A quick glance at the areas examined by the RCAF during this period confirms this outlook. In 1926 the Topographical Survey of Canada issued map sheets (based on RCAF surveys) for Lac Seul, Point du Bois, Carroll Lake, Red Lake, and Winnipeg.[41] Several of these locations, most notably Red Lake, were sites of concentrated interest for Canadian mining companies.
While many of the mining journals of the 1920s wholeheartedly back the widespread adoption of aerial surveying, it is important to note that the mining industry’s view of the practice was not without its opposition. R. N. Johnson, a member of the Ontario Forestry Branch, raised a number of concerns about the use of aerial photography for mapping in a 1923 report on civil aviation to the Department of National Defence. In his report, Johnson argued that the difficulty of achieving the correct scale in aerial mapping, as well as the vastly varying skills of both the pilots and photographers made the technique’s absolute accuracy questionable at best.[42] These protests, however, did not stop the Canadian government and the mining industry from pushing forward with the further development of aerial surveying.
By the late 1920s the Canadian mining industry had recovered sufficiently to invest in aircraft of its own.[43] The shortcomings of the RCAF’s surveying efforts throughout the 1920s created an opening for commercial aerial surveying companies to take advantage of the techniques developed by the former. It is these final years of the 1920s that we begin to see the real integration of aerial surveying with the Canadian mining industry. Privately contracted aerial surveying companies begin to appear, as well as integrated air operations within many mining corporations themselves. In 1928 NAME and Dominion Explorers were founded, two companies that were built around providing aerial surveying services to commercial customers. Shortly thereafter, Consolidated Mining and Smelting, one of the giants of the Canadian mining industry, added an air division to its operations in 1929, indicating just how important the practice of aerial surveying had become to the company.[44]
As the Canadian mining industry continued to make further use of aircraft and aerial photography, continuing technological developments in the field of aerial surveying began to open up yet more possibilities for mineral exploration. Although the vast majority of aerial photography was conducted using black and white film, the proliferation of commercially available colour film in the 1930s, most notably the development of Kodachrome in 1935, would begin to have an effect on aerial surveying companies.[45] Perhaps even more significantly, the development of several different aerial infrared films by the beginning of the Second World War, such as Kodacolor Aero Reversal Film[46], would mark the beginning of a new evolution in aerial surveying.
Infrared photography carries a number of unique benefits over panchromatic colour film for the mining industry. The infrared spectrum tends to better emphasize water and moist areas.[47] Such a trait is particularly useful for petroleum corporations since unusual drainage patterns can often indirectly indicate the approximate location of an oil deposit.[48] The moisture content of the soil is also of concern to mining engineers, as that same soil’s permeability determines the manner in which the deposit is accessed.[49] Additionally, infrared photography is better able to penetrate haze, allowing the photographer to take pictures in a much wider range of weather conditions.[50]
The end of the Second World War left the Canadian mining industry in much better shape than the previous war. Many Canadian mining and surveying companies were therefore able to take advantage of cheap prices on war surplus aircraft. For example, the Ottawa-based surveying company Spartan Air Services in particular is known to have operated a dizzying variety of aircraft, ranging from Douglas DC-3s to De Havilland Mosquitoes and Lockheed P-38s converted for aerial photography, among others.[51]
The post-war years were a fruitful period of experimentation with several new types of sensors that would later become hallmarks of modern aerial-based mineral exploration. In 1946 a mechanical instrument designer named Edgar Sharpe invented a vertical force magnetometer, and with the help of University of Toronto geophysics professor Dr. Arthur Brant founded Sharpe Instruments Limited.[52] By sensing disturbances in the Earth’s magnetic field magnetometers are able to pinpoint metallic ore deposits located deep underground. Although Sharpe’s first designs were not intended to be attached to aircraft, his company, renamed E.L. Sharpe Instruments of Canada Ltd. after going public in 1961[53], would continue to develop innovative technologies for aerial surveying into the twenty-first century.
After E.L Sharpe Instruments of Canada Ltd. merged with Seigel Associates Limited in 1967, the newly renamed Scintrex Limited produced a line of airborne gravimetric sensors for use in the mining industry.[54] Gravimeters function by measuring the pull of Earth’s gravity. Contrary to popular belief, this pull is not constant, but actually varies slightly across the planet’s surface. These minute discrepancies in gravimetric pull can then be used to extrapolate the position of various underground mineral deposits. Scintrex has continued to both acquire and develop numerous technologies relating to the field of aerial surveying and today produces over ninety percent of the world’s gravimeters, many of which are undoubtedly used by mining corporations worldwide.[55]
Although the contributions made to remote sensing technology by private corporations like Sharpe Instruments Limited are not to be dismissed, the most significant technological advancements made to the practice of aerial surveying were made by the Geological Survey of Canada. Although the GSC had been involved in the advancement of aerial surveying in Canada from the outset, the 1950s marked the beginning of an extraordinarily productive 60 year period in which the GSC conducted several aerial surveying programs that resulted in the development of world-leading remote-sensing technologies.
Perhaps the most well known of these technologies was the development of an effective aeromagnetic surveying program. Although the two airborne magnetometers originally acquired by the GSC in 1947 were war surplus U.S. Navy submarine detectors, the technology’s potential for aerial surveying was immediately apparent.[56] Despite enthusiastic support from the GSC’s senior management, the newly created aeromagnetics program met with some scepticism among other branches of the department. Lawrence “Larry” Morley, the project leader for the aeromagnetics program and later the Chief of the GSC’s Geophysics Division from 1952 to 1969, recalled that the Division was often humorously referred to as, “the lunatic fringe.”[57] Interestingly, as the Geophysics Division’s enormously successful programs, including those relating to aerial surveying, consumed an increasing proportion of the GSC’s budget, this nickname was changed to, “the millionaires,”[58] reflecting a rather revealing change in attitude towards the applicability of technologies such as airborne magnetometers to aerial surveying.
The GSC’s aeromagnetics program’s benefit to Canadian mineral exploration was almost immediately apparent. After having been provided with a war surplus Consolidated Canso by the RCAF, which coincidently was maintained and piloted under contract by Spartan Air Services, the GSC’s airborne magnetometer picked up a small but intense magnetic anomaly just east of the small town of Marmora, Ontario during the system’s very first survey.[59] What was originally meant to be a test of the aircraft’s systems ended up revealing a tremendously valuable iron ore deposit ripe for the taking.
While Canadian mining corporations had originally been somewhat ambivalent to the possibilities of airborne magnetic surveying, the discovery of the Marmora iron deposit made the industry sit up and take notice of the research and development being conducted at the GSC. For several years after the discovery of the Marmora deposit, the magnetic maps produced by the GSC became such hot items that surveyors from various mining corporations would line up in front of the GSC’s Booth Street offices in order to be the first to get their hands on the new data. Lawrence Morley recalled the scene in his personal account of the development of the GSC’s aeromagnetic program,
Notices were mailed out a week in advance of the release date for each group of maps…Prospectors and mining company geologists would turn up an hour ahead of time to get to the front of the line. Having obtained their maps, they would rush down to the foyer of the museum where there was lots of room, spread out the map on the floor and do a quick evaluation of the likely looking anomalies. They would then get on the phone to contact their ‘stakers’ in the field who were ‘axe-ready’. This would often be followed by a canoe race between competing prospectors to arrive at the anomaly site ahead of their rivals to stake their claim and get back to the registry office first.[60]
The success of the GSC’s aeromagnetics program prompted a corresponding interest in other airborne sensor programs among both the Canadian mining industry and the GSC itself. Both Lawrence Morley and Yves Fortier, the Director of the Survey, continued to endorse new and innovative airborne sensing technologies, such as Dr. Arthur Darnley’s idea to create a system capable of identifying deposits of radioactive materials through the use of airborne gamma ray spectrometry (AGRS).[61] The development of AGRS during the 1960s came at a time when the Cold War ensured that there was ample demand for radioactive minerals, such as uranium. As a result of this new technology Canadian mining corporations were ideally positioned to take advantage of Canada’s large reserves of these same minerals.
The benefits reaped by the Canadian mining industry from the GSC’s efforts raises an important question: just how far should a public department subsidize private businesses? The GSC has grappled with this question almost from the moment of its creation. Certain former employees interviewed for this report have expressed criticism of the Canadian mining industry for its self-interested approach to the GSC’s activities, while simultaneously acknowledging the importance of private support for the department. This conflict of interest often reared its head during contract negotiations for aerial surveys between the GSC and various mining companies throughout the second half of the 20th century. While the GSC sought to provide comprehensive coverage of Canada’s landmass through the use of its new airborne sensing technology, the department could not fund the required surveys on its own, and instead was forced to rely on both provincial governments and private aerial surveying corporations in order to acquire the necessary funding for its activities. Additional surveys that were privately funded by mining corporations often had to include certain stipulations limiting the GSC’s ability to publish its results for a number of years. Despite these obstacles, the GSC’s surveying efforts enabled Canada to become the first country in the world to provide comprehensive magnetic coverage of its landmass to the public at an affordable cost. This information, when combined with traditional aerial photography, airborne gravimetric data, and AGRS, gave Canadian prospectors an unparalleled starting point from which to search for new mineral and petroleum deposits.[62]
The Second World War’s development of radar also had a tremendous effect on the technology of airborne surveying. Radar carries many of the same advantages over regular cameras that infrared film does. Both technologies’ ability to penetrate inclement weather conditions far exceeds that of traditional photography. Radar, however, takes this advantage a step further as it is even able to see through limited vegetation, revealing the geological features underneath. Radar systems can be used at any time of day or night, as they rely on radio waves instead of the visual spectrum of light in order to paint a picture of the surrounding landscape. Unlike infrared film, airborne radars are limited to observing surface texture and moisture content, whereas the former can more easily identify the mineral content of soil. Nevertheless, radar can act as a potent tool for mineral exploration, particularly when it is mounted on a suitable aircraft.
During their use by the Canadian mining industry, radar technologies have taken a number of different forms. The first type of radar system widely used by the industry was the Side-Looking Airborne Radar, more commonly known as SLAR. These radars function in a similar manner to the oblique photography conducted by the RCAF in the 1920s, only they use radio waves instead of visible light. The sideways angle from which SLAR takes its measurements is the key to its success. As the radar pulse returns to the antenna, the minute delay between its reception at both the antenna’s tip and base is what allows the radar to paint a far more accurate image of its target than analog photography would allow. While SLAR is well suited for these types of detailed examinations, its effectiveness begins to break down with range. The larger the area that an airborne radar attempts to examine, the farther it must be from its target. Correspondingly, these greater altitudes require a longer antenna in order to cut through the electronic noise and identify the individual features of the terrain. There is a point at which the entire array would become so impractically long that it would be impossible to mount to an aircraft, rendering the system useless for large-scale surveying. For example, at 150 miles above the Earth, a SLAR would have to have an antenna over a mile long to match the resolution of other optical systems.
To combat the problems associated with high altitude SLAR imaging, a new type of radar was developed. Named the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), this new technology uses an aircraft’s speed to make a short antenna behave in a manner similar to a much longer one, thereby allowing aircraft to map terrain in great detail at a much longer range.[63] Canadians once again took a leading role in the development of this type of imaging technology, with the Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) refurbishing a Convair 580 for this purpose. Completed in 1977, this Convair became the first civilian aircraft in the world to make use of SAR technology.[64] CCRS’s Convair would go on to provide a tremendous amount of radar imaging data both nationally and globally. Particularly of note for this paper was the Convair’s examination of ice floe patterns in the Canadian Arctic, a task that was conducted in collaboration with several Canadian oil companies, such as the Calgary-based Dome Petroleum Limited.[65] Many of these companies had offshore oil platforms in the area that were at risk of being struck by ice, hence their interest in obtaining accurate radar images of the surrounding ice packs.
CCRS’s Convair 580 would be continually developed throughout its operational lifespan, serving as a test bed for several upgraded radar systems. In 1985 the aircraft was fitted with an upgraded SAR called IRIS (Integrated Radar Imagery System).[66] The aircraft’s radar was upgraded again in 1991, this time with an Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (referred to as either InSAR or IFSAR).[67] This system allowed the radar to generate three-dimensional images of the terrain that it examined. The data and lessons derived from operating these systems would pave the way for the use of these types of radar systems on satellites.
On November 4th, 1995 Canada launched its first commercial Earth observation satellite, RADARSAT-1.[68] Equipped with a similar interferometric SAR as CCRS’s Convair, RADARSAT-1’s successful launch marks the beginning of a new period in mineral surveying, in which much of the initial survey work is conducted via satellite. While aircraft-based surveying is still an effective method of identifying mineral and oil deposits, satellite-based imaging is still more efficient. The comparatively large distance from which satellites such as RADARSAT-1 orbit allows them to image much larger sections of the Earth, whereas aircraft are limited by their fuel range and available runways. The ability to use radar-based sensors in order to penetrate cloudy conditions was also a key part of what made satellites like RADARSAT-1 so successful.
Indeed, RADARSAT-1 is an excellent demonstration of the Canadian mining industry’s growing interest in satellite-based geological imaging. The RADARSAT project was a collaborative effort amongst the federal government, various provincial governments, and the Canadian private sector, each of which invested millions into research and development for the technology that the satellite would carry.[69] Given the Canadian petroleum industry’s aforementioned interest in the data acquired from CCRS’s Convair, it is safe to assume that the rest of the mining industry would be similarly interested in the large amounts of mapping data it could glean from an orbiting radar system. Although RADARSAT-1 was originally designed to have a lifespan of only five years, the satellite exceeded all expectations and continued operating for a total of seventeen years. During this time, RADARSAT-1 provided 625,848 images to more than six hundred clients and partners in Canada, many of whom were involved in the fields of cartography, ice studies and observations, hydrology, oceanography, agriculture, geology, and forestry.[70]
Despite the success of satellite mapping, aircraft-based surveying continues to be a useful tool for mineral exploration. Modern computer technology has provided Canadian mining companies with software that can efficiently process the greatly increased amounts of data derived from aerial surveying. Whereas surveyors in the 1920s had to painstakingly measure and assemble mosaic views of aerial photographs by hand, modern computer programs such as Aerograv and ArcGIS allow their technicians to quickly process and model sensor data almost immediately after aerial surveys have been completed.[71] Still more advanced and accurate sensing systems have also been developed for aerial use, such as LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging).[72] Many of these sensors function in tandem with Global Positioning Systems in order to eliminate the need to conduct time-consuming ground control point surveys. Mining companies are also increasingly expressing interest in using unmanned aerial vehicles for this same type of survey work, as it greatly reduces the high operating costs of running a traditional airplane. It is clear from this continuing willingness to invest in new airborne technologies that the development of aerial surveying has been and will continue to be an important factor in the success of the Canadian mining industry.
Works Cited
American Society of Photogrammetry. The Manual of Photogrammetry, 2nd ed. Washington: American Society of Photogrammetry, 1952.
Bagley, James W. Aerophotography and Aerosurveying. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., 1941.
Cronin, Marionne. “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928.” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 303-330.
Erickson, John. Exploring Earth from Space. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1989.
Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation. Fairchild Aerial Cameras. New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.].
“Fairchild – The History.” Fairchild Corp. Last modified 2009. < >.
Fortier, Rénald and David Pantalony. CSTMC Acquisition Proposal: Convair 580 Flying Test Bed and Remote Sensing Aircraft. Ottawa: Canada Science and Technology Museums Corporation [internal document], 24 March 2014.
Heiman, Grover. Aerial Photography: The Story of Aerial Mapping and Reconnaissance. New York: Macmillan, 1972.
Montero, Nick. Spartan Air Services. DVD. Canadian Aviation and Space Museum. HE 9815 S62. 2007 [reproduction].
Mouat, Jeremy. “Metal Mining in Canada, 1840-1950.” Transformation Series 9. (2000).
“Our History.” Scintrex. Accessed May 16, 2014. .
Paine, David P. Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation for Resource Management. New York: Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
“RADARSAT-1: Seventeen Years of Technological Success.” Canadian Space Agency. Last modified May 9, 2013. Accessed May 20, 2014. .
Ray, Richard G. Aerial Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mapping. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1960.
“TAGS-6 Dynamic Gravity Meter Brochure.” Micro-g LaCoste, Accessed May 16, 2014. .
The Mining Association of Canada, The Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada. 100 Innovations in the Mining Industry. Montreal: Minalliance, 2012.
Thompson, Don W. “Three Men Who Unlocked the West.” University of Waterloo Earth Sciences Museum. Accessed June 2, 2014. .
CSTMC Collections: Aerial Cameras & Mineral Exploration Artefacts
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Fairchild K-17 Shutter
Artefact Number: 1970.0993
Date: 1926-1943
Manufacturer: Fairchild Aviation Company
Significance: An excellent example of the revolutionary shutter design pioneered by Sherman Fairchild, this artefact allows the viewer to obtain a closer look at the shutter and lens found inside many of Fairchild’s cameras. Unlike a more traditional focal-plane shutter, Fairchild’s between-the-lens design helped minimize the distortion created by attempting to use cameras with slow shutters in aircraft travelling at speed. This design would eventually allow for the use of aerial cameras in ever-faster aircraft, allowing surveyors to cover more ground in less time. The possession of this artefact also allows for interesting exhibition opportunities, as the shutter can be displayed alongside a complete camera of the same model (1966.0048) in order to better illustrate the exact features that made this technology revolutionary.
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Williamson “L.B.” Aero Camera
Artefact Number: 1966.0057
Date: 1915-1925 (approx.)
Manufacturer: Williamson Kinematograph Company
Significance: An early aerial camera design that achieved some success during the latter stages of the Great War, the L.B. line of Williamson aerial cameras exhibit a number of features and design decisions that are indicative of the pioneering period of aerial photography. Perhaps the most telling example of the camera’s relative simplicity is its focal-plane shutter design, which would largely fall out of favour after Sherman Fairchild’s invention of a between-the-lens style shutter for aerial cameras became popular in the mid-1920s. Nevertheless, the design of the camera’s magazine is quite clever, featuring a system of springs, ratchets, and rollers that loads and expels up to 18 photographic plates per magazine. Interestingly, Williamson seems to have also anticipated the need for an intervalometer in aerial cameras, although the one found in this camera is mechanically powered by a turning fan blade left exposed to the wind. Later models made by other manufacturers, most notably Fairchild, would use far more accurate electronic intervalometers to achieve much more consistent results.
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Graflex/Fairchild Fairchild K-17C
Artefact Number: 1966.0048
Date: 1926-1943
Manufacturer: Folmer Graflex Corporation (also produced by Fairchild)
Significance: The successor to the venerable K-3 camera, the Fairchild K-17 saw widespread use during the Second World War and during the post-war years. Built to handle lower altitude reconnaissance, the K-17 could be mounted to faster military aircraft, such as the Lockheed P-38 Lighting. Many of these aircraft and camera systems would eventually find their way into the hands of private aerial surveying companies and mining corporations. For example, the Ottawa-based Spartan Air Services Ltd. is known to have operated a fleet that included a number of P-38s modified for photo reconnaissance work. The K-17 retains many of the patented features common on Fairchild aerial cameras, such as the use of an electronic intervalometer and a between-the lens-shutter (see above photographs).
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Eastman Kodak Aero A1 Camera
Artefact Number: 1966.0049
Date: 1919-1926
Manufacturer: The Eastman Kodak Company
Significance: Hand-held glass plate cameras such as this Eastman Kodak design were some of the first cameras to be used in aerial surveying after the end of the Great War. This particular model was used for oblique photography, a practice that was widely used in Canadian surveying and mineral exploration. The camera’s basic nature stands in stark contrast to the features that would be added to later models of aerial cameras. This same ruggedness, however, highlights the utilitarian nature of early aerial mineral exploration in Canada. Canadian mining corporations of the period often prioritized efficiency and speed when using aerial photography to survey for minerals. Absolute topographical accuracy, on the other hand, was often not necessary, as aerial surveying was simply meant to identify areas of potential interest for more detailed ground survey.
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Ross Survey Camera
Artefact Number: 1968.0392
Date: 1890-1899
Manufacturer: Ross, Thomas & Company
Significance: The design of the Ross survey camera can be directly credited to Édouard Deville, the Surveyor General of Canada from 1885 until 1924. Deville pioneered a rugged, portable camera that could be carried for long distances in the field. Surveyors would use these types of cameras to take photographs from mountaintops of the surrounding landscape. Once developed, surveyors could then apply Deville’s photogrammetric techniques to the photographs in order to accurately determine the shape and size of various geographic features. This particular model was built by Ross, Thomas & Company sometime between 1890 and 1899. After this period aerial cameras began to gain increasing acceptance in the field of aerial surveying. It was these types of handheld portable field cameras, however, that demonstrated both the effectiveness of photogrammetric techniques and the potential benefits of using camera technology as a tool for surveying and exploration.
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Consolidated PBY-5A Canso II SR
Artefact Number: 1967.0647
Date: Before 1945
Manufacturer: Canadian Vickers Limited
Significance: Originally built for anti-submarine warfare, the Consolidated Canso was produced extensively in Canada throughout the Second World War by Canadian Vickers Limited. It was one of these Canadian-manufactured Cansos that was used extensively by the Geological Survey of Canada in the first aeromagnetic survey ever conducted in Canada. Having contracted the Ottawa-based aerial surveying company Spartan Air Services to maintain and operate a war surplus Canso donated by the RCAF, the GSC proceeded to install an airborne magnetometer on the airframe and first began conducting aeromagnetic surveys with the aircraft in 1947. By sheer coincidence, the Canso’s very first survey led to the discovery of the massive Marmora iron deposit, thereby quelling any doubts about the effectiveness of aeromagnetic surveying for mineral exploration. It didn’t take long after the discovery of the Marmora deposit for the magnetic surveys produced by the GSC’s Canso (from 1947-1960) to become extremely desirable items among mining surveyors and geologists, who would often line up outside the GSC’s head offices in Ottawa in anticipation of a new survey’s release. The GSC Canso also conducted a number of magnetic surveys in the Canadian Arctic in 1955, specifically over the Beaufort Sea and the Sverdrup Basin. These first geophysical surveys over the aforementioned areas would help identify the presence of several large petroleum deposits in the area.
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Fairchild K-3 Aerial Camera (Model 60)
Artefact Number: 1966.0218 & 1966.0052
Date: 1931 & N/A (respectively)
Manufacturer: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation
Significance: Perhaps one of the most significant aerial camera designs of the past century, the Fairchild K-3 synthesized a number of innovative features that would become the standard by which all future aerial cameras would be measured. In addition to possessing Sherman Fairchild’s between-the-lens shutter design, the K-3 was also equipped with an electronic intervalometer. Although previous camera designs had incorporated relatively crude mechanical intervalometers (such as the Williamson L.B. Aero Camera), the K-3’s electric design allowed for much more precise and reliable fine-tuning of the intervals at which the camera exposed its film. The camera could be used for both vertical and oblique photography, making it a very versatile option for aerial surveyors.
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Fairchild Stereoscope
Artefact Number: 1988.1268
Date: Circa 1928
Manufacturer: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation
Significance: Stereoscopes such as this model were widely used by surveyors in order to compile aerial photographs into functional maps. Aerial photographs, in particular vertical ones, are often taken with a 60% overlay, so as to ensure that there is no gap between images. When two images with this type of overlay are viewed through a device called a stereoscope, it creates the illusion of 3D relief. Such an image can be useful to both surveyors and prospectors when examining an area for notable geological features.
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De Havilland DH-98 Mosquito B.20
Artefact Number: 1967.0653
Date: From 1945
Manufacturer: De Havilland Aircraft of Canada Limited
Significance: Like many other WWII-era war surplus aircraft, several De Havilland Mosquitoes eventually found their way into the hands of private surveying companies in Canada. Spartan Air Services, one such company based out of Ottawa’s Rockcliffe Airport, is known to have operated several Mosquitoes throughout its history as platforms for aerial photography. Although roughly 10 variants of mosquito were built by De Havilland Canada (totalling 1,133 aircraft) throughout the war, it is likely that Spartan Air Services would have gravitated toward bombing models such as the B.20, as their acrylic nose cones and bombardier compartments would have made the aircraft’s conversion into a aerial surveying platform a simple matter of replacing the bombsight and bombardier with an aerial camera and photographer. The aircraft’s cheap maintenance costs and high cruising speed would have made Mosquitoes particularly attractive prospects for companies like Spartan Air Services, who also often modified them even further with long-range fuel tanks in order to increase the aircrafts’ endurance for long photo runs. The City of Calgary, together with the Calgary Mosquito Society and the Bomber Command Museum of Canada, is currently working on the restoration of a Mosquito used by Spartan Air Services during the company’s survey operations in the 1950s.
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Curtiss HS-2L Flying Boat
Artefact Number: 1969.1330
Date: 1918
Manufacturer: Niagara Motor Boat Company
Significance: The Curtiss HS-2L is characteristic of the “flying boat” aircraft designs that became popular during the 1920s in Canada due to their suitability for aerial photography. The lack of landing gear or pontoons hanging under the airframe removed any potential obstructions to the camera’s field of view, while the observation turret located in the nose of the fuselage offered the photographer an unparalleled field of view. The ability to land and refuel at strategically placed fuel dumps throughout the Canadian North also served to extend the range of these aircraft and allowed them to complete extended photo-surveys of remote areas. Demand for these types of aircraft is evident in the design decisions made by Canadian aircraft manufacturers during the period, such as Canadian Vickers Limited’s decision to design and produce a line of flying boats including the Viking and the Vedette.
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Fairchild FC-2W-2
Artefact Number: 1967.0657
Date: 1920s-1930s
Manufacturer: Fairchild Airplane Manufacturing Corporation
Significance: Throughout Fairchild’s early history the company struggled to find suitable aircraft that would be able to serve as stable photographic platforms for its cameras. Eventually the company decided to establish the Fairchild Airplane Manufacturing Corporation in order to design and build aircraft that were specifically suited to aerial photography. The first airplane produced by this new corporation was the Fairchild FC-2W, which was manufactured throughout the 1920s and 30s. The FC-2W’s high wing design and excellent all-around visibility made the aircraft a popular choice with aerial photographers. Additionally, the aircraft’s closed cabin afforded the crew a much more comfortable environment than many of the other open-cockpit designs of the period. This aircraft is known to have been used for aerial surveying operations by the RCAF, as well as by private surveyors operating with the blessings of Canadian petroleum and mining corporations.
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RADARSAT-1 Model
Artefact Number: 1991.0509
Date: Circa 1990
Manufacturer: Advanced Scale Models Incorporated
Significance: This model depicts the RADARSAT-1 satellite launched on November 4th, 1995. Primarily developed by SPAR Aerospace under the guidance of the Canadian Space Agency, RASARSAT-1 was equipped with the world’s first spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). This technology was made possible largely through the research and development conducted on radar technology by the Geographic Survey of Canada (GSC) throughout the latter half of the 20th century, most notably through the testing of SAR technology on the Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing’s (CCRS) Convair 580 radar test bed platform. The movement of remote sensing technology into space constitutes an important shift in the way that mineral exploration is conducted, as spaceborne SARs are able to image much greater areas of ground far more quickly than their aircraft-based counterparts. The penetrating power of radar also enables these satellites to take images at any time, regardless of weather conditions or the time of day. The regular orbit of a satellite also allows the onboard radar to easily correct any inaccurate readings. Mistakes made during aircraft-based surveying, on the other hand, are often very expensive to correct, as the aircraft may have to be redeployed to perform the entire survey a second time.
Conclusion
The CSTMC collection houses a remarkably well-rounded assortment of artefacts from which to examine the history of aerial cameras development and their contribution to the Canadian mining industry. Several of the collection’s aerial cameras in particular possess technical innovations that exemplify some of the key developmental stages aerial camera technology underwent as it matured, such as the Fairchild K-3 and Williamson “L.B.” Aero Camera.
Similarly, the museum’s collection of aircraft offers a wide selection of models used for aerial surveying throughout Canadian history. Early seaplanes such as the HS-2L are representative of the flying boats used during the pioneering era of aerial surveying, many of which were designed and built by Canadian aircraft manufacturers. Aircraft like the Fairchild FC-2W, on the other hand, embody the increasing professionalization of aerial surveying, as well as the resulting influence that this trend had on aircraft design. Finally, the museum’s as yet uncertain acquisition of the GSC’s Convair 580 radar test platform, when placed alongside the collection’s Consolidated Canso, could provide visitors with a glimpse into the innovative work conducted throughout the second half of the 20th century by the GSC on new methods of remote sensing such as aeromagnetics and synthetic aperture radars.
Although the museum’s collection of aerial cameras and aircraft is excellent, there are a number of areas that could benefit from future acquisitions. Perhaps the most significant of these areas is with regards to new airborne remote sensing technology developed from the 1950s onwards. While the museum does possess a number of handheld magnetic and gravimetric sensors used for prospecting, none of these particular systems have been specifically designed for airborne surveying. The acquisition of such airborne systems would help to bridge the gap between traditional aerial cameras and modern airborne sensors.
While much of this report has focused on the hardware associated with conducting aerial surveys, the rise of the digital age has also had significant implications for the future of aerial surveying. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) such as ArcGIS, when combined with the availability of accurate GPS coordinates, have allowed aerial surveyors to compile and synthesize data from multiple sources in real-time, circumventing a potentially lengthy compilation process using traditional methods. As a result, the museum may wish to consider acquiring some of these software programs for the purposes of conservation.
Aerial Surveying and Mineral Exploration Annotated Bibliography
American Society of Photogrammetry. The Manual of Photogrammetry, 2nd ed. Washington: American Society of Photogrammetry, 1952.
Published by the American Society of Photogrammetry, this exhaustive examination of aerial surveying equipment, techniques, and variables is able to answer nearly any question that an individual might have about the actual mechanics of aerial surveying from the 1920s until approximately the end of the 1950s. As is the case with many of the other manuals consulted for this project, the reader’s understanding is often limited by the technical complexity of the writing. The source’s attention to detail, however, ensures that it could be used as a reference for comparing and identifying the techniques mentioned in other sources.
Bagley, James W. Aerophotography and Aerosurveying. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., 1941.
Aerophotography and Aerosurveying offers an excellent view of how aerial photography was conducted during the first 50 years of its existence. Before the widespread adoption of radar and other aerial sensors in the 1970s aerial surveying was conducted almost exclusively through the use of photography. Bagley offers his reader an exhaustive explanation of the techniques and equipment used for this type of surveying.
Like many of the other manuals examined for this project, Bagley’s writing is highly technical in many places, often requiring an advanced understanding of mathematics to truly grasp the implications of the many formulas used to compile aerial photographs into a single coherent map. Fortunately, while the mathematical formulas used by Bagley are likely beyond the understanding of most people, his explanation of the variables and difficulties of aerial surveying are tremendously helpful to understanding just how difficult the process was before the creation of modern GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and other computer aids.
Bristow, Quentin. “Airborne Gamma-Ray Spectrometry: A Canadian Success Story.” GEOSCAN (April 2009). Accessed June 23, 2014. .
Quentin Bristow’s discussion of his involvement in the development of the GSC’s Airborne Gamma-Ray Spectrometry (AGRS) program provides his readers with an excellent example of how the GSC’s research and development programs greatly advanced Canadian airborne surveying technology. Without support from government agencies like the GSC, it is unlikely that the Canadian mining industry would have become a world leader in its field. However, Bristow’s discussion of resistance to the GSC’s R & D programs by private interests serves to echo the claims made by Lawrence Morley in his own recollections of his time at the GSC, namely that many private corporations resented the fact that the GSC was being funded by the government to design technologies whose development could be contracted out to private businesses. Bristow largely refutes these claims, arguing that the GSC’s close relationship with the federal government allowed the department to produce leading edge technology far more efficiently than its private counterparts. This claim of greater efficiency is one that has a significant bearing on the development of aerial surveying technology in Canada, and reveals important information on the feelings of those employees who were directly involved in many of the GSC’s airborne surveying operations. In addition to this argument, Bristow exhaustively describes the technical challenges of designing AGRS systems, a technology whose various stages of development and refinement spanned from the mid 1940s into the present day.
Cronin, Marionne. “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928.” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 303-330.
A research fellow at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, Marionne Cronin`s paper is one of the few sources consulted for this project that explicitly discusses the relationship between aerial surveying and the Canadian mining industry. Cronin discusses the early development of the techniques and practices of aerial surveying, many of which were pioneered and developed by Canadians. More importantly, she also discusses the interaction between various Canadian mining corporations and government departments, which helped created favourable conditions for aerial surveying technology to develop in Canada.
A thorough discussion of how aerial photography was adapted to suit the needs and realities of the Canadian context is another area where Cronin`s clear focus on Canadian content is appreciated. Although Cronin`s analysis of early Canadian aerial survey work is exceptional, her exploration of the topic does not extend beyond the late 1920s. As a result, it is necessary to look elsewhere for sources that discuss the progression of aerial survey technology beyond the use of simple photography.
“Édouard-Gaston Deville.” Natural Resources Canada. Last Modified November 12, 2013. .
This short biography of Édouard Deville from Natural Resources Canada offers some useful information on Deville’s professional life. Deville, a former Surveyor General of Dominion Lands, is particularly notable for his development of the so-called “Canadian Grid System”, a technique that allowed aerial photographs to be accurately measured and compiled into surveying maps. Thanks to the development of his grid system Deville is considered to be the founder of modern photogrammetry, the term used for the practice of ascertaining accurate measurements from photographs.
Erickson, John. Exploring Earth from Space. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1989.
Johnson’s work offers an approachable introduction to the benefits of satellite-based remote sensing systems. Each potential application is sensibly organized into discrete chapters. Mineral exploration is given its own exclusive section, which details the various ways in which satellites can be used for this purpose. Johnson also discusses the development of radar systems from aircraft-based examples such as SLAR to the use of newer SAR systems on satellites. The relative conciseness of Johnson’s work stands in stark contrast to some of the more technical sources consulted for this project, making his work a much more easily referenced source for information on the evolution of space-based remote sensing within the Canadian mining industry.
Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation. Fairchild Aerial Cameras. New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.].
This brochure advertising the prowess of the Fairchild Aerial Cameras Organization`s products contains excellent information on the technical details of some of the most popular models of aerial cameras used by the RCAF for aerial survey work. Photos, manufacturing processes, technical information, and significant features of several popular models of aerial cameras are all discussed in an attempt to demonstrate the superiority of Fairchild`s products. The brochure also contains information on the RCAF`s nearly exclusive use of Fairchild cameras. This information could easily be used to identify particular camera models that the museum might be interested in acquiring.
A detailed breakdown of the areas photographed by the RCAF is provided, providing information on where the RCAF`s photographic squadrons flew from, as well as the areas that they concentrated most of their attention on. Several of these areas, such as Red Lake in Alberta and the Rouyn district of Quebec, are known to be associated with mining activity, thus providing a strong connection between the Canadian mining industry and the RCAF`s aerial survey work. Unfortunately, the brochure does not include an exact date of publication, so it is difficult to determine the exact dates for some of the statistics. Luckily, it is safe to assume that the brochure was published in the late 1920s or very early 1930s, based on some of the information contained within.
“Fairchild – The History.” Fairchild Corp. Last modified 2009. < >.
This webpage found on The Fairchild Corporation’s company website details the varied history of the company and the life of its founder, Sherman Fairchild. For this project the webpage was used primarily as a source to confirm several important dates, such as the company’s founding in 1920.
Forbes, Alexander, et al. Northernmost Labrador Mapped from the Air. New York: American Geographical Society, 1938.
Alexander Forbes` first-hand account of his many surveying expeditions to the Labrador coast in the early 1930s provides an interesting and rare example of surveying conducted by private individuals, as opposed to commercial or military organizations. In addition to conducting ground surveys of the coastline, Forbes also purchased both a light Waco biplane and a Fairchild FC-2W to use as platforms for aerial surveying.
Perhaps the most interesting part of Forbes` account is found in the foreword of the book, in which Forbes specifically thanks the Montreal-based McColl Frontenac Oil Company for their generous donation of aviation fuel to his expedition. Such a gift clearly demonstrates that Canadian oil corporations were interested in acquiring aerial surveys of remote areas of Canada during the 1930s in order to identify potentially lucrative natural resources. It is also briefly mentioned that another member of the crew, Charles J. Hubbard, chartered the Fairchild aircraft one summer in order to conduct mineral exploration on the coast and in the interior of Labrador, thus providing even more evidence of the Canadian mining industry’s interest in obtaining aerial surveys of unmapped Canadian regions.
Fortier, Rénald and David Pantalony. CSTMC Acquisition Proposal: Convair 580 Flying Test Bed and Remote Sensing Aircraft. Ottawa: Canada Science and Technology Museums Corporation [internal document], 24 March 2014.
The original CSTMC acquisition proposal for the Geological Survey of Canada’s Convair 580 remote sensing aircraft, this document provides a wealth of information on the aforementioned aircraft. Additionally, the document serves to highlight the aircraft’s historical significance to the development of Canada’s first remote sensing satellite, RADARSAT-1. Both of these vehicles gathered a tremendous amount of geographical information about the Canadian landscape, much of which was used by the Canadian mining industry to direct their exploration operations.
Greenaway, Keith R., and Sidney E. Colthorpe. An Aerial Reconnaissance of Arctic North America. Ottawa: Joint Intelligence Bureau Ottawa, 1948.
Although most of this source’s attention is given to the geographical details of the Canadian Arctic, there is a small amount of information in the foreword that describes how the 4149th AAF Base Unit of the Air Material Command, while conducting long-range reconnaissance patrols in the Canadian Arctic, saw the opportunity to conduct aerial surveys of the remote region. Despite the fact that their work was largely not of professional quality, it is possible that the maps provided by these air crews might have help identify areas of geologic interest.
Heiman, Grover. Aerial Photography: The Story of Aerial Mapping and Reconnaissance. New York: Macmillan, 1972.
Heiman’s work contains useful information on some of the very first cameras used for aerial surveying. Cameras like the Eastman Kodak K-1 and the Fairchild K-3 were extremely popular options for aerial surveying in the 1920s, and are discussed in several other sources consulted for this project. Fortunately, the museum appears to possess aerial cameras from both of these manufacturers from the correct time period.
In addition to drawing attention to popular 1920s aerial cameras, Heiman also discusses the conversion of roughly 100 Lockheed P-38s by the U.S. Air Force into photoreconnaissance aircraft (designated the F-4). It appears that several of these converted P-38s eventually came to be owned and operated by the Ottawa-based Spartan Air Services for the purposes of aerial surveying. Heiman’s work offers a clue as to the history of these planes, as well as why they were purchased by Spartan after the Second World War.
Montero, Nick. Spartan Air Services. DVD. Canadian Aviation and Space Museum. HE 9815 S62. 2007 [reproduction].
Originally filmed from 1952 until 1955, Montero’s handheld 16mm footage shows Spartan Air Services conducting aerial surveying operations from a variety of fixed-wing aircraft. From this footage one can infer what types of aircraft were being used for aerial survey work in the wake of the Second World War. Footage of technicians compiling aerial photographs into larger mosaics also offers a glimpse into the process of photogrammetry.
Morley, Lawrence W. “The ‘Lunatic’ Fringe: Geophysics Comes to the Geological Survey of Canada 1952-68.” GEOSCAN (May 2011). Accessed June 22, 2014. .
Lawrence “Larry” Morley’s account of his time spent working at the Geological Survey of Canada gives an insider’s look into the decisions and influences behind the formation of the department’s aeromagnetic sensing program. Morley himself heavily influenced and encouraged the development of aeromagnetic sensing in Canada as the leader of this groundbreaking program, and later as Chief of the GSC’s Geophysics Division. The GSC’s aeromagnetic program is representative of the impressive technological innovations that were made by Canadians during the 1950s and 60s in the field of remote aerial sensing. Morley’s reminiscences about the enthusiastic support his aeromagnetic program received from the GSC’s senior management reinforce the opinions of several other scholars cited in this report (ex. Cronin), who argue that support from the Canadian government was critical to the adoption and subsequent development of aerial surveying in Canada. Furthermore, Morley discusses the long-standing link between the GSC and the Canadian mining industry, as the latter relied heavily on the new aeromagnetic maps produced by the former during the later half of the 20th century. This relationship serves to ignite a greater discussion about the degree to which a public government agency should subsidize private business interests, a subject that was often a topic of heated discussion at the GSC.
Mouat, Jeremy. “Metal Mining in Canada, 1840-1950.” Transformation Series 9. (2000).
Mouat’s report on the history of metal mining in Canada contains a great deal of relevant information to the study of aerial photography. Although he does discuss the application of aerial surveying to Canadian mining operations in some detail, Mouat’s nuanced history of the various stages of growth in the Canadian mining industry offer his reader an excellent understanding of the distinct challenges and conditions facing the industry at each stage of its development. When applied to the subject of aerial surveying, it can be clearly seen how some of these conditions either encouraged or prohibited the adoption of aerial surveying among Canadian mining operations. Mouat also takes the time to identify several Canadian mining companies that were particularly involved in the implementation of aerial surveying, such as the B.C.-based Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada.
“Our History.” Scintrex. Accessed May 16, 2014. .
After identifying a couple of gravimeters and magnetometers in Robert Tremblay’s work that the CSTMC collection possessed, I wished to know more about the Toronto-based designers of these sensors, Sharpe Instruments Limited. My search led me to the website of Sharpe Instruments Limited, which had been renamed Scintrex Limited after merging with Seigel Associates Limited in 1967. Scintrex`s website contains a great deal of information on its early history. The company’s founder, Edgar Sharpe, was the first to design a number of innovative electromagnetic sensors for the purpose of mineral exploration, such as the vertical force magnetometer. Many of these inventions would later be adopted for use in aircraft, providing yet another example of the contributions that Canadians have made to the development of aerial surveying. Over the years Scintrex (short for Scientific Instruments, Research, and Exploration) has continued to develop innovative technologies for use in aerial mineral exploration, including a line of gravimetric airborne sensors in the 1960s and the revolutionary Luminex system in the 1980s.
Paine, David P. Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation for Resource Management. New York: Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
The major use of Paine`s discussion of aerial photography for this project comes from the author’s discussion of the respective advantages and disadvantages of both traditional (panchromatic) and infrared film in one of the book’s chapters. The relatively brief use of infrared film for aerial surveying is an area that is not discussed extensively in many of the other sources consulted for this project, many of which prefer to move straight from the use of photography to the development of radar-based surveying systems. Paine’s work offers a chance to collect some valuable information on some of the situations in which the use of infrared film would have been likely been advantageous for mineral exploration.
“RADARSAT-1: Seventeen Years of Technological Success.” Canadian Space Agency. Last modified May 9, 2013. Accessed May 20, 2014. .
After experiencing a technical failure that led to the termination of RADARSAT-1 on March 29, 2013, the Canadian Space Agency issued this press release documenting the famous satellite’s numerous achievements. Equipped with a cutting edge synthetic aperture radar (SAR), RADARSAT-1 was the first satellite to provide high-resolution mapping of the entire Canadian Arctic, take stereoscopic radar images of the planet’s landmass, and offer the first interferometric coverage of Canada.
RADARSAT-1 is particularly notable for the collaboration that the satellite required between provincial governments, the federal government, and the Canadian private sector. The millions spent by private Canadian corporations on the project demonstrate a clear desire to possess the type of remote geological surveying ability that RADARSAT-1 would provide. RADARSAT-1’s development is also demonstrative of a growing interest in the Canadian mining sector in satellite-based radar imaging, as there are certain advantages offered by the former when compared to traditional aerial surveying.
Ray, Richard G. Aerial Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mapping. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1960.
Many of the sources consulted for this project deal with the exploration for both metals and minerals. Aerial surveying for the purpose of petroleum mining, however, is not discussed explicitly in many of these cases. Richard G. Ray bucks this trend, specifically discussing the types of benefits that aerial surveying can provide for the petroleum industry. These benefits include the analysis of soil patterns and other geologic characteristics that might help to identify potential structural traps when drilling for oil. Ray also goes on to describe the deductive and inductive reasoning used by geologists when trying to pinpoint oil and mineral deposits from aerial photographs. While it is worth noting that this particular source was published by the U.S. Government, there is a strong likelihood that Canadian petroleum companies were using similar methods and strategies. Unfortunately, the majority of the book is given over to discussions of how to identify various natural features from the air, many of which do not directly relate to the subject of mineral exploration.
“TAGS-6 Dynamic Gravity Meter Brochure.” Micro-g LaCoste, Accessed May 16, 2014. .
This brochure from Micro-g LaCoste, a subsidiary of Scintrex ltd. (previously known as Sharpe Instruments Limited), offers an example of some of the latest technology used by Canadian mining corporations when conducting aerial surveys. The TAGS-6 system uses disturbances in the Earth’s gravitational field to pinpoint the location of possible mineral deposits with far more accuracy than many of the previous methods of aerial surveying. Meanwhile, computer programs such as AeroGrav can rapidly process and compile this gravimetric data immediately after each flight, as opposed to having to compile individual photos into mosaics by hand. The ease and accuracy of these systems can help to emphasize just how far the development of aerial surveying technology has come in the last 100 years.
“The L.B. Aero-Camera.” Flight Magazine (June 9, 1921): 390-391. Accessed June 16, 2014. .
Used to determine the identity of one of the cameras in the CSTMC collection (1966.0057), this periodical, although brief, offers a detailed explanation of the design features and technical details found in the “L.B.” model of aerial cameras offered by Williamson Kinematograph Co.
The Mining Association of Canada, The Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada. 100 Innovations in the Mining Industry. Montreal: Minalliance, 2012.
This small booklet does an admirable job of acquainting the reader with many of the key technologies developed for use in modern aerial surveying. These innovations include, among others, LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), GPS, the AVIRIS airborne sensor, and GIS computer programs. Each of these technologies has revolutionized the way in which mining companies conduct aerial surveying. Unfortunately, only a rudimentary explanation is offered for each piece of technology. This approach works well if the reader is unfamiliar with said technology, but those looking for a more detailed explanation will have to look elsewhere.
Thompson, Don W. “Three Men Who Unlocked the West.” University of Waterloo Earth Sciences Museum. Accessed June 2, 2014. .
This source offers an examination of three successive Surveyor Generals of Canada, J.S. Dennis, Lindsay A. Russell, and Édouard-Gaston Deville. Thompson makes the case that without the careful land survey work directed by these men the settlement of the Canadian West would have been vastly more difficult. Thompson’s examination of Deville consists of a brief biography and description of his contributions to the techniques of photogrammetry, most notably his creation of the Canadian Grid System. It is this description of Deville’s life and accomplishments that can be used as reference material for this project.
Tremblay, Robert. Poussière sur la ville: exploitation des minerais non métalliques au Canada, de 1880 à nos jours. Ottawa: Canadian Science and Technology Museum, 2001.
Robert Tremblay’s discussion of non-metallic mining in Canada, while informative, does not contain an enormous amount of material that is useful for this project. Perhaps the most relevant aspect of Tremblay’s work is his identification of several artifacts in the CSTMC collection that might be relevant to the development of aerial survey technology. Among these artifacts are a gravimeter and magnetometer constructed by the Toronto-based firm Sharpe Instruments Limited, who helped to pioneer sensors that could measure the Earth`s gravitational and magnetic field in order to identify mineral deposits. Although the gravimeter and magnetometer in the collection are not designed for use in aircraft, subsequent systems would be designed to allow for these types of sensors to be used while conducting aerial surveys.
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[1] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 307.
[2] American Society of Photogrammetry, The Manual of Photogrammetry, 2nd ed. (Washington: American Society of Photogrammetry, 1952), 2.
[3] American Society of Photogrammetry, The Manual of Photogrammetry, 2nd ed. (Washington: American Society of Photogrammetry, 1952), 9.
[4] ”
[5] ”
[6] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 307.
[7] “Geological Mapping of Mineral Areas,” Canadian Mining Journal (1919): 298-99, quoted in Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 304.
[8] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 308.
[9] Jeremy Mouat, “Metal Mining in Canada, 1840-1950,” Transformation Series 9 (2000): 34.
[10] Jeremy Mouat, “Metal Mining in Canada, 1840-1950,” Transformation Series 9 (2000): 49.
[11] ”
[12] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 324.
[13] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 326.
[14] ”
[15] Canada Department of National Defense, Report on Civil Aviation for 1929 (Ottawa, 1926), 45, quoted in Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 326.
[16] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 318.
[17] James W. Bagley, Aerophotography and Aerosurveying, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., 1941), 1.
[18] James W. Bagley, Aerophotography and Aerosurveying, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., 1941), 66.
[19] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 319.
[20] ”
[21] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 320.
[22] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 321.
[23] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 322.
[24] ”
[25] Don W. Thompson, “Three Men Who Unlocked the West,” University of Waterloo Earth Sciences Museum, accessed June 2, 2014, .
[26] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 328.
[27] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 16.
[28] “Fairchild – The History,” Fairchild Corp, last modified 2009, < >.
[29] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 3.
[30] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 6.
[31] Grover Heiman, Aerial Photography: The Story of Aerial Mapping and Reconnaissance (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 55.
[32] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 28.
[33] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 6.
[34] Grover Heiman, Aerial Photography: The Story of Aerial Mapping and Reconnaissance (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 62-63.
[35] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 29, 38.
[36] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 3.
[37] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 328.
[38] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 28.
[39] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 29
[40] ”
[41] Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, Fairchild Aerial Cameras (New York: Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation, [n.d.]), 31.
[42] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 316.
[43] Marionne Cronin, “Northern Visions: Aerial Surveying and the Canadian Mining Industry, 1919-1928,” Technology and Culture 48, no. 2 (April 2007): 329.
[44] ”
[45] Grover Heiman, Aerial Photography: The Story of Aerial Mapping and Reconnaissance (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 73.
[46] ”
[47] David P. Paine, Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation for Resource Management (New York: Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, 1981), 238.
[48] Richard G. Ray, Aerial Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mapping (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1960), 26.
[49] Richard G. Ray, Aerial Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mapping (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1960), 1.
[50] David P. Paine, Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation for Resource Management (New York: Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, 1981), 238.
[51] Nick Montero, Spartan Air Services, DVD, Canadian Aviation and Space Museum, HE 9815 S62, 2007 [reproduction], 00:53:31-01:04:00.
[52] “Our History,” Scintrex, accessed May 16, 2014, .
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[56] Lawrence W. Morley, “The ‘Lunatic’ Fringe: Geophysics Comes to the Geological Survey of Canada 1952-68,” GEOSCAN (May 2011), accessed June 22, 2014, , 3.
[57] Lawrence W. Morley, “The ‘Lunatic’ Fringe: Geophysics Comes to the Geological Survey of Canada 1952-68,” GEOSCAN (May 2011), accessed June 22, 2014, , 1.
[58] ”
[59] Lawrence W. Morley, “The ‘Lunatic’ Fringe: Geophysics Comes to the Geological Survey of Canada 1952-68,” GEOSCAN (May 2011), accessed June 22, 2014, , 4.
[60] Lawrence W. Morley, “The ‘Lunatic’ Fringe: Geophysics Comes to the Geological Survey of Canada 1952-68,” GEOSCAN (May 2011), accessed June 22, 2014, , 5.
[61] Quentin Bristow, “Airborne Gamma-Ray Spectrometry: A Canadian Success Story,” GEOSCAN (April 2009), accessed June 23, 2014, , 8.
[62] Lawrence W. Morley, “The ‘Lunatic’ Fringe: Geophysics Comes to the Geological Survey of Canada 1952-68,” GEOSCAN (May 2011), accessed June 22, 2014, , 9.
[63] John Erickson, Exploring Earth from Space (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1989), 83.
[64] Rénald Fortier and David Pantalony, CSTMC Acquisition Proposal: Convair 580 Flying Test Bed and Remote Sensing Aircraft (Ottawa: Canada Science and Technology Museums Corporation [internal document], 24 March 2014), 5.
[65] Rénald Fortier and David Pantalony, CSTMC Acquisition Proposal: Convair 580 Flying Test Bed and Remote Sensing Aircraft (Ottawa: Canada Science and Technology Museums Corporation [internal document], 24 March 2014), 6.
[66] ”
[67] ”
[68] “RADARSAT-1: Seventeen Years of Technological Success,” Canadian Space Agency, last modified May 9, 2013, accessed May 20, 2014, < >.
[69] ”
[70] ”
[71] “TAGS-6 Dynamic Gravity Meter Brochure,” Micro-g LaCoste, accessed May 16, 2014, < >.
[72] The Mining Association of Canada, The Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada, 100 Innovations in the Mining Industry (Montreal: Minalliance, 2012), 60.
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