Science Fiction – Introduction



INTRODUCTION

The world of literature would be incomplete without the genre of science fiction. The vastness of possibilities brought to our lives by science fiction authors is infinite. Alternative worlds, various galaxies with various creatures, advanced technology beyond our imagination are only a small fragment this genre is able to provide. The possibilities we can accomplish are bound only by our creativity.

Science fiction as a genre is quite unique. As Philip K. Dick stated in one of his letters; the best science fiction is changed into a dialogue between an author and a reader. This dialogue is launched by a chain reaction of thoughts provided by the author who develops a text containing a new idea.

If we want to discuss science fiction further, it is quite essential to ask ourselves, why should we even waste time doing so. It is quite evident to say, that as our society entered the new millennium, our culture, lives and everything that surrounds us is somehow affected by the advanced technology. For example, in the IT industry, engineers are influenced by the ideas presented either in SF books or movies. We can mention not only the effort to connect a man into a computer world or plugging technical devices into our bodies. All these scenes are taken from the world of SF.

Evidence supporting this point of view that SF rules our lives can be seen in today’s cinematography. Just by looking at what kind of movies are most demanding by audience, we would find, that majority of them are the genre of sci-fi or fantasy. But why is this so? One answer to this question could be that people living in the world today are trying to find a place to hide and is there a better place than a place where you find space heroes who are trying to save the galaxy from the nasty aliens or mutants. It is the pursuit of being somebody else, caused by the internal dissatisfaction of who we really are, or in other words, it is the escape from reality that is demanded. The other answer represents the man’s curiosity to see what the future world would be like, and SF provides various pictures of the future reality.

Science fiction as other genres in literature as well has undergone some development, which shaped it into a form we experience now. In order to look at the present state of SF we need to define, what science fiction really is, therefore this topic will be discussed in chapter one. To achieve this goal, we need to analyze a real definition and make boundaries of good and bad SF. There need to be opinions of the critics presented in order to make the definition valid. Their presence during the analysis will be able to help us to understand the SF genre from different points of view and their opinions will draw a line which we will have to follow so as to succeed in the goal set.

Besides exploring the real definition of SF there are other aspects to consider while engaged with any literary genre. Studying origins of science fiction is necessary to provide the vital background to the development of SF genre and to the analysis of the contemporary SF. Answers to the rising questions concerning with the features of science fiction as such or why SF went just that particular direction could be found in its history and therefore the importance of history of SF should not be underestimated. The second part of chapter two focuses on four talented SF writers. Starting with H. G. Wells, Isaac Asimov, Philip K. Dick and Robert A. Heinlein. They all offered something out of the ordinary that attracted the readers of SF. Having a scope of the science fiction authors enables us with analytical and critical thinking to other authors and their works.

Chapter three of the thesis focuses on assigning science fiction as being part of a speculative fiction. Nowadays, science fiction literature is not considered to create a single literary genre. With its features and subgenres it satisfies the criteria of speculative fiction and is often regarded as such. Therefore the chapter discusses relations between SF and other literary genres. Analysis of the distinctive and similar features that are present in the works of SF, cyberpunk, dystopia and a ‘similar’ genre of fantasy are presented. Significant authors of the genres are mentioned and examples of their significant works are provided.

Another chapter, chapter four deals with the influence of postmodernism on science fiction that is undeniable and it is essential to present it for anyone who is concerned with SF literature. The postmodern movement affected the course of science fiction and through its impact SF has taken a form it possess now. Influential postmodern philosophers with their ideas are introduced and their ideas characterized. Together with the features that are characteristic for postmodern literature, there is enough theoretical background provided in order to use it during the analysis presented in next chapters. The features presented are explained and examples of them are provided.

When having all the necessary informational background about the development of science fiction, its features, representatives and their works, a practical part of analyzing and finding the overlapping features between two famous works takes place. Two works are introduced, Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World and Andy and Larry’s Wachowski The Matrix.

The following chapter five focuses on characterizing postmodern features in The Matrix. The chapter is divided into three parts. The first one consists of introducing and explaining the work of The Matrix along with William Gibson’s Neuromancer, whose work is essential in the analysis later introduced in this chapter. The second part of the chapter reintroduces two significant postmodern philosophers whose ideas are applied on the analyzed work. The final part of the analysis concerns with finding selected postmodern features in The Matrix, where examples of Gibson’s Neuromancer are provided, which are vital for the purpose of the analysis.

Chapter six focuses on the genre of SF as such and the difficulties that may arise when one is trying to characterize a work as being part of science fiction literature. The current chapter introduces Aldous Huxley’s novel Brave New World. Again the chapter is divided into three parts, where the novel is characterized and analyzed. After the proper introduction of the novel, a discussion is formed, whether the novel satisfies the criteria of science fiction. During the analysis various points of view are presented in order to provide an objective result. The second half of the chapter consists of analyzing the dystopian features of Brave New World, through which a conclusion regarding the importance of dystopia in SF literature is made.

The final chapter of the thesis concerns with the overlapping features of The Matrix and Brave New World with the focus on the genre. Similar features are highlighted and the analysis of them in the works is provided. Conclusion presented is based on the examples introduced during the analysis.

Through the particular chapters presented, the thesis uncovers the world of science fiction which is not bound by literature. It is the world around us; it is the world of today which is shaped by the influence of SF. To be able to see the features of SF and be able to critically address them gives us a better chance to understand the world we live in and also the effects the literature has on our world and lives.

Definition of Science Fiction

When studying science fiction literature, it is essential to possess a definition that will manage to distinguish between SF literature and literature of other genres. Therefore the aim of the chapter is to provide ideas presented by literary critics and authors of SF, who employed themselves in this matter. During the process of representing the proper definition, distinct ideas will be explained and suggestions of critics considered.

Genre of SF represents a unique kind of fiction that made literary critics a difficult time defining it. The most obvious definition that is suggested through its name is not correct as an uninterested person in science fiction might think. SF does not represent the kind of fiction, in which the main idea points towards technology as such. Literary critics argue that the world of science fiction is more than just technology.

The aim of the chapter is to present the most suitable definition of science fiction literature provided by literary critics and introduce several attempts provided by SF authors themselves and literary critics as well.

In order to define SF it would be appropriate to find out when this term was used for a first time. According to A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory the term ‘science fiction’ was used for the first time in the year 1851 by William Wilson in his A little Earnest Book upon a Great Old Subject. Another name that is connected with the term is the name of a founder of a magazine Amazing Stories. Hugo Gernsback (1894 – 1967) used the term scientifiction in order to describe the genre, now known as science fiction.

For further studying of SF genre, it was more then inevitable to present a justifiable definition. A definition able to understand SF, able to point out its crucial features and characteristics. As it was mentioned before science fiction resists an easy definition. Even the definition from a literary dictionary is vague, not as clear as we would expect it to be.

“A science fiction story is a narrative (usually in prose) of short story, novella or novel (qq.v.) length. … Such stories … include trips to other worlds, quests, the exploration of space, visits to other planets and interplanetary warfare. …utopia … dystopia …past … They are also concerned with technological change and development, with scientific experiment, with social, climatic, geological and ecological change.” (Cuddon, J.A., 1998, p. 791).

There is another definition presented by the literary dictionary. It quotes Brian Aldiss and his point of view.

“Science fiction is the search for a definition of mankind and his status in the universe which will stand in our advanced but confused state of knowledge (science) and is characteristically cast in the Gothic or post-Gothic mode.’ (Cuddon, J.A., 1998, p. 791).

Both of these definitions introduced are not able to satisfy an interested person in the world of science fiction. The former one only lists series of ideas presented by SF authors in their stories/novellas. Since the spectrum of the author’s imagination is without boundaries and the ideas presented by the authors so far are more than enough. Therefore the former definition does not succeed in providing us with the proper definition of science fiction.

The latter one, introduced by Brian Aldiss is more abstract. The element of science as a crucial part of a science fiction plot is here the leading factor. Though this may be correct, but not in all circumstances, as it will be more discussed later in this chapter. The only focus on the science/knowledge may be limiting and hiding other forms of science fiction.

Book Science Fiction written by Adam Roberts also focuses on providing a definition of science fiction. He thinks that:

“… science fiction as a genre or division of literature distinguishes its fictional worlds to one degree or another from the world in which we actually live …”

(Roberts, A., 2000, p. 1).

He also stresses the importance of the new concept introduced in any science fiction story as a ‘crucial separator’ between science fiction and other fantastic/imaginative literature. In his studies he concentrates on three definitions from literary critics.

The first definition is introduced by Darko Suvin who elaborated the concept of novum (Latin for ‘new’). Novum represents a ‘new thing’ or a ‘new phenomenon’, which is also used as a distinguishing element between SF and the rest of the literature. Suvin’s idea is as Roberts explains it that every science fiction story consists of one novum or a number or interrelated nova. Therefore Darko Suvin defined SF as:

“… a literary genre whose necessary and sufficient conditions are the presence and interaction of estrangement and cognition, and whose main formal device is an imaginative framework alternative to the author’s empirical environment.” (Suvin, D., 2004, p. 375).

There are two new terms introduced by Suvin. The former one is the term of cognition. Here Roberts defines it as form of rational and logical, which enables the reader to understand the concept of the novum. He also states his idea that if only the element of cognition was presented in the text, it would have to be classified as a documentary or as scientific. Suvin also adds on the account of cognition:

“… this term does not imply only a reflecting of but also on reality. It implies a creative approach tending toward a dynamic transformation rather than toward a static mirroring of the author’s environment.” (Suvin, D., 2004, p. 377).

The latter term introduced in Suvin’s definition is the one of estrangement. The concept of estrangement was used by Bertolt Brecht whose aim was to write plays for a scientific age. Suvin quotes Brecht as he defined estrangement (Verfremdungseffekt) in his Short Organon for the Theatre (1948) as:

“A representation which estranges is one which allows us to recognize its subject, but at the same time makes it seem unfamiliar.” (Suvin, D., 2004, p. 374).

Roberts explained the term estrangement as it is used in the English-language criticism – as alienation. He inclines to Brecht’s explanation and agrees on estranging of the familiar or the known. The strength of Suvin’s definition lies in the “embodiment of a common-sense tautology” (2000, p. 8) as it is argued from the Robert’s side. It is the science fiction that is presented as a “scientific fictionalizing” (2000, p. 8).

Suvin’s definition of SF is quite popular by the literary critics who are interested in the genre of science fiction. Carl Freedman in his Critical Theory and Science Fiction also used Suvin’s point of view in a chapter defining science fiction.

“… science fiction is determined by the dialectic between estrangement and cognition. The first term refers to the creation of an alternative fictional world that, by refusing to take our mundane environment for granted, implicitly or explicitly performs an estranging critical interrogation of the latter.” (Freedman, C., 2000, p. 17).

He argues that the character of the interrogation is based on cognition, which allows us to access the text logically and rationally. If the concept of estrangement was not present, Freedman points out that the text would represent ordinary realistic fiction. On the other hand, if the concept of cognition was missing, the text would be a fantasy or a text estranging only in an irrational and illegitimate way.

A following critic introduced by Roberts is Robert Scholes. The definition provided by him differentiates from Suvin’s. As Roberts states, Scholes in his book Structural Fabulation:

“… has stressed the metaphorical strain of SF. He defines ‘Fabulation’ as any ‘fiction that offers us a world clearly and radically discontinuous from the one we know, yet returns to confront that known world in some cognitive way.’”

Roberts, A., 2000, p. 10).

According to Roberts, Scholes put more emphasis on the literary features of the science fiction texts. For him ‘science’ is only a starting point, the real focus is based on the process of ‘fictionalisation’.

The last critic presented by Roberts is Damien Broderick, whom Roberts also quoted, is also a SF author and a theoretically-engaged critic, defined SF as following.

“SF is that species of storytelling native to a culture undergoing the epistemic changes implicated in the rise and supercession of technical-industrial modes of production, distribution, consumption and disposal. It is marked by (i) metaphoric strategies and metonymic tactics, (ii) the foregrounding of icons and interpretative schemata from a collectively constituted generic ‘mega-text’ and the concomitant de-emphasis of ‘fine writing’ and characterization, and (iii) certain priorities more often found in scientific and postmodern texts than in literary models: specifically, attention to the object in preference to the subject.” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 11-12).

Roberts explains the terms ‘metaphoric strategies’ and ‘metonymic tactics’ with the occurrence of a novum in a SF tale. The novum, on one hand represents a part of the imagined world, which is a representation of the whole environment and on the other hand the whole SF text functions metaphorically. Example from the movie Blade Runner is also provided. The androids (novum) from the movie are connected with the main idea of the movie and the movie itself is taken as Roberts suggests as a metaphor for the “alienated existence of the contemporary life” (2000, p. 13).

Another problem Broderick sees with science fiction texts is that it does not offer things to the reader that are normally found in a main-stream literature (detailed analysis of characters, …). Broderick argues for the focus of SF texts on the object rather than subject.

From the point of view introduced by another SF author and critic Gwyneth Jones the unease presented by Broderick is not that disastrous. She simply says that:

“… SF avoids the trappings of mainstream fiction so as not to distract its readership from the conceptual experiment it represents; fine writing is ‘de-emphasised’ in order to allow content and concept to come more obviously to the fore.”

(Roberts, A., 2000, p. 14).

There have been more attempts to come up with a ‘good’ definition of science fiction. There are those provided by the literary critics or even the SF authors themselves. SF writer Philip K. Dick stated what can be used in order to define science fiction. Dick argues that it is the presence of an imaginary world created as an alternative to our own, which is one of the crucial parts in defining science fiction. The shift between the alternative and the real is according to Dick the essence of science fiction. It is the reality of unknown that the reader’s mind is shocked by.

All the definitions provided either by the critics, the authors and the members of science fiction community, manage to have one concept in common in the definitions provided by them. They agree upon that it is the phenomenon of the novum that is needed to be present in any science fiction story. The success of the story depends on the use of the novum. As to quote Roberts again:

“The more expertly the ‘nova’ are deployed, the more thorough this imaginative encounter with difference can be.” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 20).

Of course the process of characterizing any work as a piece of science fiction literature is not an easy task, as it was suggested during the chapter. The ideas and suitable definitions provided in this chapter will be reused in later chapter of the thesis.

History of Science Fiction

To portrait the development of science fiction may not be as easy as it seems. As it is difficult to present the ‘perfect’ definition of science fiction, it is also problematic to illustrate its history. The main difficulty lies in finding the starting point, or the historical term, where SF has emerged for the first time. The current chapter will discuss the origins of science fiction genre, introduces its development stages with their characteristic features. Authors with their significant works will be provided for each stage and at last four significant authors who influenced the course of SF literature will be introduced in detail.

1 Origins of Science Fiction Literature

As Adam Roberts puts it in his book Science Fiction, it is not easy to decide where to start with the historical development of SF. There are lots of options to choose from. H. G. Wells, Jules Verne could be defined as the fathers of science fiction. What about the ancient literature?

“There are journeys to the Moon or heroic protagonists seeking out new worlds and strange new civilizations in the oldest epics of human culture, from the ancient Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (written perhaps in 2000 BC).” (Roberts, A. 2000, p. 47).

According to A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory there are numerous predecessors of modern science fiction. The example this book provides is a book Vera Historia (True History) from Lucian of Samosata. Roberts also mentions this work. He labeled this book as a popular example of proto-SF writing. This book presents features like interplanetary warfare and interplanetary travel.

There are some forms of early periods of writing, which could be regarded as the predecessor to modern SF. Some of these genres are mentioned in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. They occurred during the Middle Ages and were called vision literature. Vision literature was quite popular and widespread and it was interested in exploring the ’metaphysical worlds’ like heaven, purgatory, hell. The most popular one and easy to describe was hell. Exploration of hell represented the early form of horror story and a predecessor to scientific romance.

There are also other works and authors that were influential for the development of SF genre. It would be unwise not to mention Thomas More’s Utopia (1516) which is also mentioned by Roberts in his book and also in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Roberts considers More’s Utopia as a starting point in the SF development and names it a proto-SF, because there are not visible any futuristic forms and there is no encounter with otherness. A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory considers More’s Utopia:

“… to be a kind of prototype of all sorts of utopia and utopian schemes, plus adventure quests, including expeditions into space.” (Cuddon, J. A., 1998, p. 792).

On the other hand some science fiction critics may think otherwise. Adam Roberts in his book introduced two literary critics, Nicholls and Clute and their contributions.

“SF critic Peter Nicholls thinks that ‘SF proper requires a consciousness of the scientific outlook’, and that ‘a cognitive, scientific way of looking at the world did not emerge until the 17th century, and did not percolate into society at large until … the 19th’. He adds that ‘there is no sense at all in which we can regard SF as a genre conscious of being genre before 19th century.’” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 48).

Nicholls’s ideas presented in the above quotation are quite logical. He sees SF from the technological point of view, where technology forms a significant part of the SF story. Therefore his assumption that the genre of SF has emerged during the 19th century is correct.

“Stress the relative youth of the mode, and you are arguing that SF is a specific artistic response to a very particular set of historical and cultural phenomena: …”

(Roberts, A., 2000, p. 47).

This quotation also supports Nicholls’s idea. It argues that works of SF could only take place in countries which have experienced any form of Industrial Revolution. Through Industrial Revolution we mean any form of technological progress and this progress is somehow portrayed also in the literature. Technology as such could represent a fundamental part of science fiction, since technology itself can represent the encounter with the novum, or it could be the novum itself.

There is one more literary work that is considered as a turning point in the development of SF genre and that is Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818). Roberts considers this book very influential and according to him the crucial part of this book forms the central character – the monster. Everything that is connected to the monster is a part of the novum that this book has brought up. It is the monster itself who resembles the encounter with otherness. It reminds an alienated existence that is so popular in today’s science fiction.

As mentioned in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, the creation of the monster is carried out in the scientific terms, where:

“… monster created by Dr Frankenstein is the product of scientific research, knowledge and skills. The doctor imparts life to a composite being constructed from bits of corpses.” (Cuddon, J.A., 1998, p. 793).

There is one fact, which A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary History considers being a great pity and that is:

“… that Mary Shelley did not give the monster a name; many who know the basic story but have not read the book refer to it/him as Frankenstein.”

(Cuddon, J.A., 1998, p. 793).

Despite the fact mentioned, there occurred several imitations of this book since its publication because the impact it left on literature is significant. Even after hundred years we can recognize the symbols occurring either in literature or cinematography. The best example to provide is the movie The Terminator (1984) directed by James Cameron. The robot machine completely resembles the monster from Shelley’s book.

2 Era of H.G. Wells and Jules Verne

Adam Roberts devoted part of his book to the history of SF genre. He recognizes several stages – Jules Verne and H. G. Wells, Pulp SF, The Golden Age, New Wave.

The first stage presents two, quite famous writers whose contributions are undeniable. Jules Verne (1828 - 1905) is popular for his fantastic voyages that are set (as Roberts says) into the present version of his world. His greatest works are Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864), From the Earth to the Moon (1864), Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1869) and Around the World in Eighty Days (1873).

“A major part of Verne’s success was his ability to make scientific expertise plausible.” (Cuddon, J.A., 1998, p. 794).

Or as Roberts says, Vernes’ SF technology is taken from existing scientific principles; therefore it is better understood and accepted by his readers and satisfies the criteria of SF set by Darko Suvin.

The other author mentioned in this so called ‘contribution’ stage is H. G. Wells (1865 - 1946).

“… one of the great originators of science fiction ideas – many of which have been refashioned by other writers since.” (Cuddon, J.A., 1998, p. 795).

The most famous and popular works written by Wells are The Time Machine (1895), The Island of Dr Moreau (1896), The War of the Worlds (1898).

Through his writing H. G. Wells mastered several themes such as – time-travel, the biological mutation, alien invasion, etc.

“And it is through Wells, … , that fiction centrally concerned with the encounter with difference is most thoroughly developed.” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 55).

As Roberts shows in his book, Wells dealt with the encounter with the otherness, for example meeting the new life forms (aliens, beast people).

“…; it is Wells’s dialectical sense of the interrelationship between sameness and otherness that gives this work much of its potency: the cognitive estrangement.” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 63).

Roberts dedicates some time to analyze Wells’s greatest book: War of the Worlds. He argues that the nova presented in this book is concerned with the present version of his world. It is the violent method of building a British Empire. Aliens from the book resemble imperialists who use their power to invade other nations. He adds that the whole book is connected to the Age of Empires. There was British Empire at his time, which represented the model of civilized behavior. Nowadays we face the impact of the American Empire that treats everybody as a sort-of-American. To support his ideas Roberts adds examples from the recent cinematography. Those are the Independence Day (1996), where the earth is attacked by the species from other planet and the whole world unites in order to defeat their new enemy. The whole movie is very similar to Wells’s book. Another example he provides is the always popular TV series Star Trek, where the confederacy takes over the other planetary systems. It is a form of an empire building.

Roberts in the end quite originally interprets the success of Wells’ novel, which is based on the balance between the familiar representation of the known and the strangeness of its novum. He thinks that the development of SF is closely related to the cultural history of that particular country and that the novum symbolically relates to the key concerns of the society.

3 Pulp Science Fiction

Another stage introduced by Roberts in his book Science Fiction is the Pulp SF. Development of SF is associated with the popular fiction, and the market dictated the way SF had to go. It all started during the 1890s that Frank Munsey introduced the first pulp magazine Argosy.

“Advances in the manufacture of paper out of wood-pulp in the 1880s fuelled a boom in cheap publishing, and a wide range of magazines grew up, printed on a cheap, thick paper that shreads easily and yellows quickly.” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 67).

The era of pulp magazines was on its peak during 1920s and 1950s. According to a pulp magazines introduced variety of genres. The most popular were detective/mystery, science fiction, adventure, romance, war, horror/occult, Série Noire stories. Science fiction magazines appeared first in the United States, but later they became available for the readers all over the world. As a first pulp magazine to specialize in SF introduced by Roberts was Thrill Book. It was published during the year 1919 and unfortunately it was canceled the same year. After couple years later a new science-fiction magazine appeared. The magazine was called Amazing Stories and it was published by Hugo Gernsback in 1926. Gernsback’s aim was to make SF educational almost dialectic. Through this magazine science fiction material was introduced to ordinary readers. During the first issues this magazine published reprints of famous writers, such as H. G. Wells, Jules Verne and Edgar Allan Poe. Later on, young talented writers, SF fans or scientists began publishing their works through these magazines. The most outstanding ones according to were Dr. Miles Breuer (The Gostak and the Doshes), Stanley G. Weinbaum (A Martian Odyssey), Buck Rogers, Philip Francis Nowlan (The Warlords of Han), E. E. ‘Doc’ Smith (The Skylark of Space) and Mrs. Lee Hawkins Garby.

It was after 607 issues of the magazine, in the year of 2005, that Amazing Stories stopped publishing.

Another important name occurring with the pulp SF magazines is John Campbell. He was the editor and publisher of the first pulp science fiction magazine. He named it Astounding Stories. It started in January 1930 and since then the magazine changed names to Astounding Science Fiction, Astounding Science Fact and Fiction, Analog. According to Roberts, Campbell’s main pursuit was to make SF educational, entertaining and analyze how people reacted to the ideas presented in the magazine. In those days:

“Most pulp science fiction consisted of adventure stories transplanted, without much thought, to alien planets. And most of it was so badly written that even today science fiction still carries a slight whiff of its pulp heritage. The classic image of pulp science fiction is a beautiful, scantily-clad, large-breasted woman being carried off by a bug-eyed monster.” (Wikipedia, 2006).[1]

He tried to change several stereotypes used by the authors; for instance the overuse of Wellsian symbol of an alien invasion.

“… John W. Campbell, Jr., is credited with turning science fiction away from adventure stories on alien planets and toward well-written, scientifically literate stories with better characterization than in previous pulp science fiction.” (Wikipedia, 2006).[2]

Among the famous writers whose works were published through this magazine were Isaac Asimov, Robert A. Heinlein (Future History), Hal Clement (Mission of Gravity), Frank Herbert (Dune).

There are two more authors Roberts introduces during this stage of development of science fiction. Here belongs Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875 – 1950) and E. E. ‘Doc’ Smith (1890 - 1965). Burroughs is famous for creating a hero Tarzan. He also concentrated on writing different genres and published his stories in pulp magazines. The first story he published in a pulp magazine was Under the Moons of Mars. lists other genres introduced by him; such as SF or fantasy stories set on various planets, lost islands, westerns and historical romances.

The next author is E. E. Smith. He is considered to be the founder of space operas. The significant works produced by him are the Skylark series and Lensman series. As suggests E. E. Smiths is best known for the unique elements he managed to include in his writing.

“… the extrapolation of known science and, often, the extrapolation of existing and historic social and political patterns of the early to mid-twentieth century. Smith himself expressed a preference for inventing fictional technologies that were not strictly impossible (so far as the science of the day was aware) but highly unlikely: ‘the more unlikely the better’ was his phrase.” (Wikipedia, 2006).[3]

Smith was one of the greatest figures of SF that influenced the popular culture. Not only George Lucas took inspiration from Smith, but also groups of scientist who took his creative ideas.

After the 1950’s the pulp era began to decline. It was due to introduction of television, rising printing costs and because of their new competition – comic books. Pulp era can be definitely considered among the crucial periods of development of SF. It introduced not even new ideas but also some creative works that are still read today.

4 Golden Age of Science Fiction

Golden Age as the next stage of the development of science fiction is also connected with John Campbell, the editor of the SF magazine Astounding. It is mostly agreed that the time span of this stage goes from the late 1930s to 1950s. This time period is also known as the era of American Pulp publishing.

John Campbell as one of the main figures of the golden age managed to control the most talented writers and by laying out his criteria of SF writing, he managed to control the direction of science fiction.

“Write me a creature that thinks as well as a man, or better than a man, but not like a man.” (Wikipedia, 2006).[4]

His ideas and the requirements he lay on his authors influenced the course of science fiction literature and made him the influential SF figure.

Campbell’s thoughts on science fiction are stated in Robert’s book:

“That group of writings which is usually referred to as ‘main-stream literature’ is actually a special subgroup of the field of science fiction – for science fiction deals with all places in the Universe, and all times in Eternity, so the literature of the here-and-now is, truly, a subset of science fiction.” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 75).

With authors like Isaac Asimov (Foundation (1942-50)), Arthur C. Clarke (Childhood’s End (1953)), Robert A. Heinlein (The Puppet Masters (1951)) under his control, science fiction started to get recognized.

“… science fiction began to gain status as serious fiction.” (Wikipedia, 2006).[5]

Also authors who were not initially interested in science fiction managed to add respectability to the genre with their works. Among these authors were Karel Čapek, Aldous Huxley, C.S. Lewis, Ray Bradbury, Kurt Vonnegut Jr.

The end of the golden age is signaled by authors writing for other magazines than Astounding, in order to have more freedom in their writing. It is the rise of the magazine Galaxy that is recognized as the final moment of the golden age of science fiction.

5 New Wave Science fiction

It was during the 1960s that science fiction acquired new dimensions. Influential works appeared which changed its development. Authors shifted to new ideas to enrich their writing. It is the period of the ‘New Wave’ science fiction.

Quite groundbreaking is the year 1960 when Kingsley Amis published his New Maps of Hell.

“…, a literary history and examination of the filed of science fiction. This serious attention from a mainstream, acceptable writer did a great deal of good, eventually, for the reputation of science fiction.” (Wikipedia, 2006). [6]

New Wave can be characterized as a period of a change. According to and its sources, authors during the 1960s started to experiment with the form of SF. Through their writing, they managed to connect SF with the mainstream literature and borrowed features from each other.

Authors were also taking an interest in the topics, which the older writers did not consider. Long avoided sexuality became a topic widely spread in science fiction works during this time. The most influential new wave work was Frank Herbert’s Dune (1965) and Robert A. Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land (1961). Heinlein managed to switch from the golden age style to the more complex style of the new wave SF. Other outstanding authors that deserve to be mentioned are Michael Moorcock who is also considered to be an influential figure of the 1960s. His famous works are The Final Programme (1968), A Cure for Cancer (1971), The English Assassin (1972), The Condition of Muzak (1977). Famous short story I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream (1967) written by Harlan Ellison. And of course the legendary Philip K. Dick with his legendary novels The Man in the High Castle (1962), Martian Time-Slip (1964), A Scanner Darkly (1977).

During the 1960s writers shifted their interest from magazines to books, which automatically meant a decline of magazines. Authors created their ideas in a novel length and paperback production became widely used.

According to Adam Roberts the New Wave period experienced two significant moments. One of them is the growth of authors of color the other is the rise of women authors, which ultimately led to a growth in popularity of the science fiction genre. Roberts also argues that it is not only literature and its literary works that attracted new readers to science fiction.

“But a more significant factor, in terms of the sheer numbers of people attracted to SF, has been TV and cinema.” (Roberts, A., 2006, p. 84).

The New Wave SF can undoubtedly be considered as the most flourishing time of SF, during which authors experimented with the genre and a variety of significant works came into existence. It is also a time when SF gained a noticeable number of readership.

“According to John Hunstington, …, it was not until the 1960s and what is called ‘New Wave SF’ that the genre became genuinely mass popular phenomenon.” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 80).

With the New Wave era of SF, science fiction literature started to take part in the popular culture, where its importance was growing stronger with time.

6 Era of Cyberpunk and new space opera

The next stage that ultimately follows the New Wave SF is the science fiction of the 1980s. It is the time of cyberpunk, which according to maintained the style of New Wave science fiction, but it created its own themes and style.

The influential year in the development of cyberpunk is the year 1984 when William Gibson published his masterpiece Neuromancer, for which he received both the Nebula Award and Hugo Award. During the era of cyberpunk, the whole society was affected by the coming trend of computers, technology itself.

Next to cyberpunk a new sub-genre of science fiction emerged from the traditional Space Opera. As it is stated by the New Space Opera featured with more realistic science, more detailed characters and it still used the epic settings from the original genre. Both genres cyberpunk and new space opera were widely preferred by writers during the 1980s and 1990s, and are even used during the present days.

There is more information provide on cyberpunk as a sub-genre of science fiction literature in chapter three of the thesis.

Contemporary SF and the Future SF are quite difficult to discuss. The contemporary SF is still much influenced by cyberpunk, which has widely spread since the 1980s. It even influenced media such as TV, cinema and therefore it was introduced to the mainstream culture as is stated by .

Both contemporary and future SF has come into a conflict. It is nicely portrayed by that the dividing line between science fiction and the rest of the literature is getting thinner. Now in the world of technology, we find works that were classified as science fiction, but now they could be considered a mainstream fiction. Also works that state what has actually come to pass are not surprising. It seems that the older works of science fiction have described the world we are living in now – the world of science fiction and therefore science fiction may loose its significance or interest in this process. Consequently it would be rash and difficult to predict the trend science fiction is going to take in the future.

7 Authors of Science Fiction

The list of authors writing (who were writing) science fiction is quite tremendous. There are some whose contributions should be remembered since they changed the course of science fiction. This chapter deals with several authors who considerably contributed to the world of science fiction and who do not deserve to be forgotten. The four authors presented are symbols of almost all development stages of science fiction literature. Their works are considered of high value and their presence in literature shaped the course of SF genre. Therefore the aim of the chapter is to provide a detailed background on SF authors whose writing influenced the sphere of SF literature to a great extent. The information presented in the current chapter is used from .

8 Herbert George Wells

Herbert George Wells was born in Bromley, Kent in the year 1866 and died in London in the year 1946. Wells had a troublesome youth, which also led him to writing. Most of his inspiration for his SF books Wells acquired, was from Jules Verne. It was in the year 1893, when he became fully interested in writing. Wells’ first debut was The Time Machine (1895), which was followed by The Island of Dr. Moreau (1896), The Invisible Man (1897) and The War of the Worlds (1898) all of which were filmed.

The latter book is now of a great significance, since it was recently directed by Steven Spielberg. The War of the Worlds is a book about a Martian invasion who came to London with only one aim and that is to eradicate the human nation. Later in the year 1938 Orson Wells broadcasted The War of the Worlds, which caused panic in the United States.

H. G. Wells was not only a writer of science fiction, although without any doubt the contribution made by him is sometimes undervalued. He also wrote non-fiction. The Outline of History (1920), A Short History of the World (1922), The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind (1931).

Throughout his life Wells could be characterized as a novelist, historian and socialist. He was also a president of the International PoetsEssayistsNovelists Club.

The scope of Wells’ influence in the world of science fiction is enormous. The topics he introduced (Martian invasion, time travel …) were and are used still today by some authors. There is no doubt about his classification as a pioneer of science fiction.

9 Robert Anson Heinlein

Robert Anson Heinlein was one of the most extraordinary SF writers ever living. He was born in Missouri, United States in 1907. During his life he joined Navy where he gained much experience which we can find also in his books. Later he was discharged due to tuberculosis. He tried to join Navy again, but without success. Three wives, Heinlein married throughout his life had an enormous impact on his writing.

Heinlein turned to writing SF in 1938 in order to pay off his mortgage. His stories were published in the magazine Astounding that was edited by John W. Campbell at that time. With Isaac Asimov, Heinlein belongs to one of the most successful SF writers of the golden age. One of his first novels is Rocket Ship Galileo (1947) which belongs to a children’s science fiction. In the year 1959 he produced Starship Troopers which also made it to a movie. For this controversial book he received a Hugo Award. The best know novel, which is also regarded by some as Heinlein’s masterpiece is Stranger in a Strange Land (1961). It is also the bestselling science fiction ever published. The book portrays ideas as counterculture, organized religion and sexual freedom. Another fine example of science fiction written by Heinlein is a book Moon is a Harsh Mistress (1966). It pictures a battle of independence carried out by the lunar colonies. Other not as much known books are Glory Road (1963), I Will Fear No Evil (1971) and Cat Who Walks Through Walls (1985).

According to , Heinlein was one of the most controversial authors of SF, who with Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke formed the group Big Three of science fiction. In his writing he analyzed social themes such as: radical individualism, libertarianism, religion, aspects of emotional and physical love. His contribution was left unnoticed and he was awarded seven Hugo Awards and one Grand Master Award for lifetime achievement. It was then in the year 1988 that he died in his sleep.

10 Isaac Asimov

Isaac Asimov also a member of the group Big Three of science fiction. Born in Petrovichi, Russia in the year 1920. At the age of three his family and he emigrated to United States. As a talented child he managed to read before he entered school. During his childhood he spent most of his time in library reading books. Throughout his life he received a professor degree.

Asimov started his writing career as a SF writer for the pulp magazines and through his writing he received a reputation for being one of the most influential writers of the golden age of SF. Among the best stories written during golden age is a story Nightfall (1941), which is also considered by some as the best SF story of all time. During 1940s he began to write his Foundation stories, which made it to a trilogy: Foundation (1951), Foundation and Empire (1952), Second Foundation (1953) that deal with an interstellar empire in the future. Later he added Foundation’s Edge (1982), Foundation and Earth (1986), Prelude to Foundation (1988) and Forward the Foundation (1992).

Among his other influential works belong The Gods Themselves (1972) and the Robot stories, where he included The Three Laws of Robotics: (i) A robot may not injure a human being, or through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm; (ii) A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law; (iii) A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.

Most of his Robot stories are collected in a book I, Robot (1950) and The Rest of the Robots (1964). Among his Robot stories, we may find SF mystery books such as The Caves of Steel (1954) and The Naked Sun (1957).

Besides SF stories Asimov was interested in writing about history. The well known history books written by him are The Greeks: A Great Adventure (1965), The Roman Republic (1966) and The Roman Empire (1967). Asimov also wrote non-fiction, but mostly on science topics.

During his life Asimov engaged several themes in his stories. Those themes are paternalism, social oppression, and rational thought and their presence is evident in his mystery SF stories. Asimov’s writing was also left unnoticed and he also received Hugo and Nebula award for his writing. Books written by Asimov are by some considered of great influence and he is often praised as a giant in a world of science fiction whose reign ended in the year 1992 when he died.

11 Philip Kindred Dick

Philip Kindred Dick is one of the most distinguished SF writers. He was born Chicago, Illinois 1929. His twin sister died only in few weeks later. This event affected Dick, which is also visible in his writing. During his life, Dick was praised by his colleagues, but not by the literary public. This of course changed after his death, when several of his stories made it into movies. Even now his stories do not lack the interest they roused among the SF writers during his life.

Dick became full-time writer during 1950’s when some of his stories were published in pulp magazines. He often suffered from financial crisis, which he tried to change through his writing. The first published novel was Solar Lottery (1955). The Man in the High Castle (1962) brought him recognition. Other quite well known novels are Martian Time Slip (1964), Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968) – a movie Blade Runner was based on this novel, Ubik (1969) and A Scanner Darkly (1977). Dick also wrote short stories, amongst the well known are Impostor (1953), Paycheck (1953), Minority Report (1956), We Can Remember It For You Wholesale (1966), Faith of our Fathers (1967).

Dick experienced several visions and the power of recurrent dreams during his life. He also stated that he lived a double life. All his states-of-mind are visible in his stories, where the focus was on reality/sudden realization of reality, humanity and sociology. His writing came to an end in the year 1982 when Dick died of a heart failure.

SPeculative Fiction

When studying science fiction, a term speculative fiction occurs in various theoretical texts frequently. Speculative fiction as such is a fiction consisting of several overlapping genres. These genres are closely related and influence one another. Among these genres we rate science fiction, fantasy fiction, supernatural horror, alternative history and magic realism. It is therefore quite essential to discuss the relationship between science fiction and other speculative genres in order to acquire a better understanding of the genre SF, to eliminate the confusion they create and enable readers to make distinction between them. This chapter focuses on discussing the genre fantasy, sub-genre cyberpunk and dystopia as in contrast to science fiction.

1 Science fiction and Fantasy

In order to lay distinct borders between science and fantasy fiction, a definition is required. To provide the definition of fantasy, is less challenging that to do the same with SF. In this case even a layman may present a correct definition that would be able to draw a visible line between SF and fantasy. Such definition could be stated as: Fantasy, as a sub-genre of literature represents a kind of writing where author’s imagination sets the plot of a story into a world (fantasy world), which does not resemble the author’s own world. It is a world of various characters or creatures, where the use of magic or any kind of unexplainable power is used. This definition is quite straight-forward and it is not so distinct from those that are provided by more valuable sources. According to C. Hugh Holman, William Harmon and their A Handbook to Literature:

“… fantasy is usually employed to designate a conscious breaking free from reality. Te term is applied to a work that takes place in a nonexistent and unreal world, such as fairyland, or concerns incredible and unreal characters, …”

(Holman, C. H. & W. Harmon, 1986, p. 198).

As we may see, these two definitions presented so far are of the same kind. They both see fantasy fiction set in an obviously distinct world, where the reader encounters characters of various kinds and where some element of supernatural is present. By providing other definitions (e.g. ), the similarities revealed, will be again supported, therefore we can assume that fantasy fiction and its definition does not have so many obstacles tied to it as does science fiction.

As the definition of fantasy has been laid down, the border between fantasy and SF can be made visible. Again from the layman’s point of view the main distinct feature between science and fantasy fiction is rooted in the name of the genres. The world in fantasy is based on some kind of supernatural force. It represents an unknown element that has not been explained in that particular world and is taken for granted. On the other hand a science fiction world is based on laws of science and everything else is explained and governed by them.

To come up with a more reliable distinction, a definition provided by Darko Suvin may be used. Once again Suvin believes that science fiction is “the literature of cognitive estrangement” (2004, p. 372). The element of estrangement is a significant part, both in SF and fantasy fiction. On the other hand the element of cognition is an attribute that creates the border between science and fantasy fiction. Suvin argues that fantasy portrays the elements it includes from the point of supernatural, where science fiction obeys the rules of cognition.

“As a literary genre, SF is just as opposed to supernatural estrangement as to empiricism (naturalism).” (Suvin, D., 2004, p. 375).

Suvin’s suggestion seems to be correct. Anything in the world of fantasy is possible. The limit is only set by the author’s imagination. On the other hand, the reality in SF world is based on scientific facts not on imagination. Also the fantasy world, the world without boundaries could never represent our own, a world where we live. SF world is of the opposite quality. It could easily represent our world, since everything is based on the laws of science.

To sum up Suvin’s ideas, it is the element of cognition that plays an important part in the process of distinction between the two genres. Cognition suggests (as Suvin agrees) that the imagination in fantasy literature is not used (in a cognitive sense) in order to explain the qualities of reality as it is done in SF literature.

There is also a different point of view on the distinction between these two genres presented by SF writer Philip K. Dick. He believes that such a thing as a border line between science and fantasy literature does not exist. In order to support his idea, he presents a speculation. Dick’s speculation is presented by using mutants (characters) from a book More than Human written by Theodore Sturgeon. He states, that a reader can treat this book as a fantasy or science fiction. This distinction is based on the reader’s assumption of the mutants. When the reader believes that such creatures could exist, he treats Sturgeon’s book as SF. On the other hand, if he believes in the opposite (such characters do not exist and could not exist), then he is reading a fantasy novel. Dick continues on stating that fantasy is concerned with a phenomenon that majority of us consider as impossible. Science fiction on the other hand includes a phenomenon that could take place under the proper conditions. The assumption that Dick believes is only based on the subjective opinion of the reader and the author.

The influence science and fantasy fiction have on each other is evident. It may be observed, when concerned with the classification of fantasy subgenres. Among them, a subgenre science fantasy is present. This subgenre emerged as a connection of both SF and fantasy. The setting in this genre is similar to the one of SF story but with visible elements containing the essence of magic rather than of science. The best example of science fantasy story is George Lucas’ Star Wars.

Fantasy fiction as a genre is quite prolific throughout its existence and it was after J. R. R. Tolkien (significant representative) published his trilogy The Lord of the Rings, fantasy gained wider readership and was recognized by the literary critics. Other authors worth to mention are William Morris, C. S. Lewis and his Chronicles of Narnia, Robert E. Howard, Clark Ashton Smith, Ursula K. Le Guin.

Science fiction and fantasy represent two genres of literature that are at the same time so closely connected and so far away from each other. The influence they brought upon each other is unquestionable and it is visible in several either SF or fantasy novels. Therefore it is not striking to find them both grouped in a collection of genres called speculative fiction where they can share their similarities and distinctions.

2 Science Fiction in relation to Cyberpunk

The phenomenon of cyberpunk emerged during the 1980’s and since then it influenced almost all aspects of the world. The features of cyberpunk are now visible not only in literature, but also in cinematography, fashion, music and much more. Throughout its existence it gained such influence that the world of today resembles a version of cyberpunk. Current stage of science fiction literature is characterized as an era of cyberpunk. The current part of the chapter will provide information on cyberpunk, covering the themes occurring in cyberpunk literature, represent its characteristic features and introduce significant authors and their works.

The term cyberpunk, falls out of the ordinary literary terms. Its features and their presence in our lives gained strength and invulnerability not only in the world of literature.

The origin of cyberpunk goes back to a year 1984 when William Gibson wrote his masterpiece Neuromancer. The kind of literature he produced was later addressed as cyberpunk. A Dictionary of Literary Terms characterized cyberpunk as a “sub-species of science fiction” (1998, p. 200). Then continues on defining the words of which cyberpunk consists of. Cyber / cybernetics connote technological communication and study connections between the living bodies and the world of technology.

According to , cyberpunk is characterized as a sub-genre of science fiction, which possesses features of dystopian literature. It is the kind of science fiction that focuses on advanced technology but considers different aspects of technology. Todd English[7] elaborated on this idea. He proclaims that cyberpunk not like ordinary SF does not speculates about the possibilities of the technology. It portrays the technology as a part of the world and is not interested in speculating about the positive or negative changes the technology has made. Typical cyberpunk fiction also includes the elements such as: breakdown in social order, sense of a rebellion, corruption of governments, surveillance technology, failing of corporations, virtual worlds, etc. states that the protagonists of cyberpunk often represent hackers who are displayed as lone heroes fighting for justice. They are the normal people found in an extraordinary situation who do not seek adventure and are often manipulated or used in the end.

There is one term that is associated with cyberpunk and it is of a great significance in almost any cyberpunk novel. The term cyberspace may be defined as Adam Roberts puts it:

“Cyberspace is the notional space of the internet and virtual reality, a computer-generated environment into which human beings can enter through a computer or a virtual-reality suit.” (Roberts, A., 2000, p. 187).

Through cyberspace, cyberpunk has created a new dimension, which introduced a new theme, now hugely considered in cyberpunk novels. It represents the conflict of the actual and virtual reality. It is the connection of a human brain into a computer generated world where the possibilities are limitless. There are novels where the plot takes place mostly in the cyberspace. Among the best examples of a cyberpunk-cyberspace story is the movie trilogy The Matrix, which will be analyzed in later chapters.

Since the introduction of cyberpunk the number of authors interested in writing cyberpunk increased quite rapidly. The ones worth to mention are William Gibson with his notorious Neuromancer (1984), Bruce Sterling and his Mirrorshades: A Cyberpunk Anthology (1986), John Shirley’s A Song Called Youth aka. Eclipse Trilogy (1985-1990), Rudy Rucker with his Ware Tetralogy (1982-2000) and Lewis Shiner’s Glimpses (1993). These are the authors who influenced the way cyberpunk took and shaped to the form it has now.

During the development of cyberpunk several other, in some ways different sub-genres of SF emerged. All of them influenced by cyberpunk, took its core features and stretched them to justify their means. Cyberprep as stated above is a sub-genre of SF and also assumes the importance of technology, but the world is portrayed as a happy one, not dangerous or gritty. Main representative is Iain Bank’s The State of Art (1989). Biopunk is a sub-genre of SF, focuses more on biology rather than on technology. A well-known biopunk author is S. Andrew Swan and his Moreau Series (1993-1999). The term postcyberpunk was first used to address Neal Stephenson’s Snow Crash (1992). It is also a sub-genre of SF which emerged from cyberpunk. The plot is much more concerned with the characters trying to improve the society and the way of life. It also has a more realistic description of computers. The final sub-genre of SF is steampunk. This fiction is set in the world of our past, with the focus on technology. In steampunk the technological devices are constructed through the science of that particular time. It is also influenced by cyberpunk since it possesses its attitudes towards authority and human nature. The main representatives are K. W. Jeter’s Morlock Night (1979) and William Gibson & Bruce Sterling’s The Difference Engine (1992).

The scope of cyberpunk is enormous. Not even in literary world but also in cinematography (Blade Runner directed by Ridley Scott), music, fashion and more. There is no other genre of literature that has been so influential in so many aspects of life. Through this influence cyberpunk gained power that enables it to take a new form, which will guide the course of the science fiction in the future.

3 Dystopia in Science Fiction

The two following literary kinds (science fiction and utopia) are undoubtedly closely connected and often referred to by those concerned with science fiction as a literary genre. Before the emergence of science fiction, there were several attempts to recreate Thomas More’s idea, but it was during the end of the 19th century, when science fiction and utopia merged in order to include utopia into contemporary literature. The following text will discuss the influence of dystopian features in SF literature.

As it is introduced in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory written by J. A. Cuddon, utopia is coined by Sir Thomas More in his book Utopia (1516). The word is of a Greek origin, consisting of two words ‘ou’ meaning ‘not’ and ‘topos’ meaning a ‘place’, therefore the result is ‘no place’. The whole concept of utopia is also in relation with a word eutopia, meaning a good place. To sum up the main idea of the word, utopia lies in pursuit to create a better place, where everything is well, without death or suffering and etc. but also in a failure of human’s efforts to do so.

The most noteworthy pre-science fictional utopias are those written by Thomas More and Jonathan Swift (Gulliver’s Travels (1726)). The turning point in the evolution of utopia is by some associated with the emergence of science fiction.

According to Carl Freedman who studied the genre of science fiction in relation with utopia:

“… utopia tends to function more strongly in the more critical and novelistic genre of science fiction than it the older genre of the literary utopia, which necessarily lacks novelistic resources.” (Freedman, C., 2000, p. 80).

Freedman argues that among the literary figures, who were the most influential in the development of genre utopia is H. G. Wells. Based on his studies, Freedman considers Wells to be “the second founder of science fiction” (2000, p. 82), who managed to lay down several forms between SF and utopia that will be put into use by authors in the future.

Authors who were concerned with utopia and are worth to mention are: Ursula Le Guin and her The Dispossessed (1974), Samuel Delany’s Stars in My Pocket Like Grains of Sand (1984) and Theodore Sturgeon’s Venus Plus X (1960).

Since the invention of the term utopia, there were several attempts to create it. As A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory mentions, the failure of the attempts resulted in the originating of the term dystopia. Dystopia is often regarded as the opposite of utopia, but this may not be a correct assumption. According to C. Hugh Holman and William Harmon dystopia is:

“Literally ‘bad place’. The term is applied to accounts of imaginary worlds, usually in the future, in which present tendencies are carried out to their intensely unpleasant culminations.” (Holman, C. H. & W. Harmon, 1986, p. 162).

The definition presented above is quite similar to the one presented by . It suggests that the word dystopia is associated with John Stuart Mill, who considered it simply as bad (either things or places), rather than as being opposite of utopia.

As Holman and Harmon’s definition states, dystopian worlds are usually set in the future. This assumption brings us closer to the literary genre of SF, since it is closely related to the future and technology. In utopian or dystopian works, the ‘better’ society is usually developed by the use of technology, but it often fails to. It is often the cover of the society that misleads us into believing that the society created is utopian. Only after looking deep inside, the real truth is revealed. The main features of dystopian fiction are (used from ): some kind of a cover story that people are made to believe in; corporations rule over the society/world; inventions of technology, which might resemble a tool enabling the rulers to keep order in a society; protagonists who are unable to follow the ‘accepted’ norms of the ‘better’ society; absolute surveillance of the people living in the society; military force as a source of power; a state figure, who everyone in the society worships; caste system and more.

During the last couple years, dystopia gained on influence in the literary or film industry sphere. It has been accepted and widely used by science fiction, cyberpunk authors or movie script writers, who use it in order to portray our future world according to their visions. Among the best know dystopian authors belong Aldous Huxley and his Brave New World (1932), George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968), William Gibson’s Neuromancer (1984) and Robert A. Heinlein’s Starship Troopers (1959).

The power of utopia and dystopia in science fiction literature is enormous. SF writers consider them as a number one source in their writings, in order to draw a picture, how our society may look like in the near future. On the other hand, utopia and dystopia are in some way also indebted to SF, since only through the genre of SF literature, dystopia and utopia could flourish and uncover the new themes and forms.

Science Fiction and Postmodernism

In order to understand the world of science fiction better, and the ideas authors are/were trying to convey in their works, it is essential to explore the cultural changes of the world and the influence these changes brought to us. Throughout the time, the mankind lived through several cultural movements. Among these movements there is one closely related to the evolution of SF genre and that is Postmodernism. Postmodernism influenced humankind in various spheres of life, and none of them were left intact – philosophy, politics, architecture, art, literature, music and etc. The current chapter presents postmodernism as a cultural movement, introduces its influential figures and characterizes its features. The later part of the chapter is concerned with popular culture and inclusion of SF into it.

According to Stuart Sim and his The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism, postmodernism is a form of skepticism:

“… skepticism about authority, received wisdom, cultural and political norms, etc.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 3).

Sim continues on explaining the term skepticism. He sees it as a negative feature, which is trying to undermine the theories which have uncovered the way towards ultimate truth and is opposed to anything as being a part of the ultimate truth. Stuart Sim continues on presenting the characteristics postmodernism

“…postmodernism is to be regarded as a rejection of many, if not most, of the cultural certainties on which life in the West has been structured over the last couple of centuries.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. vii).

Both these quotations introduced by Sim are in comparison to the definition provided by , quite similar. suggests that to come up with a definition of postmodernism is not an easy task. It is characterized as a form of criticism of ultimate truths and grand narratives. In order to understand the whole concept of postmodernism more deeply, it is vital to study modernism from which postmodernism emerged or is in reaction to it.

While studying postmodernism, the term grand narrative often occurs. The term is closely related to the whole concept of postmodernism and it will be used in analysis provided by later chapter, therefore it is vital to characterize it. In Sim’s book they are given the name and explanation of universal theories. also considers other name of grand narrative and that is of metanarrative.

“… a metanarrative, is a grand overarching account, or all-encompassing story, which is thought to give order to the historical record.” (Wikipedia, 2006).[8]

The use of the term grand narrative is closely related to Jean-François Lyotard. It is because of his book The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (1979) that he became the leading figure in the theoretical field of postmodernism. Lyotard argues that:

“… we should reject the ‘grand narratives’ … of Western culture because they have now lost all their credibility seems to sum up the ethos of postmodernism, with its disdain for authority in all its many disguises.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 3).

According to Sim, Lyotard sees that the power of the world lies in knowledge and he believes that knowledge is communicated through a narrative where he goes on arguing against the so called grand narratives. He does not criticize the narratives themselves. It is the theory behind the narratives that controls them and claims to have a possession of the ultimate truth. This approach is authoritarian and Lyotard strongly opposes it. Therefore he introduces little narratives, which will be later introduced in the analysis provided by later chapter. They represent a final result he was searching for. Lyotard thinks of the little narratives as of:

“… the most inventive way of disseminating, and creating, knowledge, and that they help to break down the monopoly traditionally exercised by grand narratives.”

(Sim, S., 2001, p. 9).

To overcome the force of grand narratives, Sim introduces Lyotard’s advice, who suggests to stop believing in them, “in which case, they will be assumed to wither away” (2001, p. 9). He continues on presenting a solution on how to present knowledge without the help of grand narratives, in order to let others accept it as truthful. What he suggests is a system of antifoundationalism:

“… a rejection of the idea that there are foundations to our system of thought, or belief, that lie beyond question, and that are necessary to the business of making value judgments.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 9 -10).

Another important figure of postmodernism is Jean Baudrillard. Baudrillard’s introduction in the current chapter is vital, since his philosophies represent a base of an analysis introduced later in the thesis. He introduced a term that is now widely used during postmodernist’s discussions. By the word simulacra, Baudrillard sees the postmodern world, where one is not able to differentiate between the reality and simulation.

“Simulacra represented nothing but themselves: there was no other reality to which they referred.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 11).

He went on and argued that the Gulf War did not take place and was a mere simulation. This point of view of course did not stay unseen and suffered a great deal of criticism.

Another controversial idea introduced in Seduction (1979) was that systems of any kind should not be opposed but seduced. This idea called in a large amount of criticism from feminists who argue that the word seduction encourages sexual stereotypes.

Baudrillard defines postmodernism in the terms of simulacra and simulation.

“ … Baudrillard conceives postmodernism as an endless circulation of signs from which any sense of reality has fallen away, a world in which there are simulations and only simulations.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 20).

He continues on explaining the use of the signs. First they represented reality, later they were related to signs which referred to reality and the last postmodern vision of signs is that, they have nothing to do with the real, and they are even more real than reality itself. Baudrillard names them hyperreal as the last form signs can take.

1 Postmodern cinema and literature

As mentioned above postmodernism influenced all spheres of our culture. Among those, which are closely related to science fiction are literature and cinema. Since science fiction is both manifested through the movies which are now becoming a leading media for representing SF ideas and the last to mention are books, which cannot fully satisfy the visual criteria.

The cinema has undergone several changes throughout its development. The most visible ones acquired during the postmodernist era are the following.

As Sim argues in his book, film theory tried to put the spectator in the world surrounded by capitalism, patriarchy and heterosexuality. The first kind of movies Sim mentions are those influenced by the Second World War. Other movies are film noir, films influenced by the Vietnam War (Apocalypse Now (1979), Taxi Driver (1976)) and conspiracy films (All the President’s Men (1976)). The last kind of films was influenced by paranoia and the following sentence introduced by Sim confirms this:

“You mean there’s a CIA inside the CIA?” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 102).

In later parts of his book, Sim continues to characterize the themes that are associated with the postmodern cinema. He argues for the influence of America and its products but in order to satisfy the global demand the American film needs to reduce the cultural specificity and allow a form a difference. By difference Sim means “the difference within the structure of the text” (2001, p. 103) and “visibility of representations of difference within the play of the text” (2001, p. 103).

After defining the major themes in postmodern cinema, Sim concentrates on providing the typical features. The first and most obvious one is that of difference which plays a crucial part. It is based on introducing new forms of otherness. The next feature defining the real character of postmodern cinema is a transmutation of otherness. An example is provided from the movie Blade Runner (1982) where humans are set against cyborgs. A feature of the female corpse is also of a great significance. It is usually stripped from the weight of a sexual difference and according to Sim it represents the loss of distance in postmodern cinema. This feature is often visible in some cyberpunk novels. The last feature introduced conveys the notion of time and with the abolition of the limit of time. This abolition also includes cheating the death. In this essence Philip K. Dick’s Minority Report may be considered to convey the feature of cheating the death, since the work deals with foreseeing the crime scene or in other words, preventing people from dying.

All the features mentioned above resemble a shift in a structure of the cinema, which may be associated with the influence of postmodernism.

Literature or postmodern literature as well as cinematography experienced several impacts in a form of postmodern influences. There is however a wild discussion about the date when postmodern literature came into life. According to Stuart Sim a period of time around the year 1960 is considered to be the time when postmodernist writing appeared. On the other hand considers the death of Irish novelist James Joyce (1941) as a rough time-point when postmodern literature started to be recognized.

During the time of postmodernist writing several authors with their works became recognized by the public. If we are to discuss the variety of postmodern authors, it is essential to mention as Sim does, that the fiction during the postmodern era is an international phenomenon. There might be a misunderstanding about that the postmodern fiction is only a matter of American authors since the list representing them is quite long (William Burroughs, Kurt Vonnegut, …). Among the non-American authors who are considered to be of great influence are Stanislaw Lem (Poland), Umberto Eco (Italy) and more.

Postmodernism as a cultural movement brought several changes that had to mirror in the way of writing and also in the ideas authors adapted. Sim lists several that were the most dominant ones and continues on explaining them.

“Some of the dominant features of … postmodernist fiction include: temporal disorder; the erosion of the sense of time; a pervasive and pointless use of pastiche; a foregrounding of words as fragmenting material signs; the loose association of ideas; paranoia; and vicious circles, or a loss of distinction between logically separate levels of discourse.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 123).

All the features listed above arose from the postmodernist’s core and can be identified in several works of not only science fiction authors. The element of paranoia is quite dominant in several SF and cyberpunk novels. Also several authors experienced with the time or to be more specific with the timeline of their history. This is similar with the feature of temporal disorder.

The first feature mentioned above is the feature of temporal disorder. Here Sim focuses on the destabilizing convention of postmodernism. He strongly points out the term of anachronism which distorts the set order by series of “inconsistencies of detail and setting” (2001, p. 124). The time in postmodern writing does not present an already set order. Through postmodern fiction, the present or the past is disrupted.

Another feature presented was pastiche. Sim quotes Frederic Jameson who believed:

“… the writers and artists of the present day will no longer be able to invent new styles and worlds … only a limited number of combinations are possible; the most unique ones have been thought of already.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 125).

Jameson’s quotation absolutely satisfies the whole philosophy of postmodernism. He simply believes that there is a problem to produce anything original, not in the form or style but original in the sense – not seen or used before. The presence of pastiche is also quite visible in SF.

Fragmentation represents another postmodernist feature in fiction. As it is normal in postmodern thinking, authors are against any grand conventions or norms. Therefore the norms of writing are not followed and authors prefer different ways of structuring the narratives. Sim provides several examples. The first one is an example of multiple endings and the other one is a division of texts into fragments with the use of symbols, numbers, titles, spaces.

The next feature mentioned is the looseness of association. According to Sim authors experience with the production and perception of texts. They disrupt them by applying changes in the composition process. Two examples are taken from William Burroughs who used the cut-up and fold-in form in writing.

The feature of paranoia deserves also an attention, since it is the most clear one and easily definable in the text. It is a:

“… threat of total engulfment by somebody else’s system, is keenly felt by many of the dramatic personae of postmodernist fiction.” (Sim, S., 2001, p. 129).

Paranoia as such, absolutely belongs to the postmodern culture, since the impact of Cold War and what people experienced left some implications on them. There are several forms of paranoia that takes place in the postmodernist fiction. Sim illustrates the fear of an external force (society), obstruction caused by another individual or a place and conspiracy against someone or something.

The last feature mentioned by Sim is Vicious Circles. By the term he means an indefinableness of the world and the writer’s text. This situation occurs when the author himself or a historical figure appears in the text. By Vicious Circles, Sim believes in the fusion of the world and the text. Reader is caught in a contradiction. He cannot tell the difference from the world and the fiction.

The features of postmodernist writing provided by are quite similar to Sim’s. It states that postmodern literature explores the subjectivism. It is concerned with the character development and its inner states-of-consciousness. The process of fragmentation is also mentioned and it is aimed at the narrative and the development of characters.

also stresses the influence of computers and how they affected the whole cultural movement and the shape their effects had on literature. The result was an emergence of several literary genres/sub-genres. Postmodern literature expanded with cyberpunk, excrement literature, electronic literature, hypertext literature.

All the elements that define postmodernism are visible in all spheres of life that postmodernism has not left intact. Some (among them S. Sim) argue for the representation of postmodernism as a mental illness. It may be portrayed on the example based on the relationship of postmodernism and science fiction. They both might represent a hemisphere of a human brain confronting with each other. The result of their strike are the features of temporal disorder, looseness of association, paranoia, which are present in both of them. Through their strike they complete, characterize each other and take on the forms they have now.

2 Science Fiction and Popular Culture

The position, science fiction genre occupies in the world of literature now, has undergone a series of changes since its beginnings. SF shifted from a position of a total outsider, often criticized by the literary critics, to a true equal partner of a mainstream literature. Through this classification shift, science fiction managed to enter the world of popular culture. The aim of the chapter is to discuss the influence of popular culture on SF literature and the course of SF dictated by the mass demands.

In order to continue portraying the connection of SF genre into the sphere of popular culture, its definition may be presented. According to :

“Popular culture, or pop culture, is the vernacular (people’s) culture that prevails in any given society. The content of popular culture is determined by the daily interactions, needs and desires, and cultural ‘moments’ that make up the everyday lives of the mainstream.” (Wikipedia, 2006).[9]

The definition is quite straightforward. The spectrum popular culture covers is enormous and absorbs any activities from all aspects of our lives. As suggests, today’s popular culture (in the postmodern era) is strongly influenced by mass production and mass consumerism. Products emphasized by the companies, are appealing to a wide audience, which constitutes the base of the popular culture today. These products and the culture itself are also affected by the growth in technology and science. It is this era of our lives, so closely similar to the stories of SF, where the technology and science play a crucial part, and it is also through this technological power that SF is recognized and included into the popular culture.

The process of entering SF in the popular genre was studied by Brian McHale. In his extract POSTcyberMODERNpunkISM, McHale uses a book Columbia Literary History of the United States (1988), where he refers to Larry McCaffery who considers SF as an influential genre of the contemporary fiction and that SF sets the direction of recent American fiction. McHale continues on explaining the sudden acceptance of SF. In order to explain the relationship between SF and mainstream fiction, McHale points out to the years between 1920s and 1940s, when these two genres existed in isolation from each other. He sees the period of 1950s as a turning point. In this time, SF writers tried to improve the status of SF, by applying stylistic norms of mainstream fiction and some mainstream writers adopted their new norms from SF. McHale mentions R. H. Heinlein, I. Asimov, T. Sturgeon, A. C. Clarke from the SF side and N. Shute, W. Tevis from the mainstream fiction side.

Another turning point in the acceptance of SF is the time during the 1960s and the early 1970s. This is a period of a New Wave SF. During this time SF interacted with the postmodernist mainstream fiction. However this interaction was of a different character. McHale refers to it as a regressive interaction, since the New Wave SF absorbed the norms of modernist fiction during the years of 1920’s and 1930s and the postmodernist mainstream fiction absorbed the norms of the early SF. It was not a current interaction of the themes from both genres. This came into existence during 1970s when current themes were adapted by both SF and postmodernist mainstream fiction. Names like Philip K. Dick (Ubik (1969)), Samuel R. Delany (Dhalgren (1974), Triton (1976)) are worth to be mentioned. There is one more turning point mentioned by McHale. It took place during 1980s, and he refers to the interaction as “a feedback loop” (2000, p. 250). What happened during this interaction is that SF adopted some already science-fictionized postmodernist features and postmodern fiction adopted features already postmodernized SF. The process of features adaptation resulted in recognition of SF literary genre and its inclusion in popular culture. The names of W. Burroughs and T. R. Pynchon are of a great significance during this era of the feedback loop interaction.

It is during these three eras of the development of the SF genre, that the process of involvement into popular culture took place. The process of acceptance of SF into the mainstream fiction became a reality when booth SF and the fiction of the mainstream started to adapt each other features into their works.

Another theory may be presented to illustrate, how SF literature became part of the popular culture today. The point of this theory is to portray a connection between the SF in cinema and SF in literature. It all refers to the growing influence of film industry in popular culture. Films as such became the final products of the mass production and consumption. Since they appeal to a broad audience, (according to ) filmmakers are trying to maximize their profits by emphasizing their appeal. During our era of technology and science, filmmakers shifted their interest towards SF, to develop a SF movie. As any unbiased movie fan may notice, the genre of SF in the film industry has gained on influence. When we look back, it started as a harmless film genre. A movie noteworthy is Blade Runner (1982). But now the list of movies that are running in the cinemas during these couple years is quite long. The recent ones are Paycheck (2003), I, Robot (2004), The War of the Worlds (2005).

It is through these movies (mostly based on a SF book), that SF literature is recognized by a viewer. The viewer is compelled to find out more about the movie itself and therefore reaches for a book. Since there are more and more movies based on books, more and more books are explored by the people. By the growing number of movies, the appeal of SF literature is growing and the postmodernist industries again in pursuit of maximizing their profits emphasize the appeal of SF books.

It is through this process of a movie appeal to a book appeal that science fiction literature became recognized by the literary public, achieved a certain level of dominance and as a result, became a part of the popular culture today.

The relationship between SF and popular culture is of a specific kind. As it is suggested by only the broad appeal items dominate popular culture, and those can be considered as part of it. Throughout the development of SF literature, it was not considered dominant but the opposite, the outsider. It was only after the year 1950, with the influence of postmodernism and film industry, that SF literature started to gain more respectability and acceptance by the mainstream literature. It shifted from the outsider to a dominant element of popular culture through which science fiction literature might acquire a new course dictated by the mass consumerism.

Neuromancer and The Matrix: features of postmodernism

Current chapter will discuss the influence of postmodernism, highlight its features in a notorious cyberpunk movie with the help provided by a novel that is often characterized as a first comer of its genre. The former one is a cult movie The Matrix (1999), which was able to uncover several obvious postmodern elements. The latter one represents a cyberpunk novel, written by William Gibson, Neuromancer (1984). The presence of this book is quite crucial in the following analysis, since the ideas and the overall philosophy have been borrowed by the Larry and Andy Wachowski (the directors of the movie) in their movie in order to form the base philosophy. Neuromancer may be therefore classified as their source of inspiration and during the analysis, the similarities that exist between these two works will be revealed.

1 Introduction to The Matrix and Neuromancer

Before presenting the analysis, a short introduction to the movie and the book is required, since an uninterested reader may not have come across them.

Neuromancer, as it was mentioned in previous chapters of the thesis, is a cyberpunk novel written by William Gibson. Gibson, as the father of cyberpunk first introduced the terms cyberspace and virtual reality. The plot of the book is set some time in the future, where the world is governed by large corporations, hiring Yakuza, Japanese fighting soldiers. The main character called Case is a computer-cowboy or in other words hacker, whose job was to hack into the matrix, a virtual cyberspace of computer data, to obtain crucial information for his employers. Since Case double-crossed his employers, they managed to damage his neural system, so it was impossible for him to jack into the matrix again. After this incident, Case became so-called middle-man, with a reputation being able to obtain anything for anyone willing to pay. Later, Case is brought to Armitage, an ex-special forces officer by Molly a razor-girl who undergone several body modifications. Armitage promises to cure Case’s neural system, making him able to jack into the matrix again, if he will agree to join him. Since Case’s partial addiction to the matrix, he accepts the offer and is willing to do the job. Molly and Case form an alliance and try to investigate Armitage and the one who is giving him orders. Throughout the book, Case and his team is asked to do several jobs. They need to manage to get hold of a consciousness of McCoy Pauley, a computer jockey and Case’s former mentor. The next person who will help them in their job is Peter Riviera, a drug addict and a psychopath, who can perform hallucinations on people, so they see what he wants them to see. Later on Case and Molly discover that Armitage or a colonel Willis Corto is given orders by Wintermute, an AI (artificial intelligence). Its aim is to break free from a Tessier-Ashpool, a family clan, where Wintermute and another AI called Neuromancer form an ICE – intrusion countermeasures electronics. Case, with the consciousness of Pauley McCoy, alias Flatline Dixie, manage to execute a military virus, and with its help manage to set Wintermute free from the T-A ICE. Case and Molly are paid for their jobs, Flatline Dixie is given what he was promised, Peter Riviera killed also with Armitage and Wintermute becomes part of the matrix, or the matrix itself.

The next work is the movie The Matrix, which may be thought as a step-brother to Neuromancer, because of their overlap in various parts, but a reader should be aware that they are not as similar as the first glance might suggest. The plot of the movie is also set in the future, when the real world is devastated after a struggle between the humans and the machines. During the movie, characters are involved in two quite distinct worlds. One, being the real, where people live deep in the earth, since after the war, the world outside is devastated and full of fierce full machines, programmed to kill human beings and to destroy their only city. The main character is a hacker Neo, or the chosen One, who is trying to find an answer to a question: “What is the Matrix?”. He is contacted by Trinity, also a hacker who brings him to Morpheus. Morpheus presents a choice to Neo, which may provide the answer to Neo’s question and to the ultimate truth. Neo obviously accepts the proposal and learns that the world he lived in was only a virtual reality. A faked copy of the real world created by the machines with the purpose to keep human beings under control. The humans were kept alive, jacked into the matrix and used as power cells keeping the machines functioning. The people were used only as a tool. The movie The Matrix is a trilogy, where the plot is carefully divided into three parts. The first part shows Neo as the chosen one, where he learns the truth and becomes the One, who according to a prophecy, can save the humans from the enslavement of the machines. During the second part of the movie, Neo and his friends hack into the matrix, and try to stop the machines from becoming more powerful and free the people of Zion, the only human city in the real world. The third part portrays Neo’s struggle to stop the machines from getting to Zion and face his final enemy in the matrix, an agent Smith a former guarding program, who took control over the matrix. During the final fight, Neo manages to stop the machines and a new era is about to start, when the machines and people manage to live with each other in peace.

2 J. F. Lyotard and J.Baudrillard: Their influence on the Matrix

The influence Neuromancer has on The Matrix is partially visible by presenting their plots and settings. The overlap will be unfolded in the following analysis where the main focus consists of highlighting the postmodern features of the movie, with the help from the book and of classifying them as part of the postmodern culture.

Both of these works may be classified as either part of the postmodern literature and cinema, since they were produced during the time when postmodernism already existed and was flourishing. But to judge them, based on the criteria of their origin, would not be accepted by the critics. Before highlighting the postmodern features, postmodern philosophers Jean François Lyotard and Jean Baudrillard and the impact of their ideas in the movie need to be explained. There was enough information on their background provided in a chapter concerned with postmodernism and therefore it will not be presented here. As already mentioned Lyotard was opposed to the grand-narratives and suggested the use of little narratives instead. The struggle between them is quite often visible either in postmodern literature or film. Their existence is also formed as a part of The Matrix especially visible with characters and their actions. Several important characters from the movie meet the notorious Oracle, who shows them a way how to complete their part in the whole story. The predictions of the Oracle could be understood as small pieces of puzzle, where each piece is of the same importance to the whole. As mentioned Neo, Morpheus, Trinity, Naobi contact the Oracle, who tells them about their destiny in the matrix. Neo is told that he actually being the One, is not the chosen One Morpheus tells him he will become. The way the Oracle behaves towards Neo is quite unique. She tells him, what he needs to hear in order to become the One. After the prophecy Neo, follows his own way to become the chosen One and to fulfill his destiny. Accomplishment of his little narrative is essential towards the story or the whole concept of the movie. The next character is Morpheus, to whom the Oracle tells that he will be the one to find and save Neo from the artificial world of the matrix. Morpheus follows this narrative and is willing to die in order to succeed. Together with Neo and their narratives, they form different parts of the whole, where the whole represents finding and becoming the One. The third character who possesses a little narrative of his own is Trinity. Her story consists of falling in love with the One (Neo) and therefore her task, which she manages to do, is to bring Neo back from the dead and to help him realize that he is the chosen One. The last character that contacted the Oracle is general Naobi. Her narrative is of a different sort. It does not fall into a category of little narratives, which helps Neo in his path of becoming the One. Naobi’s little narrative reveals itself in the third part of the movie, when it is up to her to help Neo to save people of Zion and to stop the Armageddon that is about to come. Naobi through her narrative uncovers a unique feature about Neo. Neo is the only one, who possesses two little narratives in the movie. The first one is his way of realizing and becoming the One and the second one is his way of becoming the savior.

In The Matrix, the little narratives are the crucial elements in forming the plot of the movie and they also hold the status of significance over the characters. It is therefore, when the little narrative comes to an end, the importance of the character starts to loose on its significance. Neo as the central character, important for the movie possesses two little narratives and after completing them, he is no longer attractive for the plot of the story and the main concern is shifted other direction. The same happens with other characters. Trinity, again after falling in love with Neo and helping him to realize that he is the one, looses her importance in the story and dies in the final, third part of the movie. Morpheus and Naobi also loose their significance, but they maintain their presence in the movie. In the end, they become quite passive characters that are depended on Neo’s actions and cannot stop the inevitable.

Lyotard’s point of view and his philosophy of little narratives is (as it may be argued) present in all fiction, since the characters of the story have their way or purpose in their fictional world and trough their narratives they find their own truth that is to some degree not affecting the people and the world around them but on the other hand it is shaping the whole concept of the story.

Another postmodern philosopher mentioned was Jean Baudrillard. Baudrillard is quite notoriously well known in postmodern circles, since his theory about reality and signs drew a lot of attention from the critics. The foundation of his philosophy lies in the term simulacra and simulation. According to him, we could no longer distinguish between the real world and the world of simulacra that is more real to us than the original. He also uses the term hyperreal to address signs that have nothing to do with reality and are only derived from the simulations of it. The reason to include Baudrillard’s principles in this thesis is quite simple. Postmodern works like The Matrix and Neuromancer are based on the concept of Baudrillard’s ideas, which is why it is essential to mention him.

The directors of The Matrix must have been familiar and inspired by Baudrillard’s Simulacra and Simulation. The ideas presented in this book are based on the relationship between the reality and simulation. The basic concept of the movie is also based on the relation between the world of the matrix that seems to be more real than the real world itself. It is vital to mention that several science fiction authors already experimented with the ideas similar to what Baudrillard suggests. One of the well-know is Philip K. Dick. In his SF novel Ubik (1969), characters are trapped in situations where they can no longer distinguish whether they live in a real world or in a world of people who are already dead, but their bodies with their minds are safely placed in moratoriums where their loved ones are able to talk to them. After one incident characters of this novel are trapped in a world of confusion, when in the end they realize that the world they live in is not the one they thought it to be. During the novel several signs emerge to indicate the alien reality. Based on Baudrillard and his thesis, these signs could easily represent hyperreal signs that have nothing in common to the real world. The perfect example of such a sign is when Mr. Runciter, one of the main characters possess a coin where a portrait of his employee is on a fifty-cent coin.

“… Who’s this on all three coins? Not the right person at all. And yet he’s familiar. I know him. And then he recognized the profile. I wonder what this means, he asked himself. Strangest thing I’ve ever seen. Most things in life eventually can be explained. But – Joe Chip on a fifty-cent piece?” (Dick, Philip, K., 2001, p. 224).

Mr. Runciter is quite obviously surprised by the picture on the fifty-cent coin. The reality he experiences does not meet his expectations, but it is accepted by him and therefore such a change may be understood as the shift from the real to the hyperreal, since Joe Chip’s face on the coin is contradictory and has nothing to do with the real reality and creates a new reality where this situation can happen.

The work of Philip K. Dick was only mentioned to show the reader that the ides the authors of The Matrix and Neuromancer present are groundbreaking, but on the other hand, they were used quite often before by other SF authors. William Gibson and brothers Wachowski only introduced them from a different point of view.

As mentioned above, the world of The Matrix is based on relationship between the reality and simulation. The introduction to The Matrix at the beginning of this chapter mentioned the artificial world of the matrix, where the people who are plugged into it cannot recognize that the world they live in is a pure computer simulation, programmed by machines. As Baudrillard’s philosophy suggests, we may come across two realities. One, being only a simulation, which does not possess any elements of the real and acts as a substitution of the real and the other one is thought to be the original reality. The problem emerges, when we try to distinguish between these two realities. Baudrillard therefore mentions that the process is deceiving and we cannot be really certain, since the simulations representing reality are more real than the reality itself. In The Matrix, the directors created two distinct realities. The one presented as the real, consists of people who went through the process of being able to differentiate between the reality of the matrix and the reality of the real world. Their purpose is to hack into the artificial world and enable the other people to see the difference. The other reality is the reality of the matrix. People living in this reality are blinded from the truth and live their lives as if nothing has ever happened. They are completely deceived by the virtual simulation of the real world and the signs presented to them are more real than the reality itself. Therefore it was at first hard for Neo to believe, when he realized that that the world he lived in during his life was only a simulation.

The hyperreal signs as they were present in Dick’s Ubik are also introduced in The Matrix. They can not be associated with the real world, since they are already based on simulations of simulations. These signs are accepted to be part of the simulated reality of the matrix. A perfect example of a hyperreal sign is a Déjà vu. Déjà vu is a complicated symbol in a simulated world. It already simulates a situation that was already experienced. In the world of the matrix it resembles an error in the program when the guarding programs change the reality of the matrix to their liking in order to do what they are programmed for. In the movie, Neo experiences Déjà vu, and after this occasion he and his friends are hunted by the agents. There are other examples of hyperreal signs during the movie. The most obvious ones are, when people whose reality is blinded by the virtual reality designed by the machines, experience the encounter of the machines and the ones who are hacked into the matrix in order to show them the truth. For example, agents can partially form the reality of the matrix to their liking as well as Neo, who is the chosen One, and also his friends who know that the reality of the matrix is based on the rules that can be avoided to some extent. In the beginning of the movie Trinity is chased by one agent and both of them manage to jump from one building to another. The ordinary people confused by the world of matrix, working as policemen experience their jump, take it as a hyperreal sign, which of course is based on another simulation, and that is a simulation of a real world by the world of the matrix. Another sign that supports this theory is, when Neo contacts the Oracle during the second part of the movie. She explains to him the basic rules, how the whole virtual reality of the matrix is governed. He learns that all the supernatural elements in the matrix, like vampires and such are only unauthorized actions of programs whose existence have been eliminated, but failed. Such characters and their actions are also signs, which are only resemblance of other simulations. The purpose of hyperreal signs in the artificial simulations may work as a resemblance symbol, which may help to recognize a reality of real signs between the reality of hyperreal signs that is based on a pure simulation.

The aim of this part of the analysis was to demonstrate, whether a work of literature or film culture may be classified as a postmodern, when the analysis is based on the philosophies of two major postmodern philosophers. François Lyotard and Jean Baudrillard are the most significant figures, whose ideas influence the way the postmodern culture undertake. Since their philosophies shape the postmodern thinking, it was vital to introduce their thesis, and the way they are noticed in The Matrix, since their influence may be the most vivid one.

3 Postmodern features in the matrix

The second part of the analysis is based on characterizing the postmodern features presented by Stuart Sim in his The Routledge Critical Dictionary of Postmodern Thought. They were introduced and explained in the chapter four, concerned with postmodernism. During this part of the thesis, they will be reintroduced and analyzed through the movie The Matrix with particular examples provided.

The first postmodern feature introduced will be the feature of pastiche. As it was explained before, postmodern authors and critics argue for the inability and impossibility to introduce new and original phenomenon. Therefore, they believe that postmodern works are only copies consisting of taking elements from several different authors and their works and representing them in a new fashion.

The Matrix as a postmodern work also contains elements of pastiche. To correctly portray this feature in the movie, there is a need to introduce William Gibson’s Neuromancer. This book is of a great significance during this analysis.

While analyzing both works, the most striking example of pastiche that a reader comes across, is the cyberspace world, which possesses the exact name, matrix. In Neuromancer, it was characterized as:

“’Cyberspace. A consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught mathematical concepts … A graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding …’”

(Gibson, W., 1995, p. 67).

In The Matrix, Morpheus talks to Neo to whom he explains the characteristics of the matrix and defines it.

“’Right now we’re inside a computer program?’ ‘Is it really so hard to believe? Your clothes are different. The plugs in your arms and head are gone. Your hair has changed. Your appearance now is what we call residual self image. It is the mental projection of your digital self.’ ‘This … this isn’t real?’ ‘What is real? How do you define real? If you are talking about what you can feel, what you can smell, what you can taste and see, then real is simply electrical signals interpreted by your brain. This is the world that you know. The world as it was at the end of the 20th century. It exists now only as part of a neutral interactive simulation … that we call the matrix. You’ve been living in a dream world Neo.’” (Wachowski, L. & A. Wachowski, 1999, timeline: 00:38:13-00:39:16).

Both these definitions may distinct from one another in some details. Since the cyberspace in Neuromancer represents a database system, where the essential data are stored, in The Matrix, it is a computer generated world, artificial in its true essence. Despite the distinctions, the main concept of cyberspace remains the same in both works. The only most striking feature is the name, both the cyberspace in Neuromancer and in The Matrix possesses. Certainly the directors of the movie were greatly inspired by William Gibson.

There are other examples of pastiche present. The following one also consists of a reuse of a word. It is the word Zion that is found in both works. In Neuromancer it presents a cluster in the Freeside that is strongly influenced by Rastafarian movement. Zion colony was found by five members who have their own religion based on God named Jah. Zionites uncover their prophecy:

“’Soon come, the Final Days … Voices. Voices cryin’ inna wilderness, prophesyin’ ruin unto Babylon …’” (Gibson, W., 1995, p. 135).

The element of prophecy is visible in The Matrix, in the form of Oracle who prophesized the arrival of the One, who will save the people of Zion and stops the enslavement of the people plugged into the matrix.

“’When the matrix was first built, there was a man born inside who had the ability to change whatever he wanted, to remake the matrix as he saw fit. … After he died the Oracle prophesized his return and that his coming would hail the destruction of the matrix, end the war. Bring freedom to our people. … ‘”

(Wachowski, L. & A. Wachowski, 1999, timeline: 00:43:23-00:44:05).

Since Neuromancer is of a great model for The Matrix, it is therefore obvious to find similar elements, which may be presented in a form of pastiche. Despite the fact that both works are strong models of cyberpunk literature, the whole atmosphere of Neuromancer still prevails in The Matrix and that is why the feature of pastiche is so evident.

Another feature that comes into the discussion is the feature of paranoia. Paranoia in the sense of being controlled by someone else with the ceaseless felling of suspicion and with the absence of any self control.

All these characteristics of paranoia presented above, feature in The Matrix. People who are plugged into the matrix without knowing it are automatically under control. They actions are watched by guarding programs. Their existence is not valued by the machines, since they are easily replaceable. On the other hand, there are characters in the movie, like Neo, who feeling suspicious, is trying the find the truth, find the answer to his question. What he discovers is a surveillance system that keeps anyone living under control, taking away from them their right to be under their own control.

The power of paranoia in the movie was so evident that the viewers of the movie started to feel suspicious. They were paranoic in a sense that they thought to be also under control of the machines or someone, something else, unable to realize what is real and what is fake.

Paranoia as being part of the postmodern features could not be left out in The Matrix, where it evoked a revolution in the world of matrix and outside it as well.

The last postmodern feature analyzed, is the feature of temporal disorder. It may be explained as the author’s purpose to play with the time, when the occurrences in the past may influence the events in the future. This play with the timeline is also introduced in The Matrix.

The world of the movie is separated into two distinct individual parts. The first one, consisting of the real world, which is set some time in the future around the year 2199, when the mankind lost the war with the machines and now is ruled and mostly controlled by them. The second part represents the world of the matrix. The time of this world is set around a year 1999. Of course this world is a computer simulation that is not realized by its inhabitants. It is remarkably done by the directors of The Matrix that these two distinct worlds can influence each other so much. It is a constant struggle to make these two worlds one, but each side (either man or machine) with a different purpose. The purpose of the machines is to eradicate what is left of the human kind and to keep them under control in their artificially created world. On the other hand the purpose of the rebels is to show the real truth to those still plugged into the matrix and destroy all the machines governing the system. The coherence of their actions also affects both the real and the artificial world. One side represented by Neo and his friends who hack into the matrix in order to eliminate the machines from the inside, to obtain the necessary information from the Oracle and etc. If Neo and his friend succeed, meaning they change the past or present, since they resemble the world of the matrix, therefore by doing so, their actions have consequences, which have to mirror in the future. Future, meaning the real world. Therefore, if the success is granted in the past/present, the machines are destroyed and the world of future is the world of peace. The opposite side of this struggle occurs, when the machines manage to exterminate the human kind from the real world. If this situation becomes true, then the occurrences of the future change the course of the occurrences in the past/present. In other words, all living human kind from the real world is exterminated and looses the chance to live in the real world. The destroyed future brings back the past/present of the world of the matrix, where the future of humans is governed and under control.

The feature of temporal disorder in this analysis is of a unique quality. It concerns with timelines of the past, present and the future, it is therefore quite difficult to discuss such a topic, as time in The Matrix, since the only valid time during the story is the time of the future around the year 2199. Nevertheless, the feature is still present, as it was explained by the analysis, through the struggle between the real world and the world of virtual reality.

The current chapter intended to analyze the movie The Matrix in relation with Gibson’s Neuromancer from a postmodernist’s point of view. In order to succeed in its aim it was divided into two parts. The first part referred to two main postmodern figures, Jean François Lyotard and Jean Baudrillard and their philosophies, which influence the course of postmodernism. The second part consisted of analyzing postmodern features listed by Stuart Sim in The Matrix. During the latter part of analysis William Gibson’s cyberpunk novel Neuromancer was introduced in order to portray some of the features more accurately.

As mentioned above, the former part of the analysis consisted of two main postmodern philosophies. One of them introduced by Jean François Lyotard, who opposed the use of grand narratives. Instead, he preferred the use of little narratives. Their use in the story of The Matrix is portrayed through the main characters and how their actions shape the main theme of the movie. The analysis suggests that the little narratives of the characters are essential in forming the atmosphere of the movie. The next philosopher introduced is Jean Baudrillard with his point of view on reality as a simulation. His presence in the analysis of The Matrix as a postmodern work is to some extent of a greater value, since one the main theme of the movie consists of searching the truth, the real truth in the unreal world of the matrix.

To be able to characterize any work as postmodern, it must possess features of postmodern kind. Therefore the aim of the latter analysis was to discuss the presence of postmodern features in The Matrix. The features discussed were pastiche, paranoia and temporal disorder. A SF novel, Neuromancer was introduced, which presence was vital to portray the postmodern features in The Matrix.

It may be argued that the result of the analysis is still in question. How does any work satisfy any postmodern criteria, in order to be characterized as postmodern? The analysis of the chapter tried to provide an answer to the question.

Brave New World of Science Fiction

The spectrum of the literary genre of science fiction is beyond any doubt, quite enormous. As it was presented and characterized in previous chapters, SF genre involves itself in rather peculiar topics. Some of them were introduced a long time ago, and today they become reintroduced and presented to the SF public. This includes also, more and more distinguished genre of dystopia in the sphere of cinematography. The plots of the movies are set in the future with lots of special effects, where the society created is a typical kind of dystopia, with all the features necessary to characterize it as such. These movies are characterized as SF and therefore a simple question may be asked whether a literary work as Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1932), which clearly is dystopia, may be characterized as science fiction.

The popularity of dystopia in popular culture and today’s cinematography owes without any doubt to a father of utopia, Thomas Moore. The definitions of utopia and dystopia will not be discussed here, since the previous chapters already provided proper definitions and examples. The current chapter will be involved in analyzing the work of Aldous Huxley in the sphere of science fiction literature. It will be divided into two parts. The first one will discuss whether Brave New World satisfies the criteria of SF provided by Darko Suvin and other criteria. The second part will be based on analysis defining the relations between dystopia and science fiction. Both these analysis will be based on chapter one concerned with the definition of SF literature and chapter three, where the relationship between SF and dystopia was introduced.

1 Introduction to Brave New World

Before introducing the analysis, a short introduction to Brave New World is presented. The plot of the story is set after the Nine Years’ War, when the rest of the human kind that survived agreed to initiate a form of world control, which would stop all unpleasant events, like wars, etc. The world described afterwards features with control, where humans are no longer born the natural way. They are produced in Hatchery and Conditioning Centres all over the world. The society produced is divided into a caste system consisting of Alphas, Betas, Gammas, Deltas and Epsilons. Each caste is employed with a work assigned to its caste level, in order to ensure the social and system stability of the world. The first part of the story twists around an Alpha-Plus Bernard Marx, who somehow does not fit into the stable world. His individuality is suppressed by the whole social system and he is not allowed to express himself freely. Helmholtz Watson also an Alpha-Plus and a friend of Bernard suffers the same fate. Bernard is a psychologist who is involved with the conditioning process called hypnopædia. As a psychologist, he is allowed to visit a Savage Reservation, where people are not in touch with civilization. Bernard likes Lenina Crowne a Beta-Minus embryo worker, and asks her to go with him and visit the Reservation. Lenina, confused by his behavior nevertheless accepts his invitation. Before their departure, Bernard talks to Thomas, who is the director of the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre. He shares a story with Bernard, who learns that the director himself visited the Reservation before and lost his partner during his stay. During their stay in the reservation Lenina and Bernard come across two civilized people. One male and one female; mother and son. Bernard learns that the mother named Linda is the girl whom the director lost during his holiday in the Reservation. The man is called John, later referred to as The Savage is a son of the director. The Savage retells his whole story to Bernard who realized his true background and provides permission for him and his mother to go back to civilized London. Bernard brings them both to the director Thomas, after a scene, the director resigns and Bernard is not transferred to an Island, a place everyone is afraid to go. Since Bernard becomes John’s guardian, his popularity is of the opposite as before. He is liked by the women and through the Savage, he obtains quite a reputation. When the Savage refuses to play a tool used by Bernard to secure his success, he is rejected by all. Bernard seeks solitude in Helmholtz, with whom the Savage is able to share all his secrets. During his stay in London, Lenina is obsessed with John, who is unable to express his inner feelings he carries for her. Since, she is not accustomed to be loved in the Shakespearean way, John rejects her and she falls into a confusion and desperation. In the meantime Linda, who is constantly under the influence of a drug called soma dies. John disappointed and in grief tries to show freedom to Delta workers by throwing away their soma rations. Bernard and Helmholtz learn about his doing and go for his rescue. They are all caught and brought Mustapha Mond a world controller for Western Europe. He sends Bernard and Helmholtz to Falkland Islands but before they are sent, they discover that an Island is a place for individuals who do not fit into the world of stability. John tries to go with them, but Mustapha considers him as an ongoing experiment, during which the Savage tries to seek solitude outside the city, where he is constantly harassed. Since his inability to cope with the civilized world of the future, he is pushed into committing a suicide.

2 An analysis of the genre

As the introduction to the plot of the story might suggest, the process of classifying Brave New World as a genre of science fiction literature does not fall into a category of being without obstacles. The first impression of the book is quite confusing on one hand since it would not satisfy the criteria of proper science fiction. On the other hand, there are indications that Huxley’s novel may be classified as science fiction after all. The goal of this analysis is based on defining whether Brave New World does or does not satisfy the criteria of SF as they were presented by science fiction critic Darko Suvin.

According to literary critics, it is Darko Suvin, who came up with the most sufficient definition of science fiction literary genre. He introduced the term cognitive estrangement. It consists of two independent parts. The former one, often referred to as cognition could be defined as logically explained, or in other words based on science and scientific research. The latter term estrangement is used in order to address an alien theme, process or element. Alien to our own that we are used to. Therefore the combination of the two words within SF literature may be explained as author’s creation of the world that is alien to our own, but based on scientific principles, which are explained using the terms of science or logic. The novum is explained in order for the reader to take is as much plausible as possible.

If Suvin’s point of view on SF is used, then it may be argued that Brave New World satisfies the criteria and be classified as a science fiction novel. It does provide both elements of cognition and estrangement. The examples of the former element are provided at the beginning of the book, where the director of the hatchery explains to young students the process of producing the members of their society.

“… where the Alphas and Betas remained until definitely bottled; while the Gammas, Deltas and Epsilons were brought out again, after only thirty-six hours, to undergo Bokanovsky’s Process. ‘Bokanovsky’s Process’, repeated the Director, and the students underlined the words in their little notebook. One egg, one embryo, one adult – normality. But a bokanovskified egg will bud, will proliferate will divide. From eight to ninety-six buds, and every bud will grow into a perfectly formed embryo, and every embryo into a full-sized adult. Making ninety-six human beings grow where only one grew before. Progress.” (Huxley, A., 1989, p. 4).

And he goes on explaining the further parts of the process to the students who eagerly write down his words.

The quotation provided above may be looked at by using the definition provided by Darko Suvin. Since the people are no longer born the natural way, as they do nowadays and were at the time the novel was written (even though the process is possible), this vision seems highly alien to what we experience now. It can be said that it is not even the process that is explained in words, understandable for the reader, but it is the idea why this process is being used in order to achieve the goal set. The idea presented through the process of producing people and separating them into different caste levels is alien and estranges itself in comparison to the situation, which we do not consider strange or alien in any sense. Since both terms, cognition and estrangement is presented in the quotation provided, the final resolution may argue for satisfying the criteria provided by Darko Suvin. Both terms might still undergo more analysis. As mentioned, their presence in the quotation above is evident. The only question that arises is that, which one needs to be more dominant, in order to classify a work as SF.

As explained in previous chapters both elements are crucial and can not be avoided in any SF work. It is the element of estrangement that makes the work more attractive and popular. The estrangement moves the reader and makes him think. On the other hand, it is the work of cognition that brings us closer to the alien element. It is the process of cognition, through which we are able to understand and accept the process (in our example) of producing people as our own in the future. Therefore it may be concluded that their presence is inevitable and the importance of attraction lies in the sphere of estrangement which needs to be cognitively explained.

On the other hand, there might be several other attempts to look at Brave New World as a science fiction novel. One of those attempts may include Philip K. Dick’s point of view on science fiction. He strongly believed in the process of estrangement, which creates SF of a good quality. It is the shift from the unknown that makes us compare our own to the new, alien. In comparison to Suvin’s point of view, Dick argues only for the existence of the new, strange, novum. He does not include the element of cognition in his definition. The element of cognition is of a less concern to him. Dick leaves the process of characterizing a work as science fiction on the reader. The example of his theory is quite simple. Huxley’s Brave New World, is about a world in the future, which was affected by the effects of war. In order to avoid them, people created a society based on a caste system, where human beings are produced and conditioned to stay happy and never sad or alone. To be able to achieve such a goal, the society suffers the loss of individuality, beauty or art whatsoever, right to be alone, right to do or be what one wished without acting suspicious. The book provides a model of a human attempt to succeed in creating a stable society where everyone is without any worries. When the reader reads through the story and he himself is convinced that the picture of the society portrayed in the book might represent his society in some time in the future, then he certainly is reading a science fiction book. On the other hand, if the reader is not certain, rather he is not convinced by the book that the society and the world in the future may look like in the book, then without any doubt he is not reading a science fiction novel.

Dick’s theory might not be accepted by the literary critics. If the proper definition was based on his criteria, then the effect might take a form, where according to some, there would be no SF books and on the other hand, some would consider almost all books as science fiction. This point of view is of course not plausible, if looked at the way as it is portrayed above. But in some cases the reader’s own judgment during the process of characterizing a book or a movie as part of science fiction culture, is needed.

The novel Brave New World belongs to those novels, which provide one more aspect that plays a crucial part in the process of characterizing it as a SF novel. The phenomenon if looked at from several directions might provide several results. The element of time is that kind of phenomenon. Aldous Huxley wrote Brave New World in 1932. At this time, the text he wrote and ideas he expressed, were quite new, alien and strange. Since the first part of the analysis argued that it managed to satisfy Suvin’s criteria, therefore it could be argued that at the time Brave New World was published, it might be definitely classified as science fiction. Descriptions, such as:

“Liquid air, television, vibro-vacuum massage, radio, boiling caffeine solution, hot contraceptives, and eight different kinds of scent were laid on in every bedroom. The synthetic music plant was working as they entered the hall and left nothing to be desired. A notice in the lift announced that there were sixty Escalator-Squash Racket Courts in the hotel, and that Obstacle and Electro-magnetic Golf could both be played in the park.” (Huxley, A., 1989, p. 100).

Such a description as the one presented above, might easily invoke feelings of something, which mankind could achieve only in the future, but definitely not at the time of the origin of the book. This illusion was easily evoked at that time by many other SF writers, since technology was not developed as it is nowadays. Therefore, to sum up, during the 1930’s Brave New World with its ideas and its inventions presented could be classified as science fiction, since before, they were described as parts of far reality.

On the other hand a second implication may be presented. After seventy-four years from the birth of the book, a different opinion may be formed. All the sensational ideas and creations as they were praised during 1932 and since are now part of the everyday life. The main idea of producing people and separating them into a caste system is now possible. There is not an element with a new, strange capacity that would estrange our world today from the one portrayed in the book. There is still of course the contrast between the brave new world’s society and our own, but the tool, used to accomplish it is not of a strange and alien character. Thereat, Brave New World may be classified as a contemporary fiction.

The process of classifying a work as a science fiction is a tedious one. Since, it is problematic to present an accurate definition of SF genre, the only valid one that can be accepted is the one supported by literary critics. Therefore, that is why Darko Suvin’s definition of SF was presented. Although, while concerned with science fiction literature, it is often not correct to always rely on the definition. The reader’s point of view must be also taken into consideration. Even if the work falls into the criteria of the definition, the reader may still possess the idea that he is not reading SF at all. This part of the process of classification is often regarded as secondary and not taken into a full consideration. And after all, there has a new problem arisen into the sphere of science fiction literature. It concerns works written by authors, where the ideas presented by him came already into existence and are not alien or strange to us any more. Then, the process of classification gains two sides, which represent two points of view. The first one represents views on the works from the time, when the authors first published them. The conditions of that particular society and science must be taken into an account. The next one looks at the work as a current contemporary fiction. All the novas expressed by the author are now taken for granted and they do not estrange us in any way.

As the analysis above presented, it is not easy to classify a work as science fiction as is it not easy to present a satisfying definition of science fiction literature. The process of classification comes across obstacles, which might represent various points of view and they must be taken into consideration, while declaring the final verdict.

3 science fiction in relation to dystopia

The following part of the analysis consists of the relation between the literary genre of science fiction and genre of dystopia. Their coherence was already discussed in previous chapter. During this analysis, the aim will be to uncover the dystopian features of Huxley’s Brave New World and portray how they relate to the genre of science fiction and in the raising popularity of dystopian occurrence in science fiction.

Brave New World can be considered to be without any doubt a dystopian novel. It possesses the features characteristic for a dystopian fiction as they are introduced by .

The main feature of dystopian fiction presents the creation of a society, which managed to eliminate all the evil characteristics of societies before. The society created consists of people who are able to live their lives in happiness without any worries of becoming sad or ill. As it is in Brave New World, people of the dystopian society, or as they addressed it as civilized are unable to feel sad or ill. They see their world as a perfect solution and it does not even cross their minds to question the real status of the society. They are unable to see, what hides behind and see the real character of the society and the world. The tools used to acquire the blindness create a form of control. It is the artificial control over the people that enables the rulers to hide the truth. The form of control presented in Brave New World takes on several forms. The first form consists of producing people into a perfectly organized caste system. When, they are ‘born’ they undergo a series of mind conditioning to ensure the fact that they will be happy with their place in the society.

“’Alpha children wear grey. They work much harder than we do, because, they’re so frightfully clever. I’m really awfully glad I’m a Beta, because I don’t work so hard. And then we are much better than the Gammas and Deltas. Gammas are stupid. They all wear green, and Delta children wear khaki. Oh no, I don’t want to play with Delta children. And Epsilons are still worse. They’re to stupid to be able …’”

(Huxley, A., 1989, p. 27).

Their comfort and stability can only be achieved if everyone in the society is satisfied with his place in the caste system and with the work that is assigned to him. Each one of them experiences conditioning especially assigned to him and his caste. And therefore:

“’It’s an absurdity. An Alpha-decadent, Alpha-conditioned man would go mad if he had to do Epsilon Semi-Moron work – go mad, or start smashing things up. Alphas can be completely socialized – but only on condition that you make them do Alpha work. Only an Epsilon can be expected to make Epsilon sacrifices, for the good reason that for him they aren’t sacrifices; they’re the line of least resistance. His conditioning has laid down rails along which he’s got to run. He can’t help himself; he’s foredoomed. … You cannot pour upper-caste champagne-surrogate into lower-caste bottles. …’”

(Huxley, A., 1989, p. 228).

Everything in such a society has its rightful place and purpose. Of course, the production and conditioning of the people is only the base of the control. The whole society in order to succeed in the pursuit of the everlasting happiness uses other forms of control as well.

Another significant source of control is in a form of a drug invoking happy feelings without the terrible aftermaths caused by from alcohol.

“’… And what you ought to do is on the whole so pleasant, so many of the natural impulses are allowed free play, that there really aren’t any temptations to resist. And if ever, by some unlucky chance, anything unpleasant should somehow happen, why, there’s always soma to give you a holiday from the facts. And there’s always soma to calm your anger, to reconcile you to your enemies, to make you patient and long-suffering. … Now, you swallow two or three half-gramme tablets, and there you are. Anybody can be virtuous now. … ‘” (Huxley, A., 1989, p. 244).

Soma as explained in the quotation above may be explained as a secondary tool to the process of control. People are made to be satisfied, with the position they are put in, but for the minor collisions that could take place, there is soma, a tool, which makes things look much better.

Since, the aim is to have the population always happy and careless; various forms of fun-centres are formed in order to avoid having people alone. They are conditioned not to seek out solitude at any costs. For the purpose of succeeding, hypnopædic slogans are taught in sleep. Dystopian society in Brave New World forbids solitude, because everyone belongs to everyone else, and on the other hand everyone is important, even the less liked Epsilons who form the base of the society.

All the ideas and inventions presented above sound too good to be left without any evil hidden behind them. The success of such a society also lies in the abandonment of several things possessing a great value. Especially, a society portrayed in the Brave New World was forced to give up history, art and religion. Beauty and art is connected with history itself. The world controllers of Brave New World thought that beauty might attract people to history, and therefore:

“’ … We haven’t any use of the old things here.’ ‘Even when they’re beautiful?’ ‘Particularly when they’re beautiful. Beauty’s attractive, and we don’t want people to be attracted by old things. We want them to like the new ones.’”

(Huxley, A., 1989, p. 225).

Basically, the old things represented in the form of history and art do not cooperate within a stable society. By studying and admiring history and art, people realize things or concepts from different points of view. They are taken away from the artificial boundaries of stable dystopian societies and become a threat to the society itself.

Similar situation is experienced with religion in Brave New World. Since, the society created is full of happiness, without any pain or solitude, it is logical that there is no need for religion or God himself. One only turns to God, if he is alone, in grief, in pain or he longs for something. But in dystopian society, all these things have been processed. One is never alone, or in grief, if so, there is soma to take him on the holiday of happiness. Also, there is no pain present, everyone belongs to everyone else and people are provided in order they do not long for what they cannot get.

“’You can only be independent of God while you’ve got youth and prosperity; independence won’t take you safely to the end.’ Well, we’ve now got youth and prosperity right up to the end. What follows? Evidently, that we can be independent of God.’ ‘The religious sentiment will compensate us for all our losses.’ But there aren’t any losses for us to compensate; religious sentiment is superfluous. … ‘Call it the fault of civilization. God isn’t compatible with machinery and scientific medicine and universal happiness. …’” (Huxley, A., 1989, p. 239-240).

All the questions related to religion and God and their presence in dystopian society are fully answered in the quotation above. They present themselves as an absence, or as not needed to be present, since their purpose is eliminated by the pursuit of eternal happiness.

When taken into consideration, the pros and cons of a stable society as portrayed in Brave New World, it may be noticed that such a society suffers a great loss of individuality. It is individuality and self expression with the individual freedom that are not compatible with dystopian society. The form of control, which guides the people to accept and do what, is required. The values that people possess now are irretrievably lost and cannot be claimed back. It is always the side of the losses that attract the reader or a movie maker.

Since the basic elements of the dystopian society in dystopia were presented, what is the relation between them and science fiction? Often the connection lies in the technology or the technological process that is used to ensure the form of control. In dystopian fiction, the process of everlasting happiness is granted by the technology controlled by those who are in power. Therefore, it is the dystopian idea together with the technology that presents the novum of the fiction and forms the base characteristics of science fiction. Dystopia together with the literary genre of science fiction is often used today by science fiction writers and movie directors to portray the future, or what shape is the world taking, and what can become true after several years of our pursuit of happiness and leisure.

Therefore, the combination of science fiction together with dystopia may be understood as a warning, the book, the authors and movie directors try to evoke and present. A warning, which will enable us to avoid the mistakes that would lead us to such a future. During the past couple years, dystopia has become a part of popular culture in the sphere of cinematography. The recent movies produced only support the idea; Gattaca (1997), The Matrix (1999), Equilibrium (2002), Aeon Flux (2005), Ultraviolet (2006), V for Vendetta (2006).

Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World is of a unique quality in the combination with science fiction literature. As the analysis presented tried to prove, it is often not an easy task to classify a work as part of science fiction. The problems that might take place are either concerned with the proper definition or the reader’s point of view, which is sometimes neglected. Brave New World introduces another interested obstacle in the process of classification and that is of time and scientific progress. Since it was written in the year 1932, the ideas presented there are not as breathtaking as they were when the book was first published. This feature only concerns with books, which ideas presented have already come into existence in the real world, and therefore the classification process is based on the point of view that relies on the element of time.

Brave New World also possesses a characteristic, which enables it to take part in the sphere of popular culture. As the previous chapters indicated, science fiction, which can now be regarded as part of popular culture, is in deep interesting relationship with the genre of dystopia. It may be regarded that SF is somehow starting to obtain those ideas and includes them into its spectrum. The relation is growing stronger as the movie readers may experience in cinemas, which are supplied with lots of movies that represent the combination of science fiction and dystopia. The authors are afraid that the dystopian ideas have already taken form in our lives and through their work they try to demonstrate what an effect they can have on us, if people allow to be consumed by them.

Brave New World and The Matrix: An analysis of the genre

Both of these works are of a great influence, either in the sphere of literature or cinematography. When standing alone, they represent single piece of literature or cinema with typically self occurring features. On the other hand, when combined, several similar features may be noticed and characterized.

The aim of the chapter is to provide an analysis and interpretation of similar features occurring both in The Matrix and Brave New World. Examples of the similar features will be provided as well.

The most obvious feature that occurs in both works is the feature of the genre. Brave New World as classified in the previous chapter, features with the elements of dystopian fiction and is therefore characteristic example of dystopia. This is not so easy to say with The Matrix. In Brave New World, the civilized world that is created has one purpose and that is to avoid the feelings of pain, sadness and loneliness in order to create a stable society. Therefore, the society is governed by the people who possess power to control the rest of humans and provide them with the false feelings of happiness. In The Matrix, the artificial world that is created by the machines produces a society where people plugged into the cyberspace are not deprived of the evil feelings of sadness, loneliness. They are provided with all the feelings people usually experience in everyday life. In the cyberspace of the matrix, the society that is created has the same values as the society created in Brave New World. With one difference only that people plugged into the matrix possess all the good and bad elements affecting the society, whereas in Brave New World the elements that may violate the course of the society are eliminated. In either way, the acquired level of satisfaction is achieved.

Despite their differences, the societies created in both works own several aspects that are present in either one of them. It is the element of control that is the most vivid one. In The Matrix, it is the false projection of the world that keeps everyone plugged into it satisfied and busy with his own artificial concerns. It is the virtual world that may be compared to the world controlled by world controllers in Brave New World. People in both societies are under control, hidden far away from the truth. They are deprived of the most important value and that is the value of inner freedom. Inner freedom to do what one likes, not what one is conditioned to like. It is the inner freedom that allows one to freely choose from the possibilities. The main problem concerned with inner freedom in both societies created is related to the aspect of choice. People are no longer given any choice; the difficult matters are already decided for them without their knowing and for their convenience.

Another similarity may be portrayed through the characters. They are unable to escape the power of the artificially controlled world, once they were brought up in it. The people who were ‘born’ in such a society, are conditioned, and experience its riches are unable to resist its temptation. It is a form of addiction.

Linda, a character from Brave New World, who always lived in the civilized world, was lost in the Savage Reservation, where she was forced to get accustomed to the habits and customs of the Indians. This is what she said, when after several years, she met a civilized human being.

“’Oh, my dear, my dear.’ … ‘If you knew how glad – after all these years! A civilized face. … ‘ … ‘What I had to suffer – and not a gramme of soma to be had.’ … ‘And I was so ashamed. Just think of it: me, a Beta – having a baby: put yourself in my place.’ …’And flying back in the evening from Stoke Poges. And then a hot bath and vibro-vacuum massage … But there.’ … ‘Civilization is Sterilization,’ I used to say to them. And ‘Streptocock-Gee to Banbury-T, to see a fine bathroom and W.C.’ as though they were children. But of course they didn’t understand. How should they? And in the end I suppose I got used to it. … ‘But it’s all different here. It’s like living with lunatics. Everything they do is mad.’” (Huxley, A., 1989, p. 120-122).

All the features of the civilized world Linda was addicted to are listed above. She was unable to live a happy life in the Reservation, either she was not provided with the material things or she was not able to adjust to the Indian society and was thought to be a recluse.

There is one character in the movie The Matrix, who was also brought back from the artificial, virtual world to the reality. Since, he is unable to fulfill his life; he still seeks a way to get back to the matrix. The only way to do that is by betraying his friends.

“’Do we have a deal, Mr. Reagan?’ ‘You know … I know this steak doesn’t exist. I know that when I put it in my mouth … the matrix is telling my brain that it is … juicy … and delicious.’ ‘After nine years … you know what I realize? Ignorance is bliss.’ ‘Then we have a deal.’ ‘I don’t want to remember nothing. Nothing. You understand? …’ ” (Wachowski, L. & A. Wachowski, 1999, timeline: 01:01:07-01:01:55).

Cypher and also Linda, are unable to cope with the difficulties of the worlds they were brought into. Their minds are consumed by the fake promises of happiness. In a way they are both addicted and far beyond any help.

The same situation occurs when a character tries to make a transfer from the uncivilized to the civilized world or from the real to the artificial world. An example from the Brave New World may be presented. A character John the Savage, son of Linda, to whom she always talked about a world where dreams come true. Since, he is an outcast of the Indian society; he is convinced by Linda that in the civilized world he would be able to start a new life with Lenina by his side.

“’O wonder!’ he was saying; and his eyes shone, his face was brightly flushed. ‘How many goodly creatures are there here! How beauteous mankind is!’ The flush suddenly deepened; he was thinking of Lenina, of an angel in bottle-green viscose, lustrous with youth and skin food, plump benevolently smiling. His voice faltered. ‘O brave new world,’ he began …” (Huxley, A., 1989, p. 141).

His expectations of the civilized world were at that time of the story quite high. When he experienced the real nature of the civilized world, he was disgusted. He hated the programmed people without any inner feelings. His most disappointments were that people were unable to feel love, like he could for Lenina or grief when his mother Linda died. During the talk with the state controller Mustapha Mond he stated that the he could never accept a world where grief, love, beauty, pain and all sort of inconveniences were absent, for his own.

“’But I like the inconveniences.’ ‘We don’t,’ said the Controller. ‘We prefer to do things comfortably.’ ‘But I don’t want comfort. I want God, I want poetry, I want real danger, I want freedom, I want goodness. I want sin.’ ‘In fact,’ said Mustapha Mond, ‘you’re claiming the right to be unhappy.’ ‘Not to mention the right to grow old and ugly and impotent; the right to have syphilis and cancer; the right to have to little to eat; the right to be lousy; the right to live in constant apprehension of what may happen tomorrow; the right to catch typhoid; the right to be tortured by unspeakable pains of every kind.’ … ” (Huxley, A., 1989, p. 246-247).

John the Savage is unable to go with his friends to Falkland Islands. He is forced to stay in the civilized world as a form of experiment. Since, his hatred of the brave new world is enormous he leaves the city and finds a shelter on the outskirts where he could seek solitude and confess his sins. When he is found by the civilized people, who in lust for entertainment push him into committing a suicide. John, as well as Linda with Cypher could not undergo a transfer from one world to another. They all die in the pursuit to escape the new world and try to get back were they think they belong and can find the eternal happiness.

Another similarity, which may be observed between The Matrix and Brave New World, is that they both present two worlds and a conflict between them. In The Matrix, the authors created a world of virtual reality created by the machines in order to use the human beings as power cells. On the other hand, there is a world outside the boundaries created by cyberspace. Huxley also created two distinct worlds. One that is the result of world wide control, where people are controlled and conditioned. Merely puppets, with whom the world controllers pull their strings. The other world is the world of Savage Reservations. People in the reservations are not influenced by the power of technology, they continue on living their primitive lives.

Both the artificial world of the matrix and the civilized society of the Brave New World can be regarded as alike. Their similarities come out from their features. They both are used as a tool of control. People are given their destiny without a possibility to change it. The other combination with similar characteristics is the combination of the real world from The Matrix and the Savage Reservation from Brave New World. The Savage Reservation represents a world of values, where the way of life has not been touched. Despite the fact that the status of such a society is regarded as primitive, the Indians are not blinded from the truth, which is absent in a civilized world. In The Matrix, people from the real world are also forced to live outside the main land, which is crowded by the machines. These people are set free and they can realize between the fake and the real.

What is significant on their relation, is the way, they are portrayed. Both the real world and the Savage Reservation are described as the junkyard. In Brave New World, the Savage Reservations are far from the cities and are guarded by the electric fences. On the other hand the real and only city in The Matrix is hidden deep inside the earth far away from the surface. Both of these places somehow lack the possession of the advance technology that would enable them to become more luxurious and prosperous. It is the technology that enables both artificial worlds to be more superiors. The superiority is presented in different ways in both works. In Brave New World, the technology as such empowers the civilized people to be guarded from the disgusting Indians. In The Matrix, it is again the technology that enables the machines to overcome the people of Zion.

The struggle between both worlds is decided by the power of technology. The ones who are more advanced are on the winning side and can control the course of the future for their advanced and primitive neighbors as well.

The final similarity presented in this analysis is concerned with the characters of both stories. The feature analyzed is based on a form of control over the characters who are unable to escape it.

In The Matrix, Neo and his friends to whom the real truth has been revealed still do not possess the luxury of the inner freedom. Their actions are still bound to the guidelines of the Oracle and almost always consult their actions with her. It is an interesting conflict, since the Oracle represents a computer program that is part of the matrix and provides help to Neo and in a way controls his actions. Therefore it can be concluded that Neo, could not really escape the power the matrix had over him.

Similar situation takes place also in Brave New World. Bernard Marx, who is unable to fit into the dystopian society and wishes to escape it, is not strong enough to resist the luxuries provided by it. There are often situations, when Bernard overcome by his inner feelings is forced to take soma to escape the cruel reality of his own. Also in the end, when Bernard and Helmholtz are sent into an island, they still rely on the society to do so and it can be argued, that the society on the islands will be of similar kind to the one controlled by the world controllers.

To sum up, it is the overwhelming power of the dystopian luxuries and technology that its inhabitants are influenced by and it is in their inevitable destiny to be consumed and controlled by them.

Both Brave New World and The Matrix are quite distinct works, but they possess one element, which brings them together. The analysis focused on the genre, these two works represent. It is the genre of dystopia, which characterize both works with features through which their influence can be identified and similarities could be analyzed. Naturally, there are other similarities but, they have not been mentioned and analyzed in the analysis provided. The main focus was drawn closer towards the genre of dystopia, which creates their characteristic features. Through the analysis, a conclusion can be made, which would suggest that the importance of dystopia is gaining on its strength not only in the science fiction literature but also science fiction cinematography.

CONCLUSION

Science fiction represents a unique genre in the world of literature. Since its origin, SF was not regarded as a respected kind of literature. Throughout its development, science fiction writers experimented with various kinds of features that would enrich the genre and enable it to take part among the literature recognized by the literary critics.

The literary genre of SF possess several interesting aspects, among one of them is the difficulty to introduce a valid definition, which would satisfy the criteria of proper SF. There were and are several attempts of the critics and even SF writers themselves to succeed in the aim. So far, a definition presented by a well known SF critic Darko Suvin is able to satisfy the necessary criteria laid down by the literary critics. Of course the definitions and ideas of other authors and critics should not be neglected, since the process of classifying a work as science fiction is a tedious one. During the analytical part of the thesis, several aspects needed to be considered during the process of classification. It is usually the reader’s point of view, which is not influential enough and in some cases may present the most important element in the process. The analysis also introduced a problem, which is typical with science fiction now. The matter consists of the old works regarded as SF. Today, in the world of advanced technology, we are surrounded by machines and the lives people live may describe dreams people used to dream in the past. Dreams as inspiration of science fiction works are now true and from today’s point of view, these works could be regarded as part of contemporary fiction. This concern may acquire two solutions. Either we accept a present point of view or we consider the situation of the past and adapt the point of view of author’s culture in a particular time.

Science fiction also ran across several obstacles, when one is concerned with its origin. There are of course several theories that present distinct ideas, but there is one theory that is accepted by the majority. It addresses Mary Shelley and her work as a groundbreaking point in the development of science fiction. Shelley is regarded by some as the mother of science fiction literature. Another important figure of science fiction is H. G. Wells. He is thought to be the father of science fiction and his work is more than influential and it helped to shape to form of science fiction.

Throughout the development of science fiction, there were several works introduced by authors form the science fiction spectrum like Robert A. Heinlein, Isaac Asimov and Kingsley Amis from the spectrum of contemporary literature, which were influential enough that science fiction became either recognized by the public and literary critics. It is through the emergence of such works that science fiction takes part in the popular culture and is read by wider audience than it was during its beginnings.

Closer to the present day, genre of science fiction as well as other genres of literature experienced the influence of postmodernism. New subgenres were introduced, which may set the future course of science fiction. A subgenre of such influence is cyberpunk. Since its origin in 1984, it influenced various spheres of human culture and it managed to create its own subgenres. Its features are also reflected in the contemporary fiction and the distinction line separating such works is vague.

During the final stages of the science fiction development, the abbreviation SF took on a new meaning. It did not only address science fiction literature, but also other genres as well. Among them is fantasy, which together with science fiction possessing various similarities and their influences upon on another is enormous. Other genres are supernatural horror, alternate history and magic realism. This group of literary genres is now addressed with the abbreviation SF, meaning speculative fiction. All the genres in the group mentioned possess similar features, which enabled a creation of such a group.

Throughout the analysis, an importance of dystopia genre is suggested. It is in the capacity of this genre to answer the hidden question this thesis set out to answer. The question focused on the concerns with the future of the genre. For a long time, the main theme of science fiction works was based on the interplanetary traveling and discovering. The era presented is long forgotten. The next era presented was introduced by the author’s experiments with the reality and employing the features from the mainstream literature. This tendency prevailed also in the new subgenre (cyberpunk), which emerged. Today, all the features applied by SF writers no longer present a science fiction novum that would estrange the reader in any way. Therefore the most relevant question to ask would be what the future course of science fiction will be like? The new shape of science fiction might be introduced by the emergence of a new subgenre, where the ideas presented would be sufficient enough to estrange the reader. Some critics suggest another solution that would answer the question asked. The new shape science fiction literature may take lies in going backwards or in other words, shifting the focus of science fiction on the past, but what will the real course of science fiction be, is a matter of science fiction itself.

Today, it may be said that science fiction flourishes at its peak. Its acceptance among the mainstream fiction and inclusion in popular culture are only proofs of the proposition. The importance of dystopia in today’s SF is visible through its presence in the SF movies presented in the cinemas, which offer the viewer more than they can swallow. Although, as already mentioned, the real problem of science fiction lies in its future. The vision of it is vague, but not uncertain. Several paths have been proposed, it is only a matter of time to see, which path will be chosen.

RESUMÉ

Svet vedecko-fantastickej literatúry je svetom, ktorý môžeme neustále skúmať a napriek tomu nedokážeme odhaliť všetky jeho tajomstvá. Hlavným úmyslom práce je nahliadnuť do tohto sveta a zobraziť jeho dianie v minulosti, súčasnosti a budúcnosti. Objasnenie jednotlivých aspektov vedecko-fantastickej literatúry ponúka práca, rozdelená do teoretickej a praktickej časti. Prvá časť poskytuje všeobecné informácie týkajúce sa vedecko-fantastickej literatúry so zameraním na definíciu žánru, jednotlivé historické obdobia spolu s uvedením autorov a ich diel. Ďalšie kapitoly opisujú vplyv ostatných literárnych žánrov na SF literatúru a naopak. Postmodernizmus spolu so svojimi charakteristickými črtami vplývajúcimi na vývin vedecko-fantastickej literatúry taktiež vytvára samostatnú kapitolu práce. Druhú časť tvorí analýza dvoch diel a to Brave New World (Prekrásny Nový Svet) od Aldousa Huxleyho a film The Matrix. Obe diela sú analyzované prostredníctvom teórií sprostredkovaných v teoretickej časti. Cieľom práce je poskytnúť dostatok informácií týkajúcich sa žánru a ich neskoršie použitie v analytickej časti práce. Práca je rozdelená do nasledovných kapitol.

Prvá kapitola skúma vedecko-fantastickú literatúru z pohľadu kritikov. Jej cieľom je predstaviť uspokojujúcu definíciu žánru, ktorá je schopná naplniť požiadavky literárnych kritikov. V danej kapitole sú taktiež prezentované myšlienky spisovateľov vedecko-fantastickej literatúry a ich pohľady na žáner. Poznatky z kapitoly sú neskôr použité v praktickej analýze.

Ďalšia kapitola sa zaoberá vedecko-fantastickou literatúrou, ktorá svojou unikátnosťou a rozmanitosťou myšlienok prezentovaných jej autormi predstavuje neopakovateľný prvok vo svete literatúry. Počas svojej existencie jej literárnymi kritikmi nebol pripisovaný veľký význam. Vedecko-fantastická literatúra bola súčasťou len malej skupiny ľudí, ktorí dokázali už vtedy oceniť jej skryté kvality a doposiaľ neodhalené možnosti.

Až neskôr autori ako Robert A. Heinlein, Isaac Asimov a Frank Herbert pod vedením Johna W. Campbella dokázali predstaviť svet „science fiction“ širokej verejnosti. Ako vydavateľ časopisu Astounding Stories, kde sa združovali významní autori vedecko-fantastickej literatúry, dokázal John W. Campbell určiť budúci smer SF literatúry. Campbell vyžadoval od svojich spisovateľov, aby sa dokázali odpútať od stereotypov SF žánru, ktoré vznikli počas éry pulp magazínov. Časopis Astounding Stories útočil na čitateľa rozličnosťou myšlienok prezentovaných SF autormi, ktorí do svojich príbehov dokázali zakomponovať SF prvky, s akými sa čitateľ ešte v danom žánri nestretol. Éra Johna Campbella a jeho časopisu Astounding Stories je často charakterizovaná ako Zlatý Vek vedecko-fantastickej literatúry.

Od tejto doby vývoj SF literatúry začal naberať na obrátkach. Éra Zlatého Veku sa skončila a prišla nová, ešte výraznejšia a vplyvnejšia. Počas éry, ktorá bola charakterizovaná ako Nový Smer, autori začali experimentovať, začali si požičiavať prvky z vtedy súčasnej literatúry a naopak. Tento proces vymieňania si prvkov medzi SF a súčasnou literatúrou bol podľa Briana McHalea typický práve pre éru Nového Smeru. Autori sa dokázali odpútať z doteraz nadobudnutých stereotypov ako boli vesmírne boje a medziplanetárne cestovanie a začali experimentovať s témou reality. Medzi priekopníkov tohto druhu SF literatúry môžeme považovať Philipa K. Dicka. Dick považoval SF literatúru a myšlienky prezentované v jeho dielach ako súčasť dialógu medzi čitateľom a spisovateľom. Podľa neho, čím výraznejšia myšlienka v knihe, ktorá dokáže zapôsobiť na myseľ čitateľa rozmanitejším spôsobom, tým lepšie hodnotenie knihy samotnej.

Taktiež netreba zabudnúť na koniec éry Nového Smeru, keď SF literatúra začínala byť akceptovaná a začala si budovať svoje miesto v literatúre širokej verejnosti. Rovnakým spôsobom sa stala vedecko-fantastická literatúra súčasťou populárnej kultúry. SF si svoje miesto právoplatne zaslúžila a to i vďaka vzrastajúcemu nárastu záujmu o filmové adaptácie kníh vydaných SF spisovateľmi.

Koniec Nového Smeru naznačil nástup novej éry, za ktorej otca môžeme považovať Williama Gibsona a rok vzniku 1984. Gibson sa napísaním svojej najvýznamnejšej knihy Neuromancer zaslúžil o vznik Cyberpunkovej éry. Osemdesiate roky dvadsiateho storočia reprezentovali nárast vplyvu počítačov a spisovatelia ako William Gibson, Bruce Sterling a John Shirley sa snažili o vyjadrenie následkov, ktoré môžu vzniknúť v spoločnosti o niekoľko rokov. Nešlo o opisovanie katastrofických následkov vyplývajúcich z používania počítačov, išlo skôr o zobrazenie spolunažívania ľudí a strojov. Éra Cyberpunku, ktorá je bližšie spracovaná v samostatnej kapitole, vytvorila nový svet. Svet počítačov a virtuálnej reality, kde sa odohráva dej a hrdinovia plnia svoje úlohy.

Môžeme tvrdiť, že ešte do dnešného dňa vedecko-fantastická literatúra po nástupu cyberpunku nepriniesla nový žáner, ktorý by nastolil jej smer. Čo sa však udialo je splynutie SF literatúry a filmu. Z čitateľa sa stáva divák, ktorý nedokáže pohltiť ponuku filmovej produkcie. Svet SF filmu spojil doteraz všetky známe SF myšlienky a svety spolu so žánrom dystópie. Dystópii spolu s literárnym žánrom “fantasy” je venovaná samostatná kapitola, ktorá je zameraná na zobrazenie ich vzájomného vzťahu a vplyvu. Filmy charakterizované ako SF predstavujú svety, kde človek viac či menej závislý na počítačovej technike a technológiách vôbec, žije v umelo vytvorenej spoločnosti, ktorá je pod rúškom klamstva definovaná ako šťastná a stabilná. Po odokrytí tajomstva úspechu, človek odhalí pravdivú stránku spoločnosti, kde je potláčaná individualita, dochádza ku strate ľudských hodnôt a život ako taký stráca svoju cenu.

Typickým dielom, ktoré môže byť bez akýchkoľvek pochýb charakterizované ako dystópia je Brave New World (Prekrásny Nový Svet) od Aldousa Huxleyho. Huxleyho dielu je venovaná samostatná kapitola, ktorá sa zaoberá jeho analýzou a prípadným zaradením do sveta vedecko-fantastickej literatúry, kde prevládajú prvky dystópie ako literárneho žánru. Predstava Prekrásneho Nového Sveta ako je zobrazená v knihe opisuje svet zničený po deväťročnej vojne. Ľudstvo sa rozhodlo, že podobná udalosť sa už nikdy nesmie zopakovať a vydalo sa vytvoriť svet nový, stabilný, bez násilia, strachu, bolesti a kde budú všetci šťastní a spokojní. Daň, ktorú museli zaplatiť je z nedystopického pohľadu privysoká. Ľudstvu sa preto podarilo vytvoriť spoločnosť, v ktorej je každý jej člen kontrolovaný. Ľudia, ktorí sa vymykajú požadovaným vlastnostiam sú pod hrozbou strachu posielaný na miesto – „ostrov“, kde sa nachádzajú ľudia predstavujúci hrozbu spoločnosti. Prekrásny Nový Svet predstavuje niekoľko foriem kontroly zabezpečujúcich globálnu stabilitu. Ľudia sa už nerodia tradičným spôsobom. Rodina ako základná sociálna jednotka spoločnosti zanikla. Slová ako otec, matka, rodina pre nikoho nič neznamenajú. Dochádza k produkcii ľudí a ich nasledovnému rozdelenie do piatich typov kást. Jednotlivé kasty podliehajú výchove charakteristickej pre danú kastu. Ľuďom v kastách prislúchajú osobité pracovné úlohy, ktorých vykonávanie ich vedie k šťastiu a spokojnosti.

Druhou významnou pomôckou, pre dosiahnutie požadovaného stavu spoločnosti, je využívanie drog. „Soma“ predstavuje záchytný bod k ceste ku šťastiu. Ak predtým použité spôsoby zlyhali a člen spoločnosti sa necítil šťastný, nedokázal prijať pocit umelo evokovaný spoločnosťou, je tu soma, ktorá mu pomôže zabudnúť na všetko zlé a umožní mu odpútať sa od okolitej reality.

Opísaná spoločnosť spolu so somou vytvára ľudí, ktorí sú neustále spokojní. Ľudia, ktorí netúžia po ničom, čo nemôžu získať alebo dosiahnuť. Môžeme usúdiť, že Huxleymu sa podarilo vytvoriť perfektnú a bezchybnú spoločnosť, pretože ľudia ňou dostatočne ovplyvnení, v skutočnosti žili vo svete, kde boli naozaj šťastní. Ak však vykonáme analýzu danej spoločnosti zistíme, čo všetko museli ľudia obetovať, aby dosiahli vytúžený cieľ. Z jej negatívnych stránok už bola vymenovaná jedna a to určitá forma kontroly. Členovia takejto spoločnosti už nerozhodujú samostatne, možnosti voľby sú im prezentované. Individuálne prejavy nezávislosti sú potlačované. Dochádza k strate individualizmu za účelom vytvorenia kolektívnej identity, kde sa ľudia od seba navzájom vôbec neodlišujú. Každý, kto je nejakým spôsobom odlišný od ostatných je nežiaduci. Ide o minimalizáciu odlišnosti.

Medzi ďalšie obete „perfektnej“ spoločnosti patrí história, umenie, krása, náboženstvo a Boh sám. V Huxleyho svete umenie a krása nemajú svoje právoplatné miesto. Spolu s históriou predstavujú reálnu hrozbu a ich existencia je utajovaná. V stabilnom svete nie je priestor pre veci minulé. Od ľudí sa očakáva, aby oceňovali a vážili si veci nové, ktoré sú „krajšie“ ako história sama. Rovnaký prípad predstavuje náboženstvo a Boh. Vo svete, kde sú všetci šťastní a vlastnia veci, ktoré vlastniť môžu a nesnívajú o veciach, ktoré získať nemôžu, je existencia Boha nepodstatná. Svet technológií predstavujúcich základnú pomôcku pre vytvorenie šťastného a stabilného sveta nepotrebuje pre svoju existenciu Boha. Ľudia sú vychovávaní, aby verili v spoločnosť a jej kontrolórov, ktorí im dokážu zabezpečiť ich požadovaný blahobyt.

Huxley vo svojej knihe predstavil niekoľko postáv, ktoré trpia a nedokážu sa vysporiadať s požiadavkami takejto spoločnosti. Jej členovia tieto postavy odsudzujú, nedokážu ich akceptovať medzi seba. Takéto postavy nespĺňanú požiadavky kolektívnej identity, vytvárajú svoju vlastnú, a preto predstavujú hrozbu stability. Sú vyslaní na ostrov, ktorý v skutočnosti nepredstavuje hrozbu, ale miesto, kde ľudia neakceptovaní v dystopickej spoločnosti, môžu žiť v pokoji a šťastí. Počas celého príbehu Huxley poukazuje na závislosti postáv od komfortu ponúkaného civilizovaným svetom. Ako napríklad Bernard, postava vykazujúca prvky individualizmu v knihe, nie je schopný vysporiadať sa s tlakom civilizácie a mnohokrát použije somu k tomu, aby tieto nástrahy dokázal prekonať. Ďalšou postavou je Linda, ktorá pri svojej návšteve rezervácie zostala v nej uväznená, nedokáže akceptovať jej nové normy, zvyky a stáva sa z nej samotárka. Linda je členmi nového sveta za svoje činy odsudzovaná. Pri jej návrate do „civilizovaného“ spoločnosti je ňou skonzumovaná. Jej závislosť na komforte ponúkaného civilizovaným svetom v spojení s niekoľkoročnou absenciou je natoľko silná, že jej nedokáže odolať.

Samozrejme v celom príbehu vystupujú aj postavy, ktoré sú po príchode do „civilizovaného“ sveta znechutené. Jednou z nich je John, syn Lindy narodený v rezervácii. John nedokáže pochopiť hodnoty vytvorené v novom svete a je zhrozený, ako ľudia dokázali zahodiť individualitu, samostatnosť, krásu, umenie a náboženstvo. On, takisto ako aj Linda, je ním pohltený a skonzumovaný. Pri jeho neúspechu odolať jeho vplyvu spácha samovraždu.

Kniha Prekrásny Nový Svet, predstavuje dva od seba úplne odlišné svety. Na jedenej strane existuje spoločnosť, kde dochádza k deštrukcii osobných hodnôt a strate ľudskosti na úkor technického pokroku a globálneho poriadku. Na druhej strane sa nachádza spoločnosť primitívna, v ktorej pretrvávajú jednoduché hodnoty a individualizmus. Z pohľadu postáv ide o vzájomné nepochopenie a neschopnosť akceptovať rozdielnosti spoločnosti, aj keď obe so svojimi výhodami a nevýhodami disponujú deštrukčnými vlastnosťami.

Druhé dielo opisované v práci predstavuje film The Matrix, ktorý je bližšie rozpracovaný v samostatnej kapitole č.5, opierajúcej sa o poznatky postmodernizmu. Matrix, takisto ako Prekrásny Nový Svet, predstavuje typickú kombináciu žánrov dystópie a cyberpunku. Tu tvorcovia bratia Wachowski vytvorili tiež dva svety a ich vzájomný zápas. Ide o svet virtuálnej reality (matrix), kde ľudia žijú svoje životy bez toho aby si uvedomovali, že žijú v umelo vytvorenom svete virtuálnej reality. Tento svet inak označovaný ako „cyberspace“ (kybernetický svet) je svet naprogramovaný strojmi, ktoré zápasia s človekom o svoju existenciu. Na druhej strane, druhý svet je svetom skutočným, zdevastovaným po vojne medzi ľuďmi a strojmi. Tí, čo prežili, sa schovávajú vo vnútri zeme v poslednom existujúcom meste a vedú nekonečný súboj snažiac sa vyslobodiť ľudí pripojených do matrixu. Film predstavuje trilógiu a jeho príbeh zobrazuje hľadanie vyvoleného človeka, ktorý dokáže zachrániť ľudstvo a poraziť stroje.

Matrix je dielo s motívmi podobnými Prekrásnemu Novému Svetu s prvkami postmodernizmu. Jeho jednotlivé vlastnosti sú prezentované a charakterizované v analýze diela. V procese analýzy je predstavené dielo Williama Gibsona, Neuromancer. Gibsonov virtuálny svet dát, taktiež volaný matrix, zmienka proroctva a až príliš podobné postavy, predstavujú základný kameň inšpirácie režisérov Matrixu. Prvky intertextuality v Matrixe sú len vďaka Neurmancerovi odhalené a neskôr analyzované. Taktiež žánrová podobnosť dystópie zväzujúca Matrix a Prekrásny Nový Svet, je prezentovaná a analyzovaná v samostatnej kapitole. Obidve diela predstavujú svet dystópie, kde je ľudstvo kontrolované a umelo usmerňované, za predpokladu udržania stability, šťastia a svetového poriadku. Prostredníctvom predstavených diel je analyzovaná dôležitosť významu dystópie v žánri vedecko-fantastickej literatúry. Jej charakteristické črty sú opísané, analyzované a predstavené na príkladoch vybraných z daných diel.

Cieľom práce je vytvorenie objektívneho pohľadu na svet vedecko-fantastickej literatúry, ktorá bola dlho odsudzovaná literárnou verejnosťou. Prezentácia jednotlivých vývinových období žánru upozorňuje na vplyv iných žánrov na vedecko-fantastickú literatúru a naopak, pričom ide o vykreslenie aktuálnej pozície SF vo svete literatúry. V neposlednom rade, práca poukazuje na vplyv postmodernizmu, ktorý do určitej miery usmernil smer, ktorým sa SF literatúra uberala.

V praktickej časti sú predstavené dve diela, ktoré podliehajú analýze podloženej na teoretickom obsahu práce. Myšlienky Darka Suvina a jeho definícia SF žánru sú analyzované v diele Prekrásny Nový Svet od Aldousa Huxleyho. Prostredníctvom daného diela sú zvýraznené prvky dystópie a jej vplyv v rámci SF literatúry.

Druhým dielom podliehajúcim analýze je film Matrix. Matrix, často považovaný za kultový film, podliehajúci vplyvu postmodernizmu, ktorého charakteristické črty a prvky sú hlbšie analyzované v práci. Počas analýzy často dochádza k odvolávaniu sa na dielo Williama Gibsona Neuromancer, ktoré je jej nevyhnutnou súčasťou. Postmodernistický pohľad na Matrix umožnil rozmanitejšiu analýzu diela, pričom sa držal základnej filozofie filmu ako takej.

Poslednú časť analýzy predstavuje spojenie dvoch diel a to Prekrásneho Nového Sveta a Matrixu so zameraním na žáner. Časový rozdiel, existujúci medzi oboma dielami nedokázal zakryť spoločné prvky, ktoré sa nachádzajú v obidvoch dielach. Opäť významnou zložkou analýzy je dystópia a jej vplyv. Prostredníctvom dystópie dochádza k analýze svetov vytvorených v oboch dielach a ich vplyv na postavy, ktoré im nedokážu odolať.

Práca predstavuje komplexný pohľad na vedecko-fantastickú literatúru zameranú na jej históriu, sprostredkovanie správnej definície, charakterizáciu pod žánrov a vplyv postmodernizmu. V analytickej časti práce prezentované teórie predstavujú základný kameň, o ktoré sa analýza opiera so zameraním na dve diela. Prostredníctvom analýz sa čitateľ dozvie o zložitosti sveta SF literatúry, právoplatne uznávaného literárnymi kritikmi spolu s jeho zaradením do sveta populárnej kultúry, kde si svoje miesto určite zaslúži.

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