A Level English Language revision notes
A Level English Language revision notes[AS level only]Bethany CunninghamThis is for AS level English Language notes and this is followed from the specification and revision from college. There are also summary sections released separately.What is the difference between question 1 and 2?Key wordsKey wordDefinitionMorphemeUnit of meaning.SubstitutionReplacing lexical items.Lexical fields Cohesive patterns of lexis; they are formed by a relation in subject. E.g. ’hot’ and ‘temperature’ are parts of the lexical field of weather. SynonymsThese are similar in meaning, for example ‘warm’ and ‘boiling hot’ are both similar meaning an increase in temperature. However, they don’t portray the same effect. PolysemesLexis that has more than one meaning, e.g. ‘hide’. These both means the sheep skin and are a section of the children’s game: hide and seek. ModalityThe medium of communication whether it is written or spoken.GenreFrameworksThe four purposes are to inform, to instruct, and to persuade. Many kinds of writing and speech do not fit into this simple categorisation. There are many ways to classify language use; one is to define whether the text is written or spoken (mode). Some kinds of language, however, embody characteristic of both like chat rooms or texting. You can’t even assume that texts are either formal or informal as there is a whole spectrum of formality including taboo at one end. There is also slang which is not regarded as ‘proper’ English. This is suggested as the register of the text. This may refer to the lexis which relate to a specific topic, area or subject. There are different language varieties across the country and we distinguish between the pronunciations that are part of regional speech by calling it an accent. It is also possible to consider texts as examples of distinctive kinds of language use which have recognisable features or conventions (genre) and it is important to bear in mind the readers or listeners for whom the text is produced-audience. We need to categorise language precisely with the help of frameworks. We can consider how a text is organised and constructed: how it begins and ends, and what happens in the middle-discourse. For written language, there is the physical presentation of the text on the page, or graphology. The study of grammar, the way that sentences are constructed and how words are organised is covered by syntax. ‘I write’ and ‘she writes’ are examples of first or third person. We can classify sentence depending on their function, some sentences ask questions (interrogatives), and others give commands (imperatives), other simply present statements (declarative), while some outbursts or comments (exclamatives). Some sentences are not really sentences by the definition as they may consist of one or two words-minor sentences.We classify parts of speech into word classes, words like pen, grass, disagreement and David Beckham are all nouns. We can subdivide this class; pen and grass are objects of the real world, so they are known as concrete nouns. David Beckham is the name given to a well-known person, so it is a proper noun. Whereas, disagreement is an idea or feeling-in other words an abstract noun. Then they are ‘describing words’ known as adjectives. Traditionally, the definition of a ‘verb’ is a ‘doing’ word. However, this is misleading; the most common one is ‘is’ or ‘be’, followed by ‘have’ and many of these describe states or feelings rather than actions. Extra information about these words is known as an adverb, which will tell us something about how, where or when this is going on. There are other word classes, such as I, you, he and she known as pronouns. Words such as with, and, but because and so are connectives Also words like on, under, behind and after are types of prepositions.Breaking language down even further can lead us to think about the sounds of English-the study of phonology. English is made of 44 basic vowel and consonant sounds called phonemes. However, when we talk we usually don’t depend on these, as our gestures, eye contact and body language (paralinguistic features) and our intonation, speed of speaking and the way we stress words (prosodic features). This is why speech seems to be less meaningful if you are not present, in other words it is context-bound. We can also look at how words convey meanings. The study of this aspect of language is called semantics. The meanings of words are complex; two words in a similar lexical field may appear to have similar meanings or be synonyms. The chances are that they have different meanings or ideas associated –in other words they have different connotations. There is a difference between language in what we say literally, and language that works like a metaphor, in other words figurative language. We sometimes don’t say what we mean; we might sometimes say we are going to powder our nose when in fact we intend something different, this is known as a euphemism. At other times, we might create humour by being more blunt than being polite, which is a dysphemism. In many texts, the meaning may not be immediately obvious and have a hidden meaning or intention, known as pragmatics. Lexis AND SEMANTICS(What sorts of words are used?)Lexis can be broken down into morphemes-these are the unit of meaning. There are four different types of morphemes: free, dependent, creative and grammatical. Free/independentthese morphemes can stand on their own.Dependent/boundthese can be attached to other morphemes.Grammaticalthese give grammatical information-e.g. plurals.Creativethese form new words.Examiner’s tipIt is important to note that all words are dependent on context for their full meaning to be understood.Introduction to lexisLexis can be broken down into morphemes-these are the unit of meaning. There are four different types of morphemes: free, dependent, bound and grammatical. Free/independentthese morphemes can stand on their own.Dependent/boundthese can be attached to other morphemes.Grammaticalthese give grammatical information-e.g. pluralsCreativethese form new wordsTechniques to look out for: lexis and semanticsSubstitution-replacing lexical items for a certain effectLexical fields –these are cohesive patterns that are formed by clusters of words by meaningsThe linking of meanings: synonyms (linked in meaning), polysemes (lexis that have more than one meaning) and homophones (the same pronunciation but different meanings).Referencing-anaphoric/cataphoricCataphoricthis is where you reference first using a pronoun and then reference to the actual pronoun later in the text.Anaphoricthis is where you reference back to something with the use of a pronoun. E.g. ‘he’When analysing a text, you should ask the following questions:Does it convey fact and opinions? Is it emotional?Look out for specific word classes: adverbs, adjectives, verbs and nouns.Is it formal/informal/neutral?Does it link to a certain theme?Is it personal/impersonal?Look at the use of pronouns- who does it refer to?Are there any non-standard/regional expressions?Is the text used in a literal/figurative sense?RegistersREGISTER is how formal you are.MODE-medium of communication, whether it is written or spoken.TENOR-this is the relationship between the producer and receiver, this is shown by the use of pronouns, questions and formality.FIELD—this is the general purpose of communication, e.g. to inform, to entertain, to persuade etc. Discourse(How is it organised?)Discourse structureThis explains how texts are put in together. Discourse structureKey featuresExamples List/instructionsLogical progression through stages, use of imperative verbs to instruct, guide.Recipes, instructions and guides.Problem-solutionIdentifies a problem.Product advertisements.AnalysisBreaks down key ideas.Evaluates and explores.Articles and newspaper editorials.NarrativeSeries of events and this can be chronological or non-chronological.Novels and witness accounts.Discourse analysisDiscourse framework looks at how texts present information in order to create identities for particular individuals or institutions and the ideologies that are often included. One speaker is narrative. Multi speakers are conversational.Analysing oral narratives: Labov’s narrative categories (AO2-THEORISTS) When a speaker talks for a long period, it is known as narrating. Labov put forward a six part structure for oral narrative accounts of narrative events. Abstract (A), the indication that a narrative is about to start and the speaker wants a listener’s attention.Orientation (O), the who, what, where and why of the narrative. This sets the scene and provides further contextual information to the plicating action (CA), the main body providing a range of detail.Resolution (R), the final events in order to give the narrative closure.Evaluation (EV), additions to the basic story, to highlight attitudes or to command and the listener’s attention at important moments.Coda (C), a sign that the narration is complete. This might include a return to the initial time frame before the narrative. The analysis of conversationsThis usually occurs with an exchange structure between multi speakers. Adjacency pairs are common in conversations; an example of this is during turn taking with question and answers. They can become more complex with a triadic structure: initiationresponsefeedback. Taking turns and controlTaking turns are crucial in conversation. Topic managements usually occurs with powerful participants (language and power-language in social contexts). Common features of spoken discourseDiscourse featureDescription ExamplesBack-channelling This shows speaker support, non-verbal utterances to show agreement and attention. Mmm, yeah, OKDiscourse markerIt signals a shift in conversation and topic areas. It can also be used as a counter-argument.OK, right then, so, butFillersNon-verbal sounds that act like pauses in speech, they are quite natural and they may signal uncertainty.Err, umHedgingAvoids directness or to minimise a potential face-threatening situation. Kind of, sort of, maybe, perhaps and modal verbs.False starts/repairsFalse starts are when a speaker starts to talk, pauses and then recommences.A repair returns to correct a previously stated phrase or sentence.It began err Arsenal kicked off the second half.Skip connectorsA return to a previous topic of conversation.Anyway, coming back to our original conversation.Fixed expressionsA conventional and routine expression in colloquial communication, sometimes metaphorical.As a matter of fact.Vague expressionsSimilar to hedging, deliberate non-committal expressions.Anything, somethingEllipsisOmission of a word for economical purposes, informal contexts and to avoid awkward situations.(I’ve)…just seen Jack.Tag questionsThis consists of an auxiliary verb, pronoun and a negative participle.It was tomorrow, wasn’t it?Deixis Pointing words in a perceptual, temporal or spatial dimension.I, now, here and there,Non-fluency featuresNon-verbal occurrences.Pauses, hesitations and repetitions.23241001497330Content00ContentGraphologyKey termsTypography: font type, size, colour, emboldening, italicising, underlining and any other modifications to font types. Cultural Model: An organisational structure based on shared and agreed criteria by groups of people within a society.Shape of the text - reader uses knowledge to help identify the purpose and meaning of a text.Images - Iconic or symbolic. Add a meaning?Iconic Signs - Direct picture of the thing it represents. Provides a basic reference for the reader. Tend to be simple and straightforward.Symbolic Signs - Draw on association or connotation. Usually defined by cultural convention, based on existing cultural models. Provide meaning because society has placed certain values or qualities on them.Photographs and artwork - Provide associative meaning and work in the same way as logos to produce meanings for a reader.Space - amount of detailing. Cluttered?Empty Spaces - as meaningful as filled ones. An attention-seeking device.PhonologyPhonetics and phonology are the frameworks that look at the sound of English. Phonology deals with the study of the sound system, whereas phonetics deals with the actual sounds of speech. This can be said that this framework is a way of exploring sound patterns and their effects on speech.They can be broke up into phonemes (like morphemes) are basic units but in this case they are units of sound. Phonological patternsSound symbolism is the term used to describe how sounds are used to represent actual events and to mirror the actions they describe. Onomatopoeia also covers the feature of sound patterning. It can occur in lexical forms (lexical onomatopoeia-crash, bang) and non-lexical forms (non-lexical onomatopoeia, cluster of sounds such as grr). Other patterns can be achieved by foregrounding sounds; this is often used by the techniques alliteration (sequence of words beginning with the same sound), assonance (repetition of vowel), sibilance (repetition of the letter s) and consonance (repetition of consonant sounds). HumourLanguage can be manipulated for a comical effect and this can rely on homophones (word that sounds the same as another word/s. This can also rely on phonetic substitution and may be used for a specific implied reader. Regional accents, this is the pronunciation difference between Received Pronunciation (RP) and other accents.Social accents: this depends on gender, occupation and class.Personal accents: these depend on mood and physical features.PragmaticsThis depends on the context of the situation and the lexis; these can change the meaning.Look for:Level of formality: depending on the lexis used is some of it colloquial or Latin based?Ambiguity: could there be any confusion about the meaning?Language change: how language has changed over the years? E.g. dishy/fitConnotation: are there any feelings or associations related to the lexisIdiomatic language: refers to many words or phrases that are a familiar and everyday feature of our language; e.g. punsField of reference: is there lexis from a similar area?Grammar and syntaxThis framework is definitely the one that most students find difficult to apply to a text, you do need to understand the concepts because you need to be able to spot them (AO1) and not only that explain them, why are they needed. This is also important in question 2 because it is more concise. An example of this:Verb(1)Modal auxiliary. (2)Modal auxiliary verb.(3)Word classesWord classDescription/functionExamplesNounNames of objects, feelings, attitudes, people or places.Table, love, anger, Steve or London.VerbShows actions, events or states of being, feeling or thinking.Jumping, to be, love or believe.AdjectiveAdd detail to nounsThe BLUE car.AdverbAdd details to verbs or adverbs.The car drove SLOWLY.DeterminerPositioned in front of nouns to add detail or to clarify.THE car, A pig or AN apple.ConjunctionLinks words, phrases and clauses together.The dog AND the cat, that’s okay BUT, it’s me OR the dog, ALTHOUGH it is a problem, BECAUSE of this misfortunate event PronounReplaces nouns and can be used in cataphoric/anaphoric referencing.I, me, you, his, ourNounsBackground to nounsEvery noun is a person, a place or a concrete thing, or intangible thing. A noun can fall into certain categories:A common noun that refers generically to people, place or things and so they are all written in lowercase typeface. Nouns can be classified into proper and common: count (concrete (can be touched)/ abstract (unobservable notions) and noun count (concrete/ abstract). Rediscover grammar by David CrystalA proper noun is much more specific, referring to one and only person, place or thing and written with an initial capital letter; in some case brands have internal capitals.In compound nouns, they double up to express a whole that has more meaning that its parts. They are sometimes split using a hyphen and are usually pronounced with the stress on the first syllable. E.g. award winner, film starThey are also single word compounds which now people no longer think these as compounds but one word.E.g. raincoat5. Nouns can also be formed with an adjective (e.g. greenhouse); if they are rearranged then they can sometimes have a completely different meaning.6. Nouns which are formed with a gerund (something which is used for doing something), e.g. frying pan.Many nouns are used after the determiner (a, the, this) to form a noun phrase.Example of a noun phraseThe (determiner) pretty (pre modifier) cottage (head noun) by the sea (post modifier/qualifier). This is the constituent structure, all parts round the head noun. Nouns are distinguished from verbs by the stress on the first syllable, this shows this is a noun but if it is stressed on the second syllable then it is a verb.Hyphens: these are used when it is a verb and particle combinations, when a compound is accepted as a single word, the use of hyphens are usually avoided. NounExamplesProper(Refer to names of people or places).Frank, London.Abstract(Refer to states, feelings and concepts that have no physical existence).Hate, sadness.Concrete(Refers to objects that have a physical existence).Can be countable, e.g. table or not countable, e.g. furniture.VerbsBackground on verbsRediscover grammar by David Crystal: Auxiliary verbs are known as helping verbs and there are two types: primary (have, be, do) and modal (must, should, could) verbs. Verb processExamplesMaterial(Describes actions or processes).Skip, move, and write.Relational(Describe states of being or are used to identify).Is, become, disappear.Mental(Describes perception, thought or speech).Speculate, believe, love.Dynamic verb processes(Change in state over time).Devour, clean, remove.Stative(This is where the situation remains constant).Love, believe, hold.Adjectives and adverbsBackground on adjectives and adverbsRediscover grammar by David Crystal: Adjectives can be used as a complement, before the noun, verb less clauses and exclamations. Types of adjectives are base (big), comparative (bigger) and superlative (biggest). PronounsBackground on pronouns:Rediscover grammar by David Crystal: pronouns can be classified into: personal, reflexive (self/selves), reciprocal are used to express a two way relationship: each other, relative (e.g. whom) and possessive (expressing ownership). Type of pronounExamplesPerson(This type of pronoun refers to actual people. They may be8completing actions for example but they may refer to a particular group).I, you, she theyPossessive(This type of pronoun refers to ownership, possess something). My cat, his cat, our cat, their cat.Reflexive(This is a personal pronoun compounded with -self to show the agent's action and this affects the agent).Myself, himself, themselves.Demonstrative(They are used to verbally point out something).This, these, that, those.Relative(A pronoun that introduces an adjective clause).Who, whom, which.Lexical cohesionTypes of connectivesEnumeration-e.g. firstlyConsequence-e.g. as a result ofComparative- e.g. similarlyTemporal- e.g. afterwardsSummative-e.g. thereforeAddition –e.g. alsoPhrasesA phrase is a group of words which don’t contain a main verb. Phrases don’t have main verbs but they sometimes have participles: present or past. Participles cannot function as main verbs on their own. They need auxiliary verbs to help them out. ClausesAll clauses are made up out of elements, each expressing a particular meaning. There are five types of elements:The first element is known as the subject, this usually identifies the theme or topic of the clause. The subject usually appears before the verb in statements, and after the verbs in questions.The subject controls whether the verb is singular or plural in the third person of the present tense.The subject also controls the form of certain objects and complements. Some pronouns have a distinctive form when used as subjects (the subjective form). What can be classified as a subject?Noun phrases: sometimes nouns are used in series linked by commas in writing and by intonation in speech or words such as ‘and’.PronounsSome subordinate clausesThe second element is known as verbs. The verb expresses a wide range of meanings such as actions, sensations or states of being. Verbs are the most necessary part of the clause and usually the rest can be omitted except in verb less clauses.What can be classified as a verb?A verbA verb elementTypes of verbs:Lexical verbs with a clearly stateable meaning, they act as main verbs.Modal auxiliary verbs which express the likelihood of events. Primary verbs can function as either a main or as an auxiliary verb.The form of regular verb can be predicted by rules and irregular verbs are predictable. Regular verbs have a base form, s-form, -ing participle and –ed form. Verbs are classified into two broad types: finite and non-finite. Finite verbs are shown in a contrast in tense. The third element is known as the object. They identify who or what has been directly affected by the verb. They are either direct/indirect. The fourth element is known as the complement. They give information about another clause element. It follows the subject and verb. The fifth element is the adverbial clause and they usually add information about the situation. SentencesMany advertisements, public notices, newspaper headlines and legal documents lack punctuation. When starting a sentence with ‘and’ or ‘but’ it is usually to emphasise a contrast in meaning. Spoken sentences have a different structure as it is spontaneous and there is no plan for grammar such as full stops.Types of sentencesSentences can be formed in whether they are formed in a regular or an irregular way. Regular sentences are often referred to as major; irregular sentences as minor. Major sentences are the vast majority of sentences and hey can be broken down into a specific pattern of elements.There are also known as sentence moods:Simple sentences contain one pound sentences consist of two or more clauses joined by coordinating plex sentence-contains two or more clauses, where one is the main clause and the other is a subordinate pound complex sentence-contains both coordination and subordination.Coordinating conjunctions include and, but, or.Subordinating conjunctions include because, although, while.AgentsSentences can be classified by the active or passive voice. Voice FeaturesActiveIncludes an actor or agent; verb phrase includes a finite present or past tense verb.PassiveOmits an actor or agent or includes the agent as part of a prepositional phrase after the verb.Further readingRediscover grammar with David CrystalKey points: Simple sentence has a clause only. A multiple sentence consists of clause, linking word and the next clause. Minor sentences can be classified into: formulae (social situations, e.g. hello), interjections (emotional noises), abbreviated forms and phrases. Clauses consist of subject, verb (this cannot be omitted), object, complement and adverbial elements. Statements are said to have a declarative structure. Questions are said to have an interrogative structure. These consist of yes-no questions, WH-questions, tag questions, rhetorical questions, exclamatory questions (e.g. wasn’t the book marvellous!) And alternative questions. Sentences can be classified into commanding, inviting, warning, pleading, advising, requesting and expressing good wishes.Vocatives refer to the person or people who are being addresses. Auxiliary verbs are known as helping verbs and there are two types: primary (have, be, do) and modal (must, should, could) verbs. There are two types of voices: active and passive. The subject and object swap places to become the passive voice. It also requires primary auxiliary verbs. Noun phrase structures contain: head, determiner, pre modification and post modification. Nouns can be classified into proper and common: count (concrete (can be touched)/ abstract (unobservable notions) and noun count (concrete/ abstract). Pronouns can be classified into: personal, reflexive (self/selves), reciprocal are used to express a two way relationship: each other, relative, e.g. whom and possessive (expressing ownership). Adjectives can be used as a complement, before the noun, verb less clauses and exclamations. Multiple sentences can be broken down into compounding (using coordination, e.g. and), complex (linked by subordination. Punctuation separates units of grammar and indicates specific functions.Longman english grammar, by L.g. AlexanderKey points:A finite verb must normally have: a subject which can possibly be omitted. A phrase is a group of words which can be part of a sentence. These can take the form of a noun phrase, a prepositional/adverbial phrase, a verb phrase and a question-word and infinitive.The compound sentence often needs to join ideas and this can be done via a semi colon and/or connecting adverb, also they can be joined by a coordinating conjunction, e.g. ‘and, but, or’.Complex sentences can be formed via joining a subordinate clause to the main clause with a conjunction or by using infinitive or participle constructions. To classify a complex sentence: they can be derived from statements, the can act as the subject of a verb, as the object of the verb, after adjectives and derived from questions. Some words can be classified into either a verb or a noun; these can be distinguished via the stress of the word or the pronunciation.There are three different types of articles: the ‘a/an’, ‘the’ and the zero articles. There are many different types of determiners: indefinite article (e.g. a hat), definitive article (the shirt), demonstratives (I bought this/that shirt) and possessives (do you like my new shirt?). There are also words which help us indicated quantifying: using numbers: I bought two shirts and via quantifiers: there were many there. How to categorise texts?Your first question in the exam will be grouping texts and this is 48 marks which is half of the total marks for the paper so this question is important. Don’t forget that as both questions carry the same weight then don’t focus on one more than the other as this will make you lose marks for definite. Certain groupings can link so if you focus on genre (for example) and then for your next grouping you focus on purpose but genre needs to be mentioned, only highlight it as this is wasting time-you don’t have that long to waste writing something you have already written.Texts can be classified through many different categories and you need to be able to show why the texts fit into the category, i.e. evidence and it is important that you use key terms (located in the table above) with the use of frameworks integrated into the answer. However, many texts have a complex overlap and don’t fit perfectly into the category; it is your job in this answer to highlight this also. Weighting of the question: 10% AO1 (key terms)10% AO2 (theories/frameworks/concepts)10% AO3 (context)This table is not ideal in the exam but if this is the first time you’ve practiced a question then this table is useful:TextAO1 AO2AO3AStudy texts A-F. These texts illustrate different varieties of language use. Discuss various ways in which these texts can be grouped, giving linguistic reasoning for your choice. Focus on the frameworks to form a systematic response, this makes it explicit. Tips for structuring the answerWhen you introduce a grouping, immediately show if there are any problems within the groupings in order to be evaluative and show similarities/differences.Also consider the effects of context.Fluently link paragraphs. Types of groupings and what you could explore:Remember MR G CRAP (Mode, Register, Genre, Context, Representation, Audience and Purpose). GenreAuthor (Implied reader/actual writer and context of production)This is crucial to learn about the genre and audience. -276225-351155ContextContext of productionContext of receptionHow was it made?How was it received?Actual writerImplied readerImplied writerActual readerThe writer of the textThe writer’s beliefs who will read their textThe reader’s beliefs who wrote this textThe person who reads the textContextContext of productionContext of receptionHow was it made?How was it received?Actual writerImplied readerImplied writerActual readerThe writer of the textThe writer’s beliefs who will read their textThe reader’s beliefs who wrote this textThe person who reads the text356190710120100The range of contexts in which the texts are produced changes the meaning and the text can be changed by the interaction between the reader and the writer. Depending on how a text is used whether in an advertisement or a song changes the meaning, it relies on the textual cues presented. It depends on the situation of the text.The meaning is never fixed, it is flexible. Textual cues are presented and structured in an intentional way by the producer. The reader’s role is not a passive one. Mode This completely depends on the PURPOSE as whether the use of either a written or spoken purpose and the use of images, e.g. huge colourful pictures would not be appropriate in a letter to the prime minister. When there is multi-modality throughout the texts, this creates differences and this can be easily identified using the GENRE, e.g. transcript as this will be definitely in the exam so if you get panicked then mode can be a certain grouping. Also images can be sub-categorised into prominent images and less prominent, this is another idea for differences in modality. It is important to know about the background of speech and writing, why is one has primacy over the other?It seems that speech has primacy over writing and this is because you can find out much more detail about the author, e.g. their accent, behaviour and upbringing. Writing only shows implied meanings and suggestions of where they are from but their accent is a direct connection to their hometown. Speech also makes more of a connection between the lexis and you are able to understand the tones through the use of emotions, e.g. shouting at a high decibel is much more effective than an exclamation mark. Speech is also more valued as spontaneous speech (mainly) can never be recorded and so it is seen as being more precious. Multi-modalityTarget audience (Implied writer/ actual reader and context of reception)PurposeThis can be categorised throughWriting to argueWriting to entertainWriting to persuadeWriting to informThis depends on the TARGET AUDIENCE and this is because this helps understand who the text is focused on (implied reader). There are broad purpose categories that you can generalise the texts into which are recreational and professional Secondary purposeTenorRegisterFocus on the CONTEXT OF RECEPTION if you use this genre, why is this formality being used? Is this followed using SPECIALIST REGISTER (for example)? It is easy to compare formal and informal texts if this is visible as they allow you to show differences and they usually have completely different TARGET AUDIENCES-this could be mentioned in depth or briefly if used as an earlier grouping. There could be potential differences as there may be a change in tone and depending on the interaction with the reader, this can change the formality throughout. There are types of register:The mode: medium of communication.The tenor: the relationship between the producer and the receiver.The field: general purpose of communication. The register: how formal you are. FrameworksPhonologyLexisModal verbs (could, should, would, might, ought to, must, can, will, may, shall) and their purposeDirect addressSpecialist lexis ConditionalsMinor sentencesQuestions (rhetorical or interrogatives etc.)Simple sentenceExclamativesDeclarative/statementRepetitionPronoun reference (pronoun substituted for a noun)EllipsisPositive/negative adjectivesNon-standard EnglishGraphologyDiscourse SemanticsModification (common in advertisements, reviews, menus, newspaper headlines, descriptive writing)ImperativesDirective and Phatic token (other or self-related)Question 2: A Basic StructureWeighting of the question:AO2-10% (16/48)AO3-20% (32/48)Structuring your responseIt's a good idea to take a systematic approach to analysing a text in detail (the second part of the ENB1 exam) to work methodically through the six frameworks:?Discourse Structure?Graphology?Lexis?Grammar/Syntax?Phonology?PragmaticsRemember, though, frameworks don't always apply to texts. A written essay, for example, might not use graphology at all. Only comment on those frameworks that are relevant to the text; unless the absence of one is used for a certain affect.It's easy just to focus on the most obvious frameworks, like graphology, and forget more difficult ones like discourse structure and pragmatics. For the higher marks, try to remember to think about all six of them! Language and powerKey wordsAllusion Developed themesChild directed speechThis is speech which is aimed at children; examples include repetition, difference in in initation. Collocations E.g. ‘father’ConditionalsThese include words such as ‘if’ and they offer possibility.ConstraintsWays in which more powerful participants may block or control the contributions of less powerful participants, e.g. through controlling the agenda or interrupting.Deontic modality They are modal auxiliary verbs which show degrees of necessity and obligation. Epistemic modalityThey are modal auxiliary verbs which show degrees or possibility, probability or certainty.FaceA person’s self-esteem or emotional needs. Brown and Levinson’s face theory.Face-threatening actA communication act that threatens someone’s positive-or negative-face needs. Brown and Levinson’s face theory.FormulationThe rewording of another’s contribution by a powerful participant to impose a certain meaning or understanding.Holding the floorThis is when the speaker leaves little or no time for others to speak out.IdeologyA set of belief systems, attitudes or a world view held by an individual or groups.Influential powerPower used to influence or persuade others.Initiating a conversation/changing and controlling topicsThis is when you take the lead in a conversation.Initiation-response-feedbackThis was introduced by Sinclair and Coulthard; it is a type of triadic structure that uses further questions for reformulation.Instrumental powerPower used to maintain and enforce authority.LiturgiesChants. Thanksgiving, hymns and psalms.Leading questionsUse of an opinion to ask a question.Less powerful participantsThose with less status in a given context, who are subject to constraints imposed by more powerful participants. Management speechThis is the use of jargon and the idea of inclusivity and exclusivity, e.g. thinking outside the box.Metadiscoursal languageThis is talking about talk, e.g. ‘we need to talk about…’Members’ resourcesHighlighted by Norman Fairclough in advertising, they are the vast amount of background knowledge and information that readers use in order to interpret texts and which may be drawn on explicitly by text producers.Motivational discourseThis is often used in speech in the classroom and introduced by Skinner (behaviourism) with the idea of positive reinforcement to increase the chances of a behaviour occurring.Negative faceThe need to have freedom of through action and not feel imposed on. Brown and Levinson’s face theory.Oppressive discourse strategy Linguistic behaviour that is open it’s exercising of power and control.ParallelismBoth in concepts and syntactical structures.Personal powerThose who hold power as a result of their occupation or role, such as teachers and employers. Wareing,1999Political powerPower held by those with the backing of the law. Wareing,1999Positive and negative politeness strategiesRedressive strategies that a speaker might use to mitigate or avoid face-threatening acts. Brown and Levinson’s face theory.Positive faceThe need to feel wanted liked and appreciated. Brown and Levinson’s face theory.Power asymmetryA marked difference in the power status of individuals involved in discourse. Power behind discourseThe focus on the social and ideological reasons behind the power held.Power in discourseThe ways in which power is created in situations of language.Powerful participantA speaker with a higher status in a given context, who is therefore able to impose a degree of power.PrevaricationRefusing to answer the question.Repressive discourse strategyA more indirect way of exercising power and control through conversational constraints.SermonsMoral statementsSmall talkTalk that is primarily interactional in orientation and is geared towards establishing relationships.Social group powerThose who hold power as a result of social variables, such as class, gender and age. Synthetic personalisationIntroduced by Norman Fairclough, this is the way the text producers use personalised language to construct a relationship between them and the text receiver. Unequal encounterTerm highlighted by Norman Fairclough, this is just another word for asymmetrical, highlighting the power one speaker has over another.How to answer a questionIntroduction: define mode, manner, field and audience.Paragraphs: frameworks to show the examiner that it is a systematic approach.Types of powerInstrumental This is to make people do things or make things happen; so used in commands or setting conditions. Example texts could be: legal or official documents, rules, contracts, forms. It is used in order to maintain and enforce authority.Formal Register (Making the voice seem distant rather than friendly)Specialist & Latinate LexisImperative sentences (You must do this ...)Modal Auxiliaries; e.g. must, will, can (Express certainty and confidence in telling you what you can or cannot do)Conditionals (if...) Declarative sentencesFaceless language; e.g. impersonal constructions, official job titlesAvoidance of ambiguityMitigation (When a writer tries to sound polite or “soften” the bluntness of a statement)InfluentialThis is the power to make us believe or support something. This is used in order to persuade or influence others. These are generally found in political or media texts.Embedded assumptions (You will want to read this ...)Metaphoric references (“A healthy economy”, obviously economies don’t get sick!)Assertions (Opinions stated as facts)Loaded language (lexis chosen to evoke strong negative/positive connotations) e.g. ethnic cleansing vs. mass murderThis is a link to the key theorist Wareing (1999) and his types of powers.Asymmetry An imbalance in address form often indicates a difference in status. For instance, you might address your boss/teacher by a more formal term of address e.g. ‘Sir’ or ‘Mrs Baker’, but they would usually call you by your first name. The person in the superior position may allow you to call them by a more symmetrical form of address (e.g. “You can call me Andy”) but this can only be initiated by them. Younger family members address older family members by titles e.g. ‘Grandpa’, ‘Mummy’, ‘Aunt Muriel’, whilst the reverse rarely occurs (‘son’ is sometimes used, but never ‘daughter’).More powerful participants can place constraints because of this asymmetry.Main example is in education.IdeologiesIdeology just means a particular set of beliefs/ideas or 'world views' which any organisation, individual or political party holds. When you are reading texts, you need to think about what ideologies are present within it (what does the text producer believe/what sort of views are implied by their particular language choices/stance on a particular issue?) and ways in which the audience are being manipulated or persuaded to go along with/agree with this prevailing ideology? Exerting power through conversationIf a transcript is given in an exam then there are a few things to look out for:Initiating a conversation/changing and controlling topics – this essentially means taking the lead and choosing the topic of conversation. Controlling which topics are talked about can be a sign of dominance and may reflect a superior status e.g. a teacher deciding the topic of a lesson. Topic changing – This can be a method of reasserting control if someone loses it. Politicians will tend to do this if they are uncomfortable with a topic.Link to education and political interviewsHolding the Floor – This is when a speaker leaves little or no time for others to speak outImperative sentences – Giving orders and directions can be a sign of dominanceQuestion Asking-asking direct questions towards someone can indicate a higher status. This demonstrates power as the questioner expects to receive information from the recipient. If someone is meant to ask lots of questions, such as a detective then you should expect this sort of thing, so be aware of occupation if this affects conversation.Unresponsiveness – This is more negative method of assertion. If the speaker is ignored or if back-channelling (mmm/ uh huh) are hesitant then the status of the speaker is undermined.Interruption -people with a higher status are more likely to interrupt another speaker as they may feel what they have to say is either more important, or what the other person is saying is somehow invalid or not relevant. Interrupting could be a way of showing that you agree or you are listening.Speech Length-in many circumstances the person who speaks for the longest amount of time holds the most power (e.g. a manager talking to a group of employees) as they expect to be listened to. However, in different contexts the person who speaks for the shortest length of time is the most powerful (e.g. an interviewee is likely to talk longer even though the interviewer is in the position of power).Closing down a conversation – This asserts power by not allowing other speakers to carry on talking.Some signs of dominance may be meant as signs of support. REMEMBER! CONTEXT IS IMPORTANT HERE (and everywhere else during the whole examination but especially question 2)!Exerting power through written discourseImages with connotation colours, e.g. the colour red suggest danger and love.Modal auxiliary verbs, note the difference between possibility (would, could) and certainty (must, should). This can portray the tone of the text. Use of bullet points to break down information.Declarative and imperative sentences.Use of anecdotes.Emotive lexis.Synthetic personalisation-Norman Fairclough.Face needs: positive (e.g. flattery) and negative (e.g. hedging). Facts and statistics, e.g. 99% of bees make honey and this might be used on an anti bee poster, it can be used to make the text more credible.Figurative lexis.Pragmatics.Power in ContextsEducationSchools only have a limited amount of power and that’s normally a last resort such as exclusion. This is because students hold a great deal of power in this context as well as teachers.Conventionally it is seen that:Teachers will use…ImperativesDirect questionsUse formulationUse of initiation response feedback (IRF)Procedural discourseDeclarative sentences show knowledge of the expert with use of subject specific lexisTag questionsBack channellingHedgingPoliteness strategiesFace needs (Brown and Levinson) Deictic referencingMotivational discourse, Skinner Behaviourism via the use of positive reinforcementChild directed speech, i.e. repetition, change in tone.Link to Drew and Heritage’s Talk at Work and Brown and Levinson’s face theory, they can be both applied here.Students on the other hand may use fewer imperatives and ask more indirect questions “can I go to the loo?”There is also an imbalance in address terms – students will address teachers like “Mr Bond” but teachers will address students by their first names “James”. This asymmetry is age dependent but the power difference is mainly because of the personal power due to the job and the role (Wareing, 1999) and the instrumental power due to the power held by the organisation (the school). Again context is important! Check to see whether it seems that the teacher has an established relationship with the students for example, such as telling jokes or is there expectations and is there evidence of prior learning, e.g. ‘last lesson’. AdvertisingAdvertising is one of the most persuasive techniques in language and power; it constantly draws the reader’s attention to products that (the advertisers believe) will add something to our lives-to improve it. Advertising is suggested to focus on a way of life that it is seen as inspiring. It is suggested to be a by-product of a capitalist economy, the private acquisition of certain items (Dyer’s star theory).(AO2) Fairclough 2001Advertising is an example of ideology at work via building a relationship between the text producer and receiver by a product image which sets up the reader as a potential consumer. First stage: BUILDING relationships through personalisationText producer’s use of directive imperative address and the use of personal pronouns (e.g. you/your) sets up a relationship where the text producer is seen as humane (talking/communicating from one person to another) rather than unfamiliar, faceless representation of an organisation. This building relationship represents an implied familiarity to represent closeness. Fairclough calls this synthetic personalisation (also applied in different contexts) - the requirement to construct a relationship between the text producer and receiver.Second stage: members’ resources to create an image Advertising works in with conjunction of the reader’s ideologies; their background knowledge of their ideas. The visual elements of a text can evoke a mental image depending on the implied reader. This can also be supported by language or verbal cues. Third stage: building the consumer This is placing the text receiver in a desired position in relation to the advertiser. The implied reader has to agree with the ideologies presented. BusinessManagers must be able to motivate, manage, empower people, facilitate cooperation, appraise staff and initiate change. There are three different types of management power:AuthorityKnowledgeRespectMANAGEMENT SPEAK-this is the use of jargon and the idea of inclusivity and exclusivity, e.g. thinking outside the box.META-DISCOURSAL LANGUAGE-this is talking about talk, e.g. ‘we need to talk about…’Spoken workplace genresMeetingsThey are highly structured and organised interactions with a chairman who opens and closes the meeting.There is usually a main agenda; depending on the hierarchy someone may change this.The type of language used:Meta-discoursal commentsDiscourse organising phrasesPoliteness strategies (Brown and Levinson’s face theory)Use of vocatives, e.g. James, Mr Bond.Questions Paralinguistic featuresAssertionMetaphorical languageNegogiationsUse of rhetorical questionsAssertion may involve longer utterances.Brown and Levison’s face theory.This type of negotiations may be used in contract deals, haggling, redundancies and promotions.Stages of negogiationsExchanging information-both parties know what the interests and needs of the other are.Bidding-the start of the actual negotiations, making initial offers or proposals.Bargaining-core phrase, negotiators argue their case and try to persuade the other party. Settling and concluding –ends in a mutual, satisfactory agreement. Procedural discourseInstructionsDeictic referencingImperative verbsDeclarative sentencesInterruptionTemporal discourse markers, e.g. ‘now’.Third person addressSoftened imperativesLawLaw unlike many other categories distinctly has its own specialist register. Many Latinate and French origin words reside in legal language. But why is it used? Its complexity may confuse non-specialists making the language seem like a code and therefore this leaves the lawyers with practically all the power in court.Interestingly, in 1999 Civil Courts began to change their lexicon to more understandable lexis. For example; “inter partes” is now “with notice”. But some linguists argue that the reason that legal language has so many archaic expressions is due to the respect they hold to old traditions. The legal language has very complex syntactical structures with complex sentences and subordinate clauses everywhere. PoliticsThe sole purpose of political language is to persuade. Politicians will constantly use rhetoric devices that grab the audience’s attention.Rhetoric language may include:RepetitionRule of 3First Person Plural Pronoun (we/us)Rhetorical questionsHyperbolePolitical interviewsPREVARICATION-refusing to answer the question.LEADING QUESTIONS-use of an opinion to ask a question.sPEECHESUse of personal pronouns, e.g. ‘we/you’Repetition, tautology (used sparingly repetition of the same meaning in two consecutive words), antistrophe (repetition of words/phrases at the end of consecutive sentences), anaphora (repetition of words/phrases at the beginning of consecutive sentences). Parallelism-two concepts linked together. StatisticsHistorical illusions, e.g. referral to successful presidents in a presidency speech for change from the same party.Modal auxiliary verbsListingInclusivityUse of abstract nouns referring to conceptsMetaphorsChange in volume, tone, initation, pace and pauses. Use of exclamatives. AnecdotesEmotive lexisImperative verbsHumourProblem-solution discourseThe ChurchLanguage and Christianity has influenced the development of English. In all religious written prose, sacred texts provide the central focus for worship. Alterations to translation are controversial. Sacred texts are means of spiritual belief they seek to persuade people to believe and act in a moral way (conative function). Types of religious texts:Prayers-polite command or request.Liturgies-chants. Thanksgiving, hymns and psalms.Sermons-moral statementsTheological textsIt is typically aimed at older people and they abide by the vicar or other religious figure that controls the agenda. Techniques used: Allusion-develops themes.Collocations, e.g. ‘father’.Parallelism- both in concepts and syntactical structures.Subject specific lexis Formulaic utterances, e.g. ‘we are gathered here today’.SymbolismPersonalisationMetaphorsTriadic structuresAntithesisRepetitionStative verbsFirst person pronounsArchaic pronouns, e.g. ‘thee’.Subjects and verbs inverted.Inflictive suffixes (old grammar), e.g. ‘abideth’Compound, complex and compound complex sentences. TheoristsTypes of power: (Wareing-1999)Personal – as a result of their occupation or role, e.g. teachers, managers, employersPolitical – held by politicians, the police and workers in the law courts Social Group-those who hold power as a result of social variables: class, (ethnicity-no longer a large problem but it still occurs), age and gender. Sinclair & Coulthard’s Initiation-Response-FeedbackInitiation, Response & Feedback (Adjacency triplets)?An exampleTeacher: Does anyone know four times four?Student: SixteenTeacher: Well done!Grice's maximsAlso found in language and technology.1.Maxim of relevance - be relevant2.Maxim of quality - be truthful3.Maxim of quantity - don't say too much, too little4.Maxim of manner - be clearBrown & Levinson Face threatening ActsThis is also in language and technology. (Face threatening acts)Face is the public self-image that every adult tries to project. Positive face two ways: as "the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others", or alternately, "the positive consistent self-image or 'personality' (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants". Positive face = desires to be liked, admired, ratified, and related to positively, noting that one would threaten positive face by ignoring someoneFace saving acts. Positive politeness strategy-this is by the use of flattery.Negative politeness strategy-this is by the use of hedging.Negative face was defined as "the want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others", or "the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction--i.e. the freedom of action and freedom from imposition". Lakoff's Politeness PrinciplesLakoff believed that a co-operative conversation required:?Not imposing?giving options?Making the receiver feel good.Fairclough’s model Unequal encounter, this is an alternative term for asymmetrical, highlighting the power one speaker has over another. 'Synthetic personalisation’ - this is the process of addressing mass audiences as though they were individuals through inclusive language usage. E.g. this is shown in pronouns (we/us etc.).Power IN discourse - power is manifested in situations through language. This is where power situations are set up and intact. This will focus on language use and how power is exercised. Power BEHIND discourse - this is backed by an institution, social or ideological reasons. This is concerned with the organisation of institutions and the effects of those power relations on various use of language. This refers to contextualising linguistic features according to wider ideologies, hierarchical structures and power relationships.Drew and Heritage “talk about work/institutional talk”?Goal orientation?Turn-taking rules/restrictions?Allowable contributions?Professional lexis?Structure?AsymmetryDoctor’s power/diagnostic interview (Candace west)?History-taking, physical examination, diagnosis, management/treatment?Schema – mental modelCandace West found that female doctors use more mitigated directives, males use more aggravated directivesLouis a… Audience positioning The use of prevailing ideologies are the setup of society, this is in relation to the perceptions that are fixed.E.g. masculinity is a type of ideology/stereotype. Interpellation is that even the most innocent texts can powerfully influence the audience, e.g. fables.Message-normal levelCodes-pragmatic meaningsLanguage and technologyMy targetsDevelop discussions that are typical of the particular genre and why this might be. You could also make more of comparisons, e.g. TV/Radio. Create a sound analysis by engaging contextual factors such as online features; always think about the wider audience.Key wordsAcronymThis is a phrase of words that have been abbreviated to just the starting of the word BUT they are pronounced as one whole word, ‘lol’ (laugh out loud).Asynchronous discourseThere are delays between turns, e.g. message boards.bcc/cccCarbon copy/blind carbon copy, these are elements of an email message. A carbon copy is sent to another participant and the other person who is receiving the mail can see it, there is also a blind carbon copy, this is sent to another participant and the other participant who is receiving the mail cannot see the mail. Deictic referencingThis has been used in radios and television commentaries, it refers to something that the audience might be able to see or not, ‘here/there’.FlamersPosting aggressive thoughts or responses to threads.FramingThis is often used in emails, it is where you cut and paste parts of an original message into a new message.Greeting sequenceIt is used to initiate a shared social space, this may not occur between unequal participants, some do not want/need this shared social space and may go straight to the agenda of the conversation.Homophonic representationThis is the use of both a letter and a number joined together to create a word, ‘m8’ (mate).How are you sequenceThis is used as phatic talk to engage the other participant so that they are not talking to them for one reason. This may not occur between unequal encounters, a boss and their colleague may not ask each other how they are, however, and this is very reliant on the relationship between participants.Identification/recognitionThis is used so both participants know each other. This may not be necessary for newer technology, challenge this with caller ids, Skype etc.InitialismThis is a phrase of words that have been abbreviated to just the starting of the word, ‘lmk’ (let me know).Lexical accommodationThis is the way in which speakers mirror each other’s lexical choices as a sign of community membership.E.g. Amy-ha-ha, that’s hilarious Clive-I know, I thought that xAmy-yeah xLurkersA user who reads a message board as a member or a guest and rarely posts.MetatalkThis draws attention to the act of talking, ‘well it has been great talking to you but…’Phatic speech actsThese are turns designed to maintain a sense of cooperation or respect for the other participant.Phonetic spellingThese are words that are spelt like they are pronounced, ‘iluvu’ (I love you).Pre-closing sequenceThis signals that one (or both) speakers wish to end the conversation.Prosodic featuresThese are used instead of paralinguistic techniques (hand movements etc. to add more meaning to words); they are used to provide emphasis or other effects. E.g. ‘hmmm/ha-ha!!!!’ SchegloffHe introduced the opening sequence of a telephone conversation: summons/answer, identification, greeting sequence and how are you sequence. He is one of the key theorists for language and technology and although he is used in telephone conversations, you can adapt this to see how language is changed in msn conversations perhaps.StickieA thread that is considered to be important regardless of how many times it has been read or responses. E.g. the rules of the message boards.SummonsThis is the first part of Schegloff’s opening sequence, it opens the conversation. The use of different terms of address can show you the levels of power between the participants; remember this will change between friends and work colleagues. Also remember this can be affected by different cultures, remember not everyone answers the phone the same.Synchronous discourseThis takes place in real time, e.g. msn conversations.TrollersPosting messages with the intention of irritating others.ValedictionAn item that acts like a farewell.Variant spelling This is a different way of spelling a word, ‘wot’ (what).Vowel omissionThis is used in text messages and this is where words have vowels missing, ‘pls’ (please).Types of technology textsWeb pagesFeatures include:Synthetic personalisation-Norman Fairclough- use of personal pronouns and direct address.House-StyleUpdated throughout the dayMore dynamic that traditional writingSide barsInteractiveHyperlinksMore permanent than traditional speechTheir purpose is to entertain, inform and persuade. They may resemble print documents; however, they are complex sites of navigation. They provide resources.Telephone Conversation:Features of a telephone conversationFillers used to keep turn.Turn taking.Overlapping can show enthusiasm or dominance. Contexts affect lexis.Formality affected by purpose of call.Spontaneous speech may result to colloquialism.Use of adjacency pairs.Opening sequence of a telephone conversationSchegloff’s theory - summons/answer identification/recognition greeting sequence how are you sequence. Evaluation of schegloff’s theory-Doesn’t follow cultures.-This may be different for mixed gender conversations. -If you don’t know the other speaker then identification may not occur. -Power relationships may be difficult as they may not follow the how are you sequence. -The introduction of new technology may remove the identification, e.g. caller id. Closing sequence of a telephone conversationPRE-CLOSING SEQUENCE- this signals that one (or both) speakers wish to end the conversation. METATALK-this is talk that draws attention to the act of talking itself.PHATIC SPEECH ACTS –turns designed to maintain a sense of cooperation or respect for the other speaker.VALEDICTION-this is an item that acts as a farewell.Answering phone messages Monological.Pauses because of the spontaneous speech.Emphasis on key words to increase comprehension.Ellipsis to mimic natural speech.Specialist jargon often related to phones (hash key, dial pad)Imperative often used (instructions).Politeness strategies often present.Caller has limited ability to interrupt.Text messagesThe register of a text message is affected by audience, purpose, and context.Texts can be ambiguous due to a lack of prosodic features.Features of text messagesVOWEL OMISSION-pls (please), ppl (people)HOMOPHONIC REPRESENTATION-m8 (mate)PHONETIC SPELLING-iluvu (I love you)INITIALISM-lmk (let me know)ACRONYM-lol (laugh out loud)VARIANT SPELLING-wot (what)Non-standard spelling and punctuation (similar to speech).Usually informal.Text abbreviations may occur because of the time, cost, and constraint in the amount of characters or lexical accommodation.There are several attitudes to text speak, some suggest its creativity and may improve literacy standards, others would argue that it is slipping standards and destroying English-the Guardian articles, early 2000s. Radio Call insThere is a focus on the presenter who in this context is seen as a figure of authority. Minor sentencesElliptical formsPhatic talkPoliteness (face theory)-Brown and LevinsonCo-operative principles- Grice’s MaximsSimple and Undemanding vocabularyPauses are rareAlthough radio phone ins are suggested to be live and spontaneous, it is often that the production teams undertake a range of practices to eliminate unwanted problems. BBC radio phone in guidelinesContributors to phone ins should normally be called back and if necessary briefed before they go on air.Reduce taboo languageThere should be a civil agreementCheck any issuesEmails and texts should be checked before they are read out.Television commentariesWhat is the differnece between television and radio? Emails:There are various purposes which include advertisements and organisation of meetings (for example).It is used to communicate different types of information.Stylistic features of an emailReceiver body, sender of an emailSubjectEmail addressFramingFraming' is a term that is usually associated with emails. Therefore, it will be obvious from the text if framing has occurred because the message will often be forwarded from one person to another.DateCarbon copy (cc), blind carbon copy (bcc)AttachmentUse of framing (copying and pasting parts of a message)Typos and misspellings more rmal with many features of spoken discourse.Ellipsis.Jargon often specific to context.Spelling is more non-standard.Message boards and chat roomsMessage boards follow asynchronous discourse (there are delays between turns), chat room conversations follow synchronous discourse (takes place in real time). Features of message boardsPopulated by users with an interest in a topic. They have their own username which may link to the nature of the board-indication of the speaker’s age, gender or location. Displayed as threads. Threads are distinguished by titles,Messages are passed by a moderator.Use of emoticons, capitalisation and exclamation marks. It usually goes off topic. Pragmatically they are expected to follow set rules. Lexical accommodation can occur when speakers mirror each other’s lexical choices as a sign of a community membership. FramingAlternatively, framing will be used on message boards. Again, it will be clear if framing has happened because the copied text is usually a box within a box to show the message has been copied over- use the graphological features to help you here.There are types of people that are common in message boards who don’t follow the pragmatically implied rules:Lurkers-a user who reads a message board as a member or guest but who rarely, if ever, posts.Trollers-the posting of messages with the intention of irritating othersFlamers-the act of positive aggressive threads or responses to threadsFeatures of chat roomsIdiosyncratic use of language, this is exclusive to the discourse community.Elongation to represent prosodic features.Web blogsThey are similar to an electronic diary, accessible to anyone who chooses to navigate the site. Their purpose is to entertain, inform and persuade. May contain links to other blogs and websites of a particular interest.0They may resemble print documents; however, they are complex sites of navigation. They provide resources.TheoristsGrice's Maxims (1975)Maxim of Quantity - Do not say too much or too little in a conversation.Maxim of Quality - Be truthful when speaking.Maxim of Relevance - Keep to the point and to not evade the question.Maxim of Manner - Speak in a clear and orderly way.Schegloff's opening sequence (1986)1) Summons/ answer. - opens the channel of communication.2) Identification/ recognition. - Not needed for Face-to-face.3) Greetings sequence.4) How are you sequence?Lakoff's rule for conversations1) Be clear.2) Be Polite.3) Do not impose.4) Give options.5) Be friendly.Brown & LEVINSON FACE theoryFace = public self-imagePositive Face = the need to be like and accepted.Negative Face = the need to not be imposed upon.Positive Politeness = Used with friends to emphasise solidarity (shared references/grammar)Negative Politeness = Emphasise respect if there's a social difference between speakers.Howard Giles - Convergence and Divergence TheoryConvergence - Speech is adjusted to match others (Shows unity and feeling of shared identity)Divergence - Opposite to convergence but emphasises separation and distinction.Further reading Txtng the gr8 db8, by david crystalKey points There is a stereotyped convention of texting, portrayed by the media is that everyone uses abbreviated texts. However, it is shown that abbreviated language is not needed when texting, it is an option and not a requirement. Many people are shocked and worried about the state of language because of the symbols, they almost seem to not notice the Standard English that are fluent throughout many text messages; otherwise many people wouldn’t understand it. Many people find abbreviations such as ‘m8’ as destroying English language but abbreviations have been common throughout language’s history. E.g. Fe is a recognised word despite it being an abbreviation. Visually text messages are usually over half the same as its traditional representation and grammatically most texts are straightforward and easy to understand. Apostrophes are rarely omitted due to the apostrophe causing clarity: we’re/were. Text messages are stylistically diverse and this is partly down to age and familiarity (or lack of it) with the medium. This is common with other kinds of electronic communication, such as emails. When email began, some people broke the rules of spelling, capitalisation and punctuation, and this daring style became fashionable. However, as email spread through the population, its style began to reflect the linguistic habits of the users, many of whom were only comfortable with the use of Standard English.With text messages there have been apparent gender differences, age, regional and ethnical differences. The most notable features of text are the use of single letters, numbers and typographic symbols or even noises such as ‘zzz’ or ‘xxx’, these are technically known as logograms or logographs. There is also the use of emoticons where the meaning is entirely a function of the shape, there has been a differing in emoticons: either read sideways or straight ahead (common in East Asian systems). These are more common instant messaging rather than texting with ‘’ and ‘xxx’ the most commonly used. Another common feature is initialisms, these are common in areas other than texting such as NATO which is often known as an acronym and BBC known as alphabetisms (it depends on how the initialisms are pronounced. ArticlesArticle nameDate of articleMain pointWhatever happened to text language?2006Outrage at Shakespearean language.Language is downgraded to abbreviations.Text speak affects our language. Texting is no bar to literacy2004Limited children’s creativity; not altered spelling.Texting-an analysis2001There is an expectation of technology.A growth in text industry. Language and genderWhat is the difference between sex and gender?Sex is the biological differences between males and females.Gender is the differences in behaviour and roles that are a result of social expectations Masculine and feminine behaviour isn’t a result of a person’s sex but part of a socialisation process that begins when we are children. General assumptions of speechThis is known as folklingustics which are assumptions with no real evidence. Examples of these would include:Girls gossip moreMen don’t like gossip as much as womenGirls do most of the talkingTalking to women is almost like a hobbyThese are largely related to stereotypes.Research into spoken discourseSince the 1970s researchers have explored the assumptions about female language. Many of these existed to reinforce stereotypes about female speech. This is now known as folklingustics- attitudes and assumptions about language that have no real evidence to support them. Theorists and approachesKey theoristKey approach/conceptsWhat did this concept believe and what are the criticisms?Trudgill and CheshireCovert prestige In Norwich, Trudgill had a large sample of data in his investigation, which involved the study of how male and female speakers pronounced the suffix –ing, e.g. walking/talking. It was found that men tended to underreport the use of the suffix whilst women tended to over report which suggests that men attach covert prestige to Non Standard English.Lakoff (1975)The deficit model from ‘language and the women’s place’. First linguist to write about language and gender. She believes that women are inferior (deficient) to men who lacks authority compared to male speech and this is shown linguistically in their speech. She ascertained that women use a range of specific features (including tag questions, hedges, Weak expletivesInstead of swear words (e.g. “oh dear” instead of taboo). According to Lakoff, women are forbidden to display anger and to express opinions forcefully, reinstating male power.Empty adjectivesAccording to Lakoff, there are two types of groups of these, neutral and women-only. Neutral ones (like ‘great’, ‘terrific’ or ‘cool’) may be used be men and women. The women-only adjectives include ‘adorable’, ‘sweet’, ‘lovely’ and ‘divine’. For a man to use these could be damaging to his reputation.Precise colour terms, Intensifiers e.g. “I like him so much”. This is again supposed to be a way of avoiding strong statements or committing yourself to an opinion.Euphemisms to indicate a lack of assertiveness & authority.Misunderstandings of Lakoff’s researchHer research was based on social constructions.Her climate where the research began was male dominated and so this affected her results.Her observations suggest that they were innate linguistic behaviour.She did not account other variables that may be the reason for being unconfident.CriticismsHolmes suggests that compliments are used to show more solidarity. Also they use hedges and fillers are used to show a variety of functions and not just indecisive or misleading.She also indicated that tag questions were used to portray positive politeness strategies, softeners show support and concern, and they also demonstrate security and power. O’Barr and Atkins believed in the courtroom, men from lower-class used uncertainty-powerless language.Dubois and Crouch found that men used more tag questions than women yet they were not suggested as less confident speakers.Coates, women used epistemic modality to avoid face threatening acts, this includes cooperation and speaker support.Zimmerman & WestDominance approachThe dominance approach is related to the research done by Zimmerman & West in 1975 (they recorded interruptions in conversations between men and women) and found that 96% of interruptions were made by men. The approach suggests that the female sex is the sub-ordinate gap and that men are more dominant in male-female conversations. This results in primarily male-centred language. This model shows that women had restricted linguistic freedom and that men sought to impose their dominant status through explicit constraints in conversation.They suggested that men focused on controlling and dominating mixed-sex interactions. Parents are more likely to interrupt with assumptions. 96% of interruptions in mixed sex conversations made by men. Women had restricted linguistic freedom & men sought to impose dominance through applying constraints on conversational practice.Deborah TannenDifference approachThe difference model takes an alternative stance to language & gender. The approach is of equality, differentiating men and women as belonging to different ‘sub-cultures; as they have been told too since childhood. This then means that men & women use varying communicative styles. Deborah Tannen argues for this approach and suggests that men tend to use a “report style” of speaking, aiming to communicate facts and information. They also use and give direct orders; they are also concerned about status and independence leading them to interrupt a lot. Whereas, women use a more “rapport style” which is more concerned about building and keeping relationships between people (they tend to talk less and agree more with men). They usually give polite, indirect orders and try to show understanding by compromising and tend to offer support rather than solutions.Men-----------------------------------------WomenStatus-------------------- vs. --------------SupportIndependence--------- vs. -------------- IntimacyAdvice-------------------- vs. ------------- UnderstandingInformation-------------- vs. ------------- FeelingOrder---------------------- vs. --------------ProposalConflict------------------- vs. --------------CompromiseO’Barr & AtkinsGender & StatusPowerless languageRecorded 150 hours of conversation interaction. Found that women’s language was “neither characteristic nor limited for only women.” They concluded that status was the determining factor in speech style, not gender. “Language differences are situation specific, reliant on whom has authority & power in conversation rather than the gender of the people involved”.HolmesTag questionsTag questions are multi-functional. She distinguished between checking tags (speaker-orientated = male) and facilitative tags (addressee-orientated = female)Jennifer CoatesSocialisationCompetitive & Cooperative Speech StylesFound that girls & boys were socialised early into generations which is reflected in their language use. Boys develop competitive and adversarial talk, whilst girls talk is collaborative and cooperative.Deborah Tannen“You Just Don’t Understand”She sees men & women talking at crossed purposes – says they are “reading from different gender scripts”. Women speak & hear a language of connection and intimacy. Where men speak and hear a language of status and independence. ................
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