THE BIOLOGY OF BRAIN AND GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE …



THE BIOLOGY OF BRAIN AND GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE STUDY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Introduction

The biology of the human brain in the study of human behavior provides information about the structure of nerve cells, neurons and other brain cells that are important to influence human actions in the environment. The structures and functions of neurons are studied in cell body, dendrites and axons including its kinds such as the sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. While the nervous system is divided into two main parts : a central nervous system and a peripheral nervous system.

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, which lie within the bony cases of the skull and spine. The parts of the nervous system outside the skull and pine make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS).There are three major divisions of the brain that are explain in this article the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

The cerebral hemisphere are explained into the four main lobes namely: (1)Frontal lobe; (2) Temporal Lobe; (3)Parietal Lobe; and (4)Occipital Lobe. On the cerebral cortex is presented on its functions of various areas such as motor cortex, sensory cortex, somatosensory cortex, visual cortex and the auditory cortex. For the spinal cord, this is explain on the two general categories the supraspinal activity and reflex which provide the channel of information and automatic responses of the body.

The article provides a matrix presentation of the glandular system such as the pituitary gland, thyroid glands, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas glands, gonad and sex glands, and thymus and pineal glands. There are important discussions made about specific endocrine glands as to its location and function; hormone and disorders that in some way may affect the human behavior.

The Biology of Brain in the Study of Human Behavior

The human brain is estimated to contain at least 150 billion nerve cells, called neurons, each of which is connected to many others, making the number of connections immense. The connections between nerve cells are called synapses. But even through there are an enormous number of connections, research shows that they are arranged in an orderly fashion – certain cells connect only with certain others. Because physiological psychologists are interested in the involvement of the nervous system in behavior and experience, it is important for them to know the ways in which the living tissue of the nervous system in complex psychological functions must be grounded. In this section, we shall see that neurons carry information electrically. At the connections between neurons – at the synapse – we shall also see that information is passed from one neuron to another by chemical known as neurotransmitters. ( Morgan, 1986)

Nerve cells, or neurons, are the information carriers of the nervous system. Each has a cell body that contains the machinery to keep neuron alive, and each has two types of fiber: dendrites and an axon. The dendrites are usually relatively short and have many branches, which receive stimulation from the other neurons. The axon, on the other hand, is often quite long. (for instance, axons connecting the toes with the spinal cord can be more than a meter in length.) the function of the axon is to conduct nerve impulses to other neurons or to muscles and glands. Since the dendrites and the cell body receive information that is then conducted along the axon, the direction of transmission is from dendrites to the fine axon tips. In many cases, the axon – but not the cell body or the dendrites – has a white, fatty covering called the myelin sheath. This covering increases the speed with which nerve impulses are sent down the axon. ( Morgan ,2006)

In simplest term, the neurons are cell specially adapted to transmit messages from one part of the body to another in the form of electrochemical impulses. These are three distinct parts of the neurons; ( Cornista and Lupato ,2000)

1. Cell Body. The cell body is the central part of the neuron which contains the nucleus. The nucleus is a dense area within the cell body which contains structures necessary to the life and development of the neurons.

2. Dendrites. These are small extensions on th cell body that receive messages from the neurons and carry them towards the cell body.

3. Axons. These are relatively elongated part of a neuron that carry messages away from the cell body. Many neurons are covered or insulated by a fatty, whitish substance called myelin sheath. The tiny gaps or space between the axon terminals of one neurons and the receptive site ( dendrite, cell body and axon) of another neuron are called the synapses. They are so small that it cannot be seen in the microscope.

Neurons are seldom found in isolation. Rather, they are bound together in bundles called a nerve. Neurons are categorized according to the structures between which they conduct messages. These are three kinds of neurons: (Cornista and Lupato, 2000)

1. Sensory neurons ( Afferent neurons). These neurons cary nerve impulses or information from the sense organs to the brain. Fro example, when you touch an ice cube, the neurons that sense could send this message to your brain.

2. Interneurons.These are neurons that receive sensory messages and send responses. They are found only in the brain and spinal cord. In the example above, many interneurons in your brain act together to form awareness that you are touching an ice cube.

3. Motor neurons ( Efferent neurons) These are neurons that carry a response from the interneurons to the muscles, glands, and internal organs of the body. In the example of the ice cube, the message being carried by the motor neurons might be to stimulate the hand’s muscle to pick up the ice cube and place it in a glass.

The nervous system is divided into two main parts : a central nervous system and a peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, which lie within the bony cases of the skull and spine. The parts of the nervous system outside the skull and pine make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

1. The Peripheral Nervous System

It consists largely of nerve fibers, or axons, which (1) carry nerve impulses from the sensory receptors of the body inward to the central nervous system and (2) carry nerve impulses for the movement of muscles and the excitation of certain glands outward from the central nervous system. The following are two divisions of the peripheral nervous system: ( Morgan, 1986)

a. Somatic Nervous System . The motor fibers activate the striped muscles of the body , such as those that move the arms and legs, while the sensory fibers of this system come from the major receptors, and so on.

b. Automatic Nervous System.. The motor fibers activate the smooth muscles of such bodily organs as the stomach, cause secretion from the glands such as the salivary glands, and regulate activity in the special type of muscle found in the heart.It is thus a smooth-muscle, glandular, and heart-muscle system. Sensory fibers in the automatic system carry information from the internal bodily organ that is perceived as pain, warm, cold, or pressure.The subdivisions of the automatic nervous system are:

1) Sympatheticn System. It is active in states of arousal and in stressful situations.

2) Parasympathetic System. It is active in resting, quiet states.

2. Central Nervous System

a. Brain .The brain is that portion of the nervous system that is encased in the cranial bones. It weighs three pounds and contains 90 percent of the body’s neurons. It consists approximately of 10 billion neurons woven in an intricate pattern. The brain accomplishes many tasks. Among its chief functions are : (1) it receives sensory information about the external world and may issue motor commands in response to this information; (2) it maintains and controls vital internal bodily functions, such as circulation, digestion, and the maintenance of body temperature;(3) it controls muscular movements;(4) it stores memories; and (5) it provides emotions .The three major divisions of the brain are the hindbrain,the midbrain, and the forebrain.The following major divisions are presented below based on the descriptions and expalantions made by Cornista and Lupato (2000):

1.Hindbrain. This is the lowest part of the brain,located at the rear base of the skull. It consists of the medulla,pons, and cerebellum.

The medulla through which many afferent and efferent signal pass lies just above the spinal cord. It is responsible for controlling heartbeat and breathing . It controls the muscles that are used in such vital activities of the body like chewing, swallowing, sneezing, coughing, and salivation.

Within the medulla is a latticdlike network of nerve cells called the reticular formation which directly controls a person’s state of arousal, sleep-walking cycle. It extends into and through the pons and the midbrain. A damage to it can result in an almost permanent coma- like state of sleep.

The pons is a bundle of nerve fibers that connect both hemisphere of the cerebellum. It transmits neural impulses toward and downward within the central nervous system. Helps control chewing and facial expression. The cerebellum consists of two rounded lumps located at the back of and above the medulla.the word “ cerebellum” means “ little brain” which was derived from the fact that it looks like a miniature version of the forebrain .The parts of the cerebellum serve different function. One area is involved in maintaining a sense of balance and equiblirium. Another is involved in coordinating muscular movement. Damage to these area can cause ataxia, a condition characterized by drunken movements, lack of balance and severe tremors.

2. The Midbrain. It is the smallest of the three primary division of the brain. It lies near the top of the brain stem . Through this structure passes all neural information sent between the brain and the spinal cord. The midbrain contains centers fro visual and auditory reflexes.

3. The Forebrain. It is the highest part of the brain and fills one-half of the cavity of the skull. It is responsible for the most complex aspects of behavior and mental life. The forebrain is composed of two main structures: the diencephalion and the telecephalon.

• Diencephalon. The diencephalons is itself composed of two structures: the thalamus and hypothalamus .

a) The Thalamus is a structure deeply embedded within the brain that receives a great deal of sensory inputs from other portions of the nervous system and then transmits such information to the cerebral hemisphere and other parts of the brain

b) The hypothalamus is a small structure located just below the thalamus. It regulates the autonomic nervous system, thus influencing such reactions a sweating, salivating, shedding tears, secreting digestive juices, and changes in blood pressure.

It plays a key role in the process of homeostasis-maintaining or keeping the body’s temperament at optimal level. It is involved in many complex behaviors. Hunger, thirst, and sex drives, for example, are regulated in part, by the hypothalamus. Damage to the hypothalamus can disrupt these drives. It results in an overwhelming urge to eat, imbalance in the regulation of blood sugar, and consequently obesity. It also causes the sex organs to degenerate and the sex drives to disappear.

• Telecephalon or the Cerebrum. It is the largest part of the brain. It comprises of three main structure: the basal ganglia , the limbic system and the cerebral hemisphere.

a) The basal ganglia are group of brain structures that lie beneath the cortex. Their principal role seems to be the control of movement. The basal ganglia are deeply involved in the initiation and integration of movement and the maintenance of posture. Damage to the basal ganglia interferes with muscle tone, posture, and movement. It results to Parkison’s disease, a condition characterized by involuntary shaking of the limbs and heads.

b) The limbic system is an interconnected group of structures which form a loop and are closely connected with the hypothalamus and the inner surface of the cortex. Within the limbic system are the hippocampus and the amygdale.

• The hippocampus is involved in the process of learning and memory. Damage in hippocampus will result to severe memory loss or inability to remember events. Malfunction of thehippocampus is involved in alzheimer’s disease, a common form of senility among the elderly.

• The amygdalia is involved in the control of emotional behavior. Surgical removal of the amygdale in human beings has been one way of treating extremely violent behavior.

The cerebral hemisphere are two large structures that lie above the brains central core, one on the left side called the left hemisphere, the other on the right side called the right hemisphere.These two hemispheres are joined by the corpus callosum , a massive bundle of more than a million fibers.The four main lobes of the cerebral hemisphere are: (Worthman,1988)

1. Frontal lobe. It lies just above the eyes. It may be involved in decision making> The motor cortex is a part of the frontal lobe.

2. Temporal Lobe. It lies just above the ears. It is involved in hearing,in speech production and in emotional behavior.

3. Parietal Lobe. It lies at the very top of the brain. Sensory input from the skin receptors and muscles come this part.

4. Occipital Lobe. It lies at the back of the head just above the neck. This is the visual input area of the brain.

The cerebral cortex is the gray matter that covers the cerebral hemisphere. This is an thin wrinkled covering which contains billion of neurons. The cerebral cortex can be divided according to the functions its various areas perform : ( (Bernstein,1988)

1. Motor Cortex. It lies in the front lobe. It controls body movements. Damage to this area is followed by weakness or paralysis of specific muscles, depending on the location of injury.

2. Sensory Cortex. This is the part of the cerebral cortex which is located in the parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. It receives stimulus information from the skin, eye and ears, respectively. The cerebral cortex involved in the discussion of sensory cortex are the following:

a. Somatosensory Cortex. It lies in the partial lobe. It receives and interprets touch and pressure in the skin. Damage to this portion of the cortex generally impairs the sense of touch.

b. Visual Cortex. It is located in the occipital lobe. It is involved in receiving and analyzing visual information. Damage to this area will result to the inability of a person to distinguish the shapes of objects.

c. Auditory Cortex. This is located in the temporal lobe. It processes auditory information. Stimulation in this area can produce hallucination of sounds. The person may also hear things, but the sensation is meaningless and rather chaotic – clicks, buzzes, booms, hums.

3. Association Cortex. Association cortex appears in all the lobes. These are parts of the cerebral cortex that receive information from more than one sense or combine sensory and motor information to perform such complex cognitive tasks or associating words with images or abstract. Association areas form a large part of the cerebral cortex in human beings. This is one reason why damage to association areas can create severe deficits in all kinds of mental abilities. One of the most devastating, called aphasia, involves difficulty in producing or understanding speech.

B. Spinal Cord. The two general categories of activity are handled by the spinal cord. (Mc Gaugh, Thompson and Nelson,1977)

1. Supraspinal Activity. The spinal cord acts to channel information to and from the body and brain. The cerebral cortex and other brain structures controlling movement of the body convey activity down the cord to motoneurons which, in turn, control the muscles. Motoneurons are large neurons with bodies in the spinal cord and long processes called axons extending to the muscles. The axons of the motoneurons that control muscles in the foot, for example extend all the way from the lower spinal cord, down the leg, then synapse with the muscle. All bodily sensations are conveyed up the spinal cord to the brain.

2. Reflex. This is the other general category of spinal cord function. The spinal reflexes are somatic and autonomic responses of the body that can occur in the absence of the brain. The knee jerk reflex is a good example and it can be observed even after the spinal cord has been severed from the brain as in a paraplegic accidents victims.

C. Brain Stem . This refers to the structures of the midbrain and hindbrain, which are overlain by the cerebral hemispheres.It also represents the continuation and expansion of the spinal cord in the brain and contains all the ascending and descending fiber tracts interconnecting the brain and spinal cord, together with a number of important nerve-cell. The vital autonomic control nuclei concerned with respiration, heart action, and gastrointestinal function are located in the lower part of the brain stem.

The Glandular System in the Study of Human Behavior

The matrix presentation of the glandular system shows the discussions made by Cornista and Lupato (2000) with is presented in the textual form on the topic “ The Glandular System’”in their book General Psychology with Drug Education. The general emphasis about the presentation of the glandular system provides information the specific endocrine glands as to its location and function; hormone and disorders.

I. PITUITARY GLAND

| | | |

|Pituitary Gland |Hormone |Disorders |

| | | |

| |The functioning parts of the pituitary glands are the |1. Diabetes Insidus. This refers to the |

| |posterior lobe and the anterior lobe. |deficiency caused by undersecretion of the |

|Location: |1. Posterior lobe secretes two important types of |vasopessin hormone which characterized by |

| |hormones. These are |excessive amount of urine discharge (polyurus,|

|It situated just below the | |it results in dehydration, extreme weakness, |

|hypothalamus. |* Oxytocin . This is a hormone which stimulates |and sometimes disorientation in a person. |

| |muscular contraction in the uterus during labor and | |

| |release of milk during nursing. |2. Giantism. This disorder is caused by the |

| | |oversecretion of growth hormone (somatotropin)|

|Function : |* Vasopressin ( antidiuretic hormone). It controls |in early childhood.This is characterized by |

| |excretion of water through the kidneys and maintains |the overdevelopment or overgrowth of the |

|It is called the “master gland” |blood pressure at proper level. |entire skeleton. |

|because it produces the largest | | |

|number of different hormones, |2. Anterior lobe secretes several important hormones |3. Acromegaly. If the oversecretion of |

|controls and activates the |which have to do with growth, and the functioning of |somatotropin occurs in later life. It results |

|secretion of several other |other endocrine glands. There are six types of |in acromegaly which is characterized by the |

|endocrine glands . For example: It |hormones secreted by the anterior lobe. |overdevelopment of certain portion of the |

|sends hormones to the thyroid, | |skeleton, particularly the extremities, the |

|adrenals, gonads, in order to |* Somatotropin. This is a growth hormone . It causes |hands, and feet. |

|stimulate them to produce their own|the growth of muscles,bones, and glands | |

|hormones. | |4. Dwarfism. This deficiency is caused by the |

| |* Thyrotophin or Thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH). |undersecretion of a somatotropin hormone.It is|

| |It causes thyroid gland to secrete thyroxin. |characterized by a condition in which skeletal|

| | |structure reach and maximum development, thus |

| |* Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH). It stimulates release |, producing a mimiature person whose bodily |

| |of adrenal hormones involved |proportions and mental ability are usually |

| | |normal. |

| |*Follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH). This hormone | |

| |causes formation of the sperm cell and the egg cell ( |5. Galactorrhea. An abnormal milk secretion |

| |ovum). |which is caused by high production level of |

| | |prolactin. |

| |* Lateinizing hormone (LH). This hormone causes | |

| |ovulation, and maturation of sperm and egg cells. | |

| | | |

| |* Prolactin or Mammotrophic hormone (MH). It | |

| |stimulates milk production. | |

II.THYROID GLANDS

| | | |

|Thyroid Glands |Hormone |Disorders |

| | | |

| | |* Hydrothyrodism (mysedema). This disorder is caused by the |

|Location: |* Thyroxin. This is a hormone responsible |undersecretion of thyroid which is characterized by obesity, |

| |in regulating carbohydrate, lipid, |slowed heartbeat, lowered body temperature, reduced sweat gland |

|It is a butterfly –shaped |metabolism and growth development |activity and lack of mental alertness. |

|gland which folds around the | | |

|front and either side of the | |* Cretinism. This disorder occurs when the undersecretionn of |

|trachea ( windpipe), at the |*Calcitomin. It prevents excessive rise in|this gland occurs from birth or early infancy. Without |

|base of the neck. |blood calcium |treatment, a child with this disorder becomes a stocky dwarf |

| | |with coarse skin, oversized tongue and chalky, peg-shaped teeth,|

| | |and mentally retarded. |

| | | |

|Function: | |*Hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis) This condition is brought by |

| | |the oversecretion of thyroid gland. It is characterized by loss |

|It is responsible in | |of weight, profuse sweating, intense thirst, accelerated heart |

|regulating the body’s | |rate, general excitability and insomia |

|metabolism. | | |

| | |* Goiter. It is a disorder caused by the swelling of the thyroid|

| | |gland brought about by the gland’s overwork, hence, the |

| | |inability to secret enough hormones. A lack of iodine in the |

| | |diet is a contributing factor in many goiter cases. |

III. PARATHYROID GLANDS

| | | |

|Parathyroid Glands |Hormone |Disorders |

| | | |

|Location: | |Hypoparathyroidism. This condition is caused by the undersecretion |

| |* Parathormone. It elevates calcium |of parathormone ( low serum calcium) which is characterized by |

|These are two pairs of small |levels in blood by stimulating calcium |involuntary muscle twitching or spasm and tetany. Severe or acute |

|pea-shaped glands attracted |reabsorption from bone and kidneys. |tetany may lead to death due to respiratory or cardiac spasm if not|

|to the posterior surface of | |treated with calcium. |

|the thyroid glands | | |

| | |Hyperparathyriodism. This is an excessive parathormone secretion |

| | |which will lead to abnormally elevated serium calcium |

|Function: | |(hypercalcemia) . Chronic parathormone hypersecretion will lead to |

| | |a disorder of excessively thinned bones (osteoporosis) that may |

|These glands control the | |cause easy fracturing. |

|balance of various minerals | | |

|in the blood stream, | |Pseudohypoparathyroidism. It is a rare genetic form of a disease, |

|particularly calcium. | |in which the afflicted person demonstrates normal or high |

| | |secretionof parathormone from intact parathyroid glands, but suffer|

| | |from peripheral insensitivity of “end organ resistance”. This |

| | |individual has a characteristic appearance- short stature, round |

| | |face, abnormal teeth, mental retardation, and shortening of the |

| | |digits (especially to the fourth finger) of the hands |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

IV. ADRENAL GLANDS

| | | |

|Adrenal Glands |Hormone |Disorders |

| | | |

|Location: |Each adrenal glands is composed of two distinct |Addison’s Disease. This is a condition caused by the |

| |parts: |undersecretion of glucoconticoids which is |

|They are located just below | |characterized by marked changes in an individual’s |

|the kidney |1. Adrenal Cortea. This is the outer area of the |behavior. He becomes weak, lethargic, loses his |

| |gland. Its hormones are: |appetite for food and sexual desire, and suffers a |

| |*Glucocorticoids. Hormones which control many basic |widespread of physiological functions. |

| |chemical mechanisms within the body, including | |

|Function : |metabolism of carbohydrates and functioning of |Cushing’s Disease. This condition results when |

| |reproductive organs. |oversecretion of glucoconticoids happens during adult |

|They are extremely important |*Mineralocoracoids. Hormone that control the |stage whichis characterized by round face, growth of |

|in neural functioning and in |electrolyte balance of sodium, chloride and |beard, and cessation of menstruation. |

|the ability of the body to |potassium in the body. | |

|cope with stress. | | |

| |2. Adrenal Medulla. This is the inner layer of the | |

| |adrenal gland.Its hormone are: | |

| |* Adrenalin ( Epinephrine). This is the emergency | |

| |hormone of an individual.It will cause an increased | |

| |output of blood from the heart. | |

| | | |

| |* Nonepineplrine. Cases greater | |

| |vasoconstriction and elevation of the blood | |

| |pressure. | |

V. PANCREAS GLANDS

| | | |

|Pancreas Glands |Hormone |Disorders |

| |Glucogen. It releases glucose into the | Diabetes mellitus ( Hyperglycemia). This condition is due to |

|Location : |bloodstream from the glycogen stored in |undersecretion of insulin, thus, there is an abnormally large |

| |the liver. |amount of sugar in the blood plasma. Even up to the present, |

|It is located near the stomach| |there is no known cure for diabetes, but periodic injection of |

|and attached by a duct to the |Insulin. It enables glucose to move out of|insulin counteracts the symptoms so effectively that diabetes |

|intestinal tract. |the blood into the cells of muscles and |can now look forward to long and nearly normal lives. |

| |other tissues | |

| | |Hyperinsulin. This deficiency is characterized by oversupply of |

|Function: | |insulin .There is rapid utilization of sugar in blood resulting|

| | |in extreme weakness, cold, clammy sweating, and ever causing the|

|The pancreas through the duct,| |individual to collapse. |

|delivers a pancreatic | | |

|secretion into the digestion | |Hypoglycemia. This is a condition characterized by low blood |

| | |sugar in the individual.The hypoglycemic person has insufficient|

| | |energy available for the body’s need. |

V. GONADS OR SEX GLANDS

| | | |

|Gonads or Sex Glands |Hormone |Disorders |

|A. Male Gonads (Testes) | | |

| | | |

|Location : | | |

| |Androgens ( The best-known of these |Impotency, sterility, homosexuality ( Factors of |

|It is located along the pelvis. |androgens is testosterone) |homosexuality: hormonal, environmental, and genetic |

| | |abnormality. |

| |*Estrogen and Progesterones which are | |

|Function: |the two main types of female hormones | |

| |are also produced by the male gonads but| |

|The testes are responsible in the |are more abundant in females. | |

|regulation of sperm production and the| | |

|development of the male secondary sex | | |

|characteristics ( growth of pubic | | |

|hair, change in voice, masculine | | |

|muscle formation, growth of beard | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

|B. Female Gonads ( Ovaries) | | |

| | | |

| | | |

|Location : | | |

|It is located along the pelvis | | |

| | | |

|Functons: | | |

| |Estrogen. It is the hormones responsible| |

|The ovaries are responsible of |for the appearance of the secondary | |

|producing the female gametes (egg |characteristics. | |

|cells) . They are responsible of | | |

|secreting hormones that regulate the |Progesterone. It is the hormone which |Undersecretion of the hormones will make the secondary sex|

|secondary sex characteristics such as |prepares the uterine mucosa for the |characteristics never attain their mature condition, |

|: the development of breast, the |implantation of the fetus. |therefore, there will be regression of he secondary sex |

|widening of the hips, he growth of | |characteristics. Lesbian characteristic will be |

|pubic hair, etc. |Relaxin. It is the hormone which relaxes|observable. |

| |the ligaments in the pelvis girdle and | |

| |facilitate birth. |Adrenogenital Syndrome. It is caused by the oversecretion |

| | |of androgen. Females are born with what appear to be male |

| |Androgens. These are male hormones which|reproductive organ. |

| |are also produced by the female gonads | |

| |but are more abundant in males. | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

VI. THYMUS AND PINEAL GLANDS

| | | |

|Thymus and Pineal Glands |Hormone |Disorders |

| | | |

|1. Thymus Gland | | |

| | | |

|Location : | | |

| |Thymosins. This is a group of hormones secreted| |

|It is two-lobed gland located behind the |by the thymus gland which play a role in the | |

|breastbone and between the lungs |body’s natural immunity. | |

| | | |

|Function: | | |

| | | |

|The gland is important in the maturation of | | |

|certain white blood cells ( a class of | | |

|lymphocytes) which defend against infection and | | |

|form a surveillance system by which damaged or | | |

|malignant cells are detected and eliminated from | | |

|the body. It has the intriguing characteristics of| | |

|shrinking in size as a person grows up. | | |

| | | |

| | | |

|2. Pineal Gland | | |

| | | |

|Location: | | |

| | | |

|This is a tiny, pinecone-shaped body which is | | |

|situated near the hypothalamus at the base of the | | |

|brain | | |

| |Melatonin.This is a hormone which influences | |

| |daily biorhythms, sexual development ( | |

|Function: |functions in the development of the gonads and | |

| |reproductive cycles. | |

|The pineal gland has follicles that suggest a | | |

|glandular function and some calcium-containing | | |

|bits that are called “brain sand.” | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

REFERENCES

Bernstein, Douglas et. al. (1988) Psychology.Boston. Houthon Miffin

Cornista, Aleli N. and Lupato, Teresita A. (2000) General Psychology with Drug Education. SLA publishing House.Dagupan City

McGaugh, James L., Thompson, Richard F. and Nelson, Thomas O.(1977) Psychology I : an Experimental Approach.U.S.A. :San Francisco, California Albion Publishing Company

Morgan, Clifford et.al. ( 1986) Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition. New York: Mc Graw- Hill Book Compay

Thompson, M., Grace, C., & Cohen, L. (2001). Best Friends, Worst Enemies: Understanding the Social Lives of Children. New York: Ballantine Books.

Worthman, Camille B. Loftus , Elizabeth (1988) Psychology. New York Alfred Knopk Inc.

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