11 LEADING AND HANGING Learning - Cengage

LEADING AND CHANGING g C H A P T E R

11 HUMAN SERVICE rnin 1

ORGANIZATIONS ge Lea CHAPTER OUTLINE a Leadership: Definition and Context g Leadership Theories and Models n Traits e Skills and Competencies C Leadership Styles f Contingency Theories of Leadership o Charismatic Leadership ty Transactional and Transformational Leadership r Exemplary Leadership e Visionary Leadership p Servant-Leadership o Issues in Leadership Pr Political Aspects of Leadership

Organizational Change in Human Service Organizations Staff-Initiated Organizational Change Use of Consultants Types of Consultation Selecting and Using Consultants Some Common Consultation Technologies Administrative Change through Leadership Why Organizational Change Efforts Often Fail Planned Organizational Change Levels of Organizational Change A Model of Organizational Change Summary

Diversity and Leadership

Ethics Issues in Leadership

Shaping Organizational Culture

1Portions of this chapter have been adapted from Packard, 2009.

234

LEADING AND CHANGING HUMAN SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS 235

We have now reviewed all of the core managerial functions, from planning and program and organization design, to human resources management and supervision, to financial management and monitoring and evaluation. Leadership will be presented in this chapter as the force holding these elements together, aligning them, and enabling the organization to function as an integrated system. Because human services must be constantly adapting, we will also look at common methods of organizational change that a manager or other staff member may use to improve organizational operations or responsiveness.

As a human service manager ascends the hierarchy in a human service organization, the expectations for leadership increase. Increased positional power and vis-

g ibility attract greater attention to and reliance on the manager's leadership style. in Although a great deal has been written about leadership, even in the government

and not-for-profit sectors (e.g., Collins, 2005; Perry, 2010; Renz, 2010), the cover-

n age here will be necessarily brief. ar LEADERSHIP: DEFINITION AND CONTEXT

Le There are countless definitions of leadership. Northouse (2010) defines leadership

as "a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve

e common goals" (p. 3). The term followers will be used to describe those whom g the leader is attempting to influence. The term subordinates is often used in organi-

zational settings, but the term followers suggests that leaders can be in any role or

a position, and a bureaucratic hierarchy is not necessarily implied. Additionally, the g concept of shared leadership contradicts the notion of "solo" or unilateral leadern ship. According to Gill (2006), shared leadership is characterized by the quality of e interactions rather than hierarchical level; team problem solving; "conversation

rather than instructions, shared values, and beliefs"; and "honesty and a desire for

C the common good" (p. 30). f Leadership is a key factor in coordinating and aligning organizational processes.

o As with any aspect of organizational functioning, it should focus on organizational

performance, and most importantly, effectiveness in achieving desired outcomes.

ty Leadership can contribute to outcomes at different levels (e.g., dyad, group, r team, program, agency, community, and society). In an agency setting, outcomes ecan range from the accomplishment of agency objectives and results of program pevaluations to client outcomes. For example, at the individual or team level, outocome variables such as job satisfaction or commitment can be measured; at the r organizational level, leadership can affect overall culture or climate. P Another important aspect of the leadership context in the human services is the

growing emphasis on evidence-based practice. This plays out in two ways in a discussion of leadership. First, in its traditional usage, evidence-based methods should be used by leaders in the design and implementation of the programs of their agencies, now being called evidence-based programming (Briggs & McBeath, 2009). Second, evidence-based practice principles can be used in assessing the theories, models, and practice guidelines for leadership. The newly emerging field of evidence-based management is an example of this application (Pfeffer & Sutton, 2006). When discussing leadership models and principles in the next section, the relevant empirical literature will be cited wherever possible.

236 CHAPTER 11

LEADERSHIP THEORIES AND MODELS

We will now review key theories and models of leadership. After that discussion,

detailed coverage of a key leadership function--organizational change--will be

presented. We will begin with the earliest research on leadership in the twentieth

century, which focused on traits, originally seen as innate characteristics of lea-

ders. This area of study broadened to include skills and competencies as well as

the evolution of leadership styles and the notion that there is no one "best way"

of leading (contingency theory). The section will end with a review of several cur-

rent theories and a discussion of several issues in leadership, including diversity and ethics.

erty of Cengage Learning TRAITS

Recently, there has been renewed interest in the study of leadership trait theory, especially characteristics of effective leaders, despite the fact that this perspective is limited. Little is known about how combinations of traits may impact effectiveness, or how traits affect organizational outcomes (Northouse, 2010, p. 26), but researchers do agree that traits are important only to the extent that they are relevant to a particular leadership situation.

In light of these limitations, traits associated with effective leaders include intelligence, self-confidence, determination (e.g., desire to get the job done, including initiative, persistence, dominance, and drive), integrity, and sociability (Northouse, 2010, p. 19); a high energy level and tolerance for stress; an internal locus of control orientation; emotional stability and maturity; personal integrity; emotional and social intelligence (including curiosity, inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, learning orientation intelligence); surgency (e.g., extroversion, high energy level, and power orientation); conscientiousness; and agreeableness (Yukl, 2010). In addition to these traits, leadership effectiveness has recently been associated with being "authentic." Grounded in positive psychology, the authentic leader "[is] ... confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, moral/ethical, future-oriented, ... gives priority to developing associates to be leaders ... is true to him/herself ... [and] exhibits behavior [that] positively transforms or develops associates into leaders themselves" (Luthans & Avolio, 2003, p. 243).

op SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES PrCompetencies are reflected in the style theories of leadership: the notion that cer-

tain behaviors, for example task, relationship, or change-oriented behaviors (Yukl,

2010), make leaders more effective, and that these behaviors or styles (e.g., partici-

pative or autocratic leadership) can by and large be learned and improved. Compe-

tencies are defined as "the combination of knowledge, skills, traits, and attributes

that collectively enable someone to perform a given job" (Zenger & Folkman,

2002, p. 83).

Although the "competency movement" (Zenger & Folkman, 2002, p. 85) has

not yet produced a strong evidence base to relate "lists" of competencies to leadership

LEADING AND CHANGING HUMAN SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS 237

effectiveness in specific situations or challenge the assumption that all competencies are equal, the literature shows that certain competencies are mandatory (to a greater or lesser degree) for effective leadership. For example, Zenger and Folkman (2002) found that business leaders with strengths in multiple competencies were most effective; and, significantly, that particular combinations of competencies seemed to be more powerful predictors of effectiveness. For example, being able to give feedback did not always correlate with effectiveness, whereas giving feedback while building trust did (Zenger & Folkman, 2002, p. 151). They also found that listening skills alone were not particularly valuable, but listening skills plus other interpersonal skills (e.g., being considerate and caring) did make a

g difference. in Current thinking uses a "strengths perspective," in which administrators work

to build on their strengths and find situations that optimize them (Buckingham &

n Clifton, 2001). Zenger and Folkman (2002) agree that magnifying strengths is the r best overall approach, but they add that "fatal flaws" must be fixed. For example, a they found that an inability to learn from mistakes and a lack of core interpersonal e skills were fatal flaws (pp. 157?162).

L Yukl (2010) has noted that different skill mixes are needed at different

managerial levels, with conceptual skills more important at higher levels and

e technical skills more important at lower levels. Some of each skill will be needed g at every level, and interpersonal skills are equally important at every level of

management.

a In social work, a set of generic management competencies, ranging from advog cacy to interpersonal skills, has been developed by the National Network for Social n Work Managers (); they include many of the e competencies mentioned in the research and others that are tailored to human ser-

vices settings.

of C LEADERSHIP STYLES Competencies are also reflected in the style theories of leadership: the notion that ty certain behaviors make leaders more effective and that these behaviors or styles r (e.g., participative or autocratic leadership) can, by and large, be learned and eimproved. The earliest work in this area, at Ohio State University and the Univerpsity of Michigan, contrasted task behaviors, such as directing and providing structure for the group and focusing on production, with relationship behaviors, which roemphasized building trust, respect, good relations within the team, and an P employee orientation. Examples of these behaviors and a newly developing category of change-oriented behaviors are provided in Table 11.1. Although research in this area is still inconclusive, "the overall pattern of results suggests that effective leaders use a pattern of behavior that is appropriate for the situation and reflects a high concern for task objectives and a high concern for relationships" (Yukl, 2010, p. 81). Leadership research now more typically recognizes complexities, which cannot offer simple answers. These insights are reflected in style models, including the Leadership Grid and Situational Leadership theories, which were discussed in Chapter 7.

238 CHAPTER 11

TABLE 11.1

EXAMPLES OF TASK-, RELATIONS-, AND CHANGE-ORIENTED BEHAVIORS

Task-Oriented Behaviors Organize work activities to improve efficiency. Plan short-term operations. Assign work to groups or individuals. Clarify what results are expected for a task. Set specific goals and standards for task performance. Explain rules, policies, and standard operating procedures.

g Direct and coordinate work activities. in Monitor operations and performance. n Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt the work. ar Relations-Oriented Behaviors e Provide support and encouragement to someone with a difficult task. L Express confidence that a person or group can perform a difficult task.

Socialize with people to build relationships.

e Recognize contributions and accomplishments. g Provide coaching and mentoring when appropriate. a Consult with people on decisions affecting them. g Allow people to determine the best way to do a task. n Keep people informed about actions affecting them. e Help resolve conflicts in a constructive way. C Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to build team identity. f Recruit competent new members for the team or organization. o Change-Oriented Behaviors ty Monitor the external environment to detect threats and opportunities. r Interpret events to explain the urgent need for change. e Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for improvements. p Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization. oEncourage people to view problems or opportunities in a different way. PrDevelop innovative new strategies linked to core competencies.

Encourage and facilitate innovation and entrepreneurship in the organization. Encourage and facilitate collective learning in the team or organization. Experiment with new approaches for achieving objectives. Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new vision or strategy. Encourage and facilitate efforts to implement major change. Announce and celebrate progress in implementing change. Influence outsiders to support change and negotiate agreements with them.

From Yukl (2010)

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