103學年度法鼓佛教學院博士班入學試題



103學年度法鼓佛教學院博士班入學試題

科目：佛學英文 日期：103.05.16

I. Translation

Please translate the following passages into Chinese.

1. The term Hīnayana refers to the group of Buddhist schools or sects that appeared before the beginning of the common era and those directly derived from them. The word Hīnayana ... is pejorative. It was applied disdainfully to these early forms of Buddhism by the followers of the great reformist movement that arose just at the beginning of the common era, which referred to itself as the Mahayana. ... It would be more correct to give the name "early Buddhism" to what is called Hīnayana, for the term denotes the whole collection of the most ancient forms of Buddhism: those earlier than the rise of the Mahayana and those that share the same inspiration as these and have the same ideal, namely the arhat. 15%

----from "What, If Anything, Is Mahayana Buddhism?"

2. What is this mind? Is it the source of the defilements (kleśa) or is it the mind of virtue or non-virtue (kuśala-akuśala), or is it the mind endowed with the seed of the primordial substratum (ālaya, kun-gzi) After receiving and understanding the substance of Dharma, Siddhartha adhered to the Six Pāramitās and became a purified being. Totally free from the defilements he amassed for a long period of time the store of merit and knowledge. Just like the full moon, pure and unimpeded in its brightness, his mind too, on account of the perfect merit and knowledge, was like the full moon; it was in a state of neither becoming nor non-becoming (bhāva-abhāva). In the same way just like the full moon, the great merit and knowledge showed themselves as a moon. Being endowed with the store of merit and knowledge he perceived the lunar disc of his mind. He rejoiced and showed devotion and then he spoke once more: O Lord Protectors, I, being free from all defilements and impurities perceive my mind, free of the subject-object relation, as a lunar disc." 15%

----from "Sakyamuni's Enlighment According to the Yoga Tantra"

3. I must not be misunderstood as saying that only monks and nuns knew texts by heart. What I am saying is that only they were so organized that they could hand them on to future generations. An interesting passage in the Vinaya says that a monk may interrupt his rains retreat for up to seven days if a layman or laywoman summons him with the message that he or she knows a text and is afraid it will get lost - in other words, that it needs to be passed on to the Sangha.We do not know how the Sangha was organized for this purpose in the earliest period. Several times in the Canon monks are referred to as vinaya-dhara, dhamma-dhara and matika-dhara, which means that they had memorized respectively monastic rules, sermons (suttanta), or the lists of terms which later developed into the Abhidhamma works. But I know of no passage which makes it clear whether these were ever exclusive specialisms. Later monks certainly did specialize in memorizing particular texts or groups of texts, and this apparently continued even after they had been committed to writing in the first century B.C. 20%

----from "How the Mahāyāna Began"

II. Comprehension

The following paragraphs are from L.S. Cousins' article, Pāli Oral Literature:

(1)Early Buddhist literature is an oral literature. Such a literature is not without its own characteristic features. A widespread use of mnemonic formulae is one of the most typical of these. I would refer to the considerable body of research on the nature of oral epic poetry. In such poetry the formulae are used both as an aid to actual performance and to maintain the continuity and form of the epic tradition.

(2) Both these features are certainly present in the sutta literature. In the first place many suttas are clearly designed for chanting. We should assume that then as now, their chanting would produce a great deal of religious emotion — the pāmojja and piti-somanassa of the texts. The difference of course would be that the language of the suttas would still be directly comprehensible to the hearers. In these circumstances suttas would be chanted by individual monks both for edification and for enjoyment. We may compare the recitations attributed to Ananda and Upali in accounts of the First Council. In practice they would have to be tailored to the needs of the particular situation — shortened or lengthened as required. An experienced chanter would be able to string together many different traditional episodes and teachings so as to form a coherent, profound and moving composition.

(3) It has been clearly shown that in many cases a traditional oral singer does not have a fixed text for a particular song. He can for example be recorded on two different occasions. The result may vary greatly in length. He will insist that he lias sung the same song. In fact his viewpoint is quite reasonable and in many ways defensible. If one is asked to recount an incident which has taken place, one may tell the story very briefly to someone met on the street and at much greater length to someone else over lunch. One might well not admit that the account of the matter was different on the two occasions, although the length of the story would certainly differ. Of course in practice a tape recorder might very easily show that ihe two versions were to some extent inconsistent or contradictory.

(4) There is more to it than this; for an epic singer might reply that all the material in both songs was traditional apart from a little ornamentation. 'But,' says the historian, 'only in the second version did the Sultan travel via Dubrovnik. You have invented this and falsified history.' 'Not so,' says the singer. 'It is normal for heroes to travel via Dubrovnik. Many songs tell of this.' It is easy to see that such an approach is un-historical. Nevertheless we should note that it is an extremely traditional and conservative approach. The important thing is to preserve the matter of tradition. The application of this in a given situation may vary greatly and should do. The measure of the experience, talent and versatility of the performer is his capacity so to adapt his material.

1. According to your understanding of Buddhism, do you believe that "Early Buddhist literature is an oral literature". It that is true, does that mean Sakyamuni Buddha was illiterate as well as all the members of the Sangha. Please elaborate your opinions. 20%

2. What does Cousins really mean when he says: "In practice they would have to be tailored to the needs of the particular situation — shortened or lengthened as required". Does he mean all the suttas have to be tailored in each monk's own will, or all the suttas have to be tailored in Sangha's will, or what? And second question, Does he mean that there are short and long version of the same sutta, or there are short and long length of different suttas? Please write down your opinions in details. 15%

3. In paragraph (4), Why Cousins uses "epic oral singer" as an example to explain the early oral Buddhist literature? What the likeness and differences between oral singer and oral Buddhist literature? 15%

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