Chapter 1 Psychology and Human Relations in the Workplace

Chapter 1

Psychology and Human Relations in the Workplace

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Human Relations in the Workplace

Assignment Checklist

What you should do: Listen to your Friend introduce the chapter Review the concept map

Read the text Read or listen to your Friend read the case study Look up the key terms and concepts

Try the learning objects

Take the lesson quiz

Participate in the discussion board forum Notes:

Where?

When?

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Concept Map

Psychology and Human Relations in the Workplace

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Human Relations in the Workplace

Introduction

While our primary concern in this course is the study of behavior and the application of psychology in organizational and work settings, it is important that we first look at the discipline of psychology. We are specifically interested in defining psychology and showing how we use the principles of science to effectively answer the questions we have about behavior in organizational settings.

With the advent of industrialization in the West in the 18th century, it did not take long for those involved to want to use all the resources at hand to make work more productive. Initially, the processes were based on the view of workers as secondary to improving productivity. After much time and conflict, during the 20th century this view gradually changed to one in which employees of a business were seen as integral components in the desire to create effective workplaces. In this chapter, we define what Human Relations means and how it has changed over time. We also will see how we apply the principles of psychological research to help answer the questions we have about Human Relations.

Learning Objectives

When you finish your study of this chapter, you will be able to ? Define what is meant by the term psychology ? Define and apply the scientific method ? Define and apply the different forms of psychological research ? Identify the characteristics of research ethics ? Define and discuss the concept of Human Relations ? Discuss the history of Human Relations and how it has changed over the past 40 years ? Identify how psychological research is used to study Human Relations

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The Science of Psychology

Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of behavior and its application to the world around us. Probably the most important aspect of psychology is that it is a science. The importance of science cannot be stressed enough. Prior to the emergence of science in the 17th and 18th centuries, those interested in finding the answers to life's questions relied on superstition, knowledge passed down from the past, case studies, and their own personal opinions to answer the questions they had. The problem with this approach is that such answers lack evidence of their legitimacy and are often incorrect. A case in point can be seen in the death of George Washington. On December 12, 1799, George Washington awoke suffering from severe respiratory distress. His physician was called and prescribed a number of vinegar-based tonics and a series of blood lettings that removed half of his blood over the course of two days (Vadakan, 2004). On December 14, George Washington died from a combination of a bacterial infection and the Sculpture of George Washington loss of a significant amount of his blood (Wallenborn, 1997). While in retrospect, the best treatment would have been antibiotics (that would not be discovered for another 125 years), the treatment the president did receive was based on a medical theory nearly 2000 years old. It was Galen, the Greek physician, who theorized that blood existed in excess in humans, and if illness were present, the best practice was to remove an amount of blood in order to get the body back in balance (Fiorin, 2005). Galen's ideas were based on case study, philosophical musings, and spirituality, and yet were held for 2000 years as accurately describing the nature of human health. With the widespread use of scientific inquiry, it was quickly discovered that a number of Galen's ideas were wrong. New answers for human health were hypothesized; as practitioners began utilizing science, the hypotheses were either proven accurate and used or proven wrong and set aside.

With the rise of science, we can now look at a variety of questions and find legitimate answers. This is especially true with human behavior, which has proven over the years to be a difficult topic about which to find accurate explanations. This brings us to the next part of our definition of psychology. Behavior can be viewed from two main perspectives: that which can and that which cannot be seen. We can call these behaviors overt and covert. Overt behaviors are readily visible and can be easily counted. The number of times a person lies to a boss is an overt behavior. Covert behaviors are not readily visible, are difficult to count, and can generally be described as mental processes. The motivation for lying to a boss is a covert behavior.

The final part of our definition is probably the most applicable to Human Relations-- psychology has as one of its main goals the application of the knowledge gained through research to effect positive change in the world around us. Thus, Human Relations stresses the utilization of psychological principles and research to help individuals work effectively through or with others.

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Human Relations in the Workplace

The Scientific Method

As we have seen, science has the potential to create evidence that can lead to the answers we have for explaining human behavior. Science is a generic term that really implies the use of the scientific method. The scientific method is the means by which science is applied. It allows us to utilize a systematic means by which we answer questions regarding behavior. This systematic means must be clearly explained so that others may challenge the answers to see if they are accurate. The more others find the same answer, the more we can be confident that the answer is an accurate one. The parts of the scientific method are as follows.

1. Observation and Review--Scientists observe behavior and read what has already been discovered. They try to determine if there are questions that they would like to have answered.

2. Creation of a Testable Hypothesis-- Scientists make a prediction that one factor is related to another. The hypothesis must be testable.

3. Conducting Research--Scientists find the best form of research to test the hypothesis 4. Analysis of Results--Scientists statistically analyze data to determine if the results support

or reject the hypothesis 5. Publication of Results--Scientists report findings, using a standardized procedure, and

attempt to have these findings reviewed by other scientists so that the findings can be evaluated, improved upon, and published 6. Theory Building--Once published, the findings are used to build and add to the body of knowledge explaining a concept or behavior; this body of knowledge is referred to as a theory. The findings can strengthen or weaken existing theories and create new theories.

The great strength of the scientific method is that it relies on evidence gained in a controlled manner. This means that no matter how perfect an answer sounds (see Galen), if there is no scientific evidence of its validity, then the answer is not viewed as legitimate and is not generally used.

Different Forms of Psychological Research

Human Relations uses research from all areas of psychology, so it is important to understand the different types of research, when they are used, and their strengths and weaknesses. This knowledge will allow you to determine which answers are evidence based and which answers are philosophical in nature.

The first area of research at which we will look can be titled descriptive research. Descriptive research allows us to observe and measure behavior in a systematic manner. The main purpose of all methods used in descriptive research is to provide objective and detailed descriptions of behavior and mental processes. However, descriptive research does not show cause and effect relationships, due to little experimenter control. The data from these research procedures only allows the researcher to speculate about any cause-and-effect relationships. The different forms of descriptive research follow.

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1. Case Studies are unique experiences that cannot be replicated in the laboratory. For example, if a business experiences large layoffs, we can study the remaining employees to see how they respond to the new environment in which they work. If we recreate this scenario in a laboratory, the reactions of the subject employees would not be similar to the reactions of employees in the real setting. Case studies are useful but are unique to a time and setting and may not be representative of other experiences.

2. Naturalistic Observation allows us to clandestinely view behavior as it naturally occurs. For example, we can observe the productivity of workers in a business with unrestricted access to the Internet compared to the productivity of workers in a business with restricted access to the Internet. Naturalistic observation provides us with useful raw data but it does not imply causation, as there are a number of other variables that may explain the differences we observe.

3. Psychological Tests allow us to measure many human behaviors, from personality traits to intelligence to aptitudes. Tests must be reliable and valid in order to assess effectively. Reliability is a statistical measure of a test's consistency, or ability to measure repeatedly with the same result. Validity is a statistical measure of a test's ability to measure what it is supposed to measure.

4. Surveys allow us to easily and cheaply ask a sample group of people who represent a larger population about their experiences, activities, and opinions. For example, we can question a group of employees about their health care preferences. It is important to make sure that the sample population mirrors the larger population so that we avoid a sampling error. It is also important that the wording of the questions does not unduly influence the responses of the participants so that we avoid semantic errors in the questions. Caution! When reading the results of a survey, first note when the survey was taken. World events change. People modify their thinking and change their minds. Attitudes toward fashions, education, activities, and relationships constantly change.

The second area of research is called correlational research. Correlational research describes the relationship between two or more variables. Correlations occur on a continuum between -1 and +1. The point on this range at which the correlation falls will determine the strength and nature of the relationship. Those relationships closer to -1 are strong and negative, meaning that the high variables of one variable are associated with the low variables of the other variable in the correlation. For example, there is strong negative correlation between job satisfaction and stress level (MohajeriNelson, 2006). As one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Relationships closer to +1 are also strong yet positive, meaning that the high values of one variable are associated with the high values of the other variable. For example, there is a strong positive correlation between teamwork and job satisfaction (Vaskova, 2007). As one variable increases, the other variable increases.

The closer we get to zero, the weaker the relationship becomes. For example, in some professions there is no correlation between what a person makes and her/his job satisfaction (Knight, 2004). Correlations are frequently used in Human Relations to provide useful information about the workplace and the employees concerned.

Caution! Again, remember that correlation does not necessarily imply causation. Too often when a strong correlation is found between two variables, readers or listeners conclude that one factor causes the other. There can be many other possible explanations for the relationship.

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Human Relations in the Workplace

The third and final area of research we will look at is called experimental research. The pinnacle of psychological research allows experimenters to control the situation being studied. The benefit of having this control is that it allows the researcher to imply a cause and effect relationship. For example, an experiment could be conducted to see if increasing pay increases productivity. The features of this experiment would be as follows:

? Hypothesis?An educated guess: Increased pay increases productivity

? Independent Variable?The variable that is manipulated: Increasing pay

? Dependent Variable?The variable that is measured: Levels of productivity

? Experimental Group?The group that receives the independent variable: Receives increased pay

? Control Group?The group that does not receive the independent variable but does everything the control group does: Does not receive increased pay

? Statistically Insignificant Difference?A statistical analysis that shows that the difference between an experimental group and the control group is due to chance

? Statistically Significant Difference?A statistical difference that shows that the difference between an experimental group and a control group is due to the independent variable

Experimental research is potentially very effective in explaining why behaviors occur. According to Brutus, Gill, and Duniewicz (2010), randomized experiments are considered the gold standard for determining cause-and-effect relationships. One major criticism is that such studies are often artificial in nature and do not represent real life.

Caution! Control is the key in experiments. All factors other than the one being tested must be controlled. It is also critical that participants not know whether they are in an experimental or control group. Often the novelty of participating in an experiment can produce exceptional results. When reading experiments, check to be sure that a control group was used. Without a control group, you will never be certain of a cause-and-effect relationship.

All of the above forms of research can provide insight into the field of Human Relations. Above all else, the more that this field adheres to the values of psychology's scientific findings, the more the field of Human Relations maintains its legitimacy as a discipline that can help individuals work effectively.

Research in all areas has been criticized at one time or another because of methodology. For example, in industrial-organizational psychology, much of the criticism of research in the area of work-family has concerned research designs and methods used (Casper, Eby, Bordeaux, Lockwood, & Lambert, 2007). Work-family research has been criticized for overreliance on cross-sectional designs, poorly understood causal relations, lack of corroborating evidence, overreliance on single source, self-report survey data, poor measures, and overemphasis on the individual level of analysis. To reduce this criticism, Casper, Eby, Bordeaux, Lockwood, and Lambert (2007) recommend consistent reporting of sample characteristics; increased sampling from distinct racial and ethnic groups; greater use of longitudinal designs and laboratory studies to examine causal and dynamic relationships; increased use of multisource data to better establish convergent validity; exploration of relations at levels of analysis other than the individual; and closer attention to the validity of perceptual measures.

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