CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
I. Motivation
A. Vocabulary
1. motivation – internal processes that initiate, sustain, and direct activities.
2. need – an internal deficiency that may energize behavior.
3. drive – psychological expression of internal needs or valued goals, e.g., hunger, thirst, or a drive for success.
4. response – any action, glandular activity, or other identifiable behavior.
5. goal – target or objective of motivated behavior.
6. incentive value – value of a goal above and beyond its ability to fill a need.
B. Type of Motives
1. primary motives – innate motives based on biological needs.
2. stimulus motives- innate needs for stimulation and information
3. secondary motives – motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals.
4. homeostasis – a steady state of bodily equilibrium.
II. Hunger
A. Brain Mechanisms
1. hypoglycemia – below-normal blood sugar level.
2. hypothalamus – small area at the base of the brain that regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, especially hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior.
3. feeding system – areas of the hypothalamus that initiate eating when stimulated (lateral hypothalamus). It’s sensitive to levels of glucose/sugar in the blood and chemicals in marijuana.
4. satiety system – areas in the hypothalamus that terminate eating (ventromedial hypothalamus).
5. neuropeptide Y – a substance in the brain that initiates eating.
6. glucagons-like peptide 1 – a substance in the brain that terminates eating; released by intestines; takes about 10 for hypothalamus to respond.
7. set point – proportion of body fat that tends to be maintained by changes in hunger and eating.
8. leptin – a substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating.
B. Obesity
1. external eating cue – any external stimulus that tends to encourage hunger or to elicit eating.
2. diet – types and amounts of food and drink regularly consumed over a period of time.
C. Paradox of Yo-Yo Dieting
1. weight cycling – repeated swings between losing and gaining weight.
2. metabolic rate – rate at which energy is consumed by bodily activity.
3. behavioral dieting – weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits rather than temporary self-starvation.
D. Other Factors in Hunger
1. cultural values – importance and desirability of various objects and activities as defined by people in a given culture.
2. taste
a. taste aversion is an active dislike for a particular food.
b. bait shyness – an unwillingness or hesitation on the part of animals to eat a particular food.
E. Eating Disorders
1. anorexia nervosa – active self-starvation or a sustained loss of appetite that has psychological origins.
2. bulimia nervosa – excessive eating/gorging usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives.
3. causes – related to control issues; have a distorted view of themselves and exaggerated fears of becoming fat.
4. treatment
III. Primary Motives Revisited
A. Thirst
1. extracellular thirst – thirst caused by a reduction in the volume of fluids found between body cells; caused by vomiting/sweating/perspiration.
2. intracellular thirst – thirst triggered when fluid is drawn out of cells due to an increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell; caused by eating excess salt.
B. Pain
1. episodic drive – a drive that occurs in distinct episodes, e.g., pain.
C. Sex Drive
1. estrogen – any of a number of female sex hormones.
2. androgen – any of a number of male sex hormones, e.g., testosterone.
3. non-homeostatic drive – a drive that is relatively independent of physical deprivation cycles or bodily need states. In humans, sex drive is relatively independent of bodily need states and is non-homeostatic.
4. Coolidge effect – p. 442.
IV. Stimulus Drives
A. Arousal Theory
1. stimulus drives – drives based on needs for exploration, manipulation, curiosity, and stimulation.
2. arousal theory – assumes that people prefer to maintain ideal, or comfortable, levels of arousal.
3. arousal – overall level of activation in the body and nervous system of a person or animal.
B. Sensation seeking – personality characteristic of persons who prefer high levels of stimulation.
C. Levels of Arousal
1. inverted U function – a curve, roughly in the shape of an upside-down U, that relates performance to levels of arousal.
2. Yerkes-Dodson law – a summary of the relationships among arousal, task complexity, and performance.
3. test anxiety – high levels of arousal and worry that seriously impair test performance.
D. Circadian Rhythms
1. circadian rhythms – cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24-hour day.
2. shift work and jet lag
3. preadaptation – gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated change in circadian rhythms.
4. melatonin – a hormone produced by the pineal gland in response to cycles of light and dark.
V. Learned Motives
A. Opponent-Process Theory – states that strong emotions tend to be followed by an opposite emotional state; also the strength of both emotional states changes over time.
B. Social Motives – learned motives acquired as part of growing up in a particular society or culture.
C. Need for Achievement
1. need for achievement – desire to excel or meet some internalized standard of excellence.
2. need for power – the desire to have social impact and control over others.
3. characteristics of achievers – moderate risk takers.
D. Key to Success
1. Bloom found that drive and determination vs. great talent led to exceptional success.
2. self-confidence – belief that one can successfully carry out an activity or reach a goal.
VII. Motives in Perspective
A. Hierarchy of human needs – Abraham Maslow’s ordering of needs, based on their presumed strength or potency.
1. basic needs – first of four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy; lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs.
2. growth needs – in Maslow’s hierarchy, the higher-level needs associated with self-actualization.
B. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
1. intrinsic motivation – motivation that comes from within, rather than from external rewards; motivation based on personal enjoyment of a task or activity.
2. extrinsic motivation – motivation based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors.
C. Turning Play into Work
VIII. Inside an Emotion
A. Vocabulary
1. emotion – a sate characterized by physiological arousal, changes in facial expression, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings.
2. adaptive behaviors – actions that aid attempts to survive and adapt to changing conditions.
3. physiological changes (in emotions) – alterations in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary responses.
4. adrenaline – a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that tends to arouse the body.
5. emotional expression – outward signs that an emotion is occurring.
6. emotional feelings – private, subjective experience of having an emotion.
B. Primary emotions
1. primary emotions - according to Robert Plutchik, the most basic emotions are fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, and acceptance.
2. mood – a low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state.
C. Brain and emotion
1. amygdala – part of the limbic system that produces fear responses.
IX. Physiology and Emotion
A. Flight or Flight
1. autonomic nervous system (ANS) – system of nerves that connects the brain with the internal organs and glands.
2. sympathetic branch – part of the ANS that activates the body at times of stress.
3. parasympathetic branch – part of the ANS that quiets the body and conserves energy.
4. parasympathetic rebound – excess activity in the parasympathetic nervous system following a period of intense emotion.
B. Lie Detectors
1. polygraph – a device for recording heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and the galvanic skin response; commonly called a lie detector.
2. galvanic skin response – a change in the electrical resistance (or inversely, the conductance) of the skin due to sweating.
3. irrelevant questions – in a polygraph exam , neutral, non-threatening, or non-emotional questions.
4. relevant questions – in a polygraph exam, questions to which only a guilty person should react.
5. control questions – in a polygraph exam, questions that almost always provoke anxiety.
X. Expressing Emotions
A. Facial Expressions
1. Cultural differences in emotion
2. Gender and emotion
3. Body language
a. kinesics – study of the meaning of body movements, posture, hand gestures, and facial expressions; commonly called body language.
b. emotional tone – underlying emotional state an individual is experiencing at any given moment.
c. facial blend – a mix of two or more basic facial expressions.
d. pleasantness-unpleasantness – as reflected by facial expressions, the degree to which a person is experiencing pleasure or displeasure.
e. attention-rejection – as reflected by facial expressions, the degree of attention given to a person or object.
f. activation – as reflected by facial expressions, the degree of arousal a person is experiencing.
g. illustrators –gestures people use to illustrate what they are saying.
h. emblems – gestures that have widely understood meanings within a particular culture.
XI. Theories of Emotion
A. James-Lange theory – states that emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousal.
B. Cannon-Bard theory – states that activity in the thalamus causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal to occur simultaneously.
C. Schacter’s cognitive theory – states that emotions occur when physical arousal is labeled or interpreted on the basis of experience and situational cues.
1. attribution – mental process of assigning causes to events. In emotion, the process of attributing arousal to a particular source.
D. Facial Feedback Hypothesis – states that sensations from facial expressions help define what emotion a person feels.
E. Contemporary Model of Emotion
1. emotional appraisal – evaluating the personal meaning of a stimulus or situation.
XII. Emotional Intelligence – emotional competence, including empathy, self-control, self-awareness, and other skills.
XIII. Triangular theory of love – Robert Sternberg’s theory that love is made up of intimacy, passion, and commitment. There are 7 “flavors” of love: nonlove, liking, romantic love, fatuous love, infatuation, and companionate love.
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