ECOLOGY - Bio-Nica

[Pages:100]ECOLOGY From Individuals to Ecosystems

ECOLOGY From Individuals to Ecosystems

MICHAEL BEGON

School of Biological Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

COLIN R. TOWNSEND

Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

JOHN L. HARPER

Chapel Road, Brampford Speke, Exeter, UK

FOURTH EDITION

? 1986, 1990, 1996, 2006 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

BLACKWELL PUBLISHING 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia

The right of Mike Begon, Colin Townsend and John Harper to be identified as the Authors of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher

First edition published 1986 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Second edition published 1990 Third edition published 1996 Fourth edition published 2006

1 2006

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Begon, Michael.

Ecology : from individuals to ecosystems / Michael Begon, Colin R.

Townsend, John L. Harper.-- 4th ed.

p.

cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-1117-1 (hard cover : alk. paper)

ISBN-10: 1-4051-1117-8 (hard cover : alk. paper)

1. Ecology. I. Townsend, Colin R. II. Harper, John L. III. Title.

QH54.B416 2005

577-- dc22

2005004136

A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

Set in 9.5/12 Dante MT by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by CPI Bath Press

The publisher's policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufatured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards.

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Contents

Preface, vii Introduction: Ecology and its Domain, xi

Part 1: Organisms 1 Organisms in their Environments: the Evolutionary Backdrop, 3 2 Conditions, 30 3 Resources, 58 4 Life, Death and Life Histories, 89 5 Intraspecific Competition, 132 6 Dispersal, Dormancy and Metapopulations, 163 7 Ecological Applications at the Level of Organisms and Single-Species Populations: Restoration, Biosecurity

and Conservation, 186

Part 2: Species Interactions 8 Interspecific Competition, 227 9 The Nature of Predation, 266 10 The Population Dynamics of Predation, 297 11 Decomposers and Detritivores, 326 12 Parasitism and Disease, 347 13 Symbiosis and Mutualism, 381 14 Abundance, 410 15 Ecological Applications at the Level of Population Interactions: Pest Control and Harvest Management, 439

vi CONTENTS

Part 3: Communities and Ecosystems 16 The Nature of the Community: Patterns in Space and Time, 469 17 The Flux of Energy through Ecosystems, 499 18 The Flux of Matter through Ecosystems, 525 19 The Influence of Population Interactions on Community Structure, 550 20 Food Webs, 578 21 Patterns in Species Richness, 602 22 Ecological Applications at the Level of Communities and Ecosystems: Management Based on the Theory of

Succession, Food Webs, Ecosystem Functioning and Biodiversity, 633

References, 659 Organism Index, 701 Subject Index, 714 Color plate section between pp. 000 and 000

Preface

A science for everybody ? but not an easy science

This book is about the distribution and abundance of different types of organism, and about the physical, chemical but especially the biological features and interactions that determine these distributions and abundances.

Unlike some other sciences, the subject matter of ecology is apparent to everybody: most people have observed and pondered nature, and in this sense most people are ecologists of sorts. But ecology is not an easy science. It must deal explicitly with three levels of the biological hierarchy ? the organisms, the populations of organisms, and the communities of populations ? and, as we shall see, it ignores at its peril the details of the biology of individuals, or the pervading influences of historical, evolutionary and geological events. It feeds on advances in our knowledge of biochemistry, behavior, climatology, plate tectonics and so on, but it feeds back to our understanding of vast areas of biology too. If, as T. H. Dobzhansky said, `Nothing in biology makes sense, except in the light of evolution', then, equally, very little in evolution, and hence in biology as a whole, makes sense except in the light of ecology.

Ecology has the distinction of being peculiarly confronted with uniqueness: millions of different species, countless billions of genetically distinct individuals, all living and interacting in a varied and ever-changing world. The challenge of ecology is to develop an understanding of very basic and apparent problems, in a way that recognizes this uniqueness and complexity, but seeks patterns and predictions within this complexity rather than being swamped by it. As L. C. Birch has pointed out, Whitehead's recipe for science is never more apposite than when applied to ecology: seek simplicity, but distrust it.

Nineteen years on: applied ecology has come of age

This fourth edition comes fully 9 years after its immediate predecessor and 19 years after the first edition. Much has changed ? in ecology, in the world around us, and even (strange to report!) in we authors. The Preface to the first edition began: `As the cave painting on the front cover of this book implies, ecology, if not the oldest profession, is probably the oldest science', followed by a justification that argued that the most primitive humans had to understand, as a matter of necessity, the dynamics of the environment in which they lived. Nineteen years on, we have tried to capture in our cover design both how much and how little has changed. The cave painting has given way to its modern equivalent: urban graffiti. As a species, we are still driven to broadcast our feelings graphically and publicly for others to see. But simple, factual depictions have given way to urgent statements of frustration and aggression. The human subjects are no longer mere participants but either perpetrators or victims.

Of course, it has taken more than 19 years to move from man-the-cave-painter to man-the-graffiti-artist. But 19 years ago it seemed acceptable for ecologists to hold a comfortable, objective, not to say aloof position, in which the animals and plants around us were simply material for which we sought a scientific understanding. Now, we must accept the immediacy of the environmental problems that threaten us and the responsibility of ecologists to come in from the sidelines and play their full part in addressing these problems. Applying ecological principles is not only a practical necessity, but also as scientifically challenging as deriving those principles in the first place, and we have included three new `applied' chapters in this edition, organized around the

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