PSYC14: Chapter 4 Culture and Developmental Processes ...

[Pages:5]PSYC14: Chapter 4 ? Culture and Developmental Processes

CULTURE AND TEMPERAMENT What is culture? Temperament- qualities of responsiveness to the environment that exist from birth and evoke different reactions from people in the baby's world. It is considered to be a biologically based style of interacting in the world

Some are more easy going, some are fussy from the moment the mother gives birth Although it is biologically based it does not mean that it is fixed at birth or impervious to experience, instead it

reflects an interaction bw a childs predispositions and experiences in life; it can be modified over time Thomas and Chess (1977) describe three major categories of temperament:

o Easy temperament- very regular, adaptable, mildly intense style of bhr that is positive and responsive o Difficult temperament- intense, irregular, withdrawing style that is marked by negative moods o Slow-to-warm temperament- take time to make transitions in activity and experiences. They may

withdraw initially or respond negatively, given time and support they will adapt and react responsively A child's temperament style is believe to provide a foundation for later personality

The Goodness of Fit between Temperament and Culture Thomas and Chess (1977) also developed the notion of goodness of fit- how well a child's temperament fits into the expectations and values of the parents, environment and culture

If there is a mismatch, more negative child outcomes are expected; if there is a good match, better child outcomes are expected

Research on Masai infants in Kenya: Investigated the important of goodness of fit bw an infant's temperament and their environment They identified easy and difficult infants and followed them for several years What was considered "difficult" temperament by Western standards actually became a protective factor against malnutrition during a time of drought Those classified as difficult = greater chance of survival The difficult infants, who were active and fussy, demanded and consequently received more feeding and caring from mothers ? this temperament may be adaptive in one culture and maladaptive in another! We must interpret the infants' dispositions and bhr in relation to the specific culture ? they may have diff meanings when placed in a diff cultural context.

Cross-Cultural Studies on Temperament 2 fundamental differences If children of other culture have diff temperaments at birth, they will respond to the environment differently; they will evoke different response from caregivers of the environment.

Earlier literature has compared North American or Western European infants to Asian infants with the conclusion that Asian infants seem to have a predisposition to be less irritable compared to North American or West. Euro infants

Fredman (1947) found that Chinese American babies were calmer and more placid (easy going) than European American babies or African American babies. When a cloth was placed on the Chinese babies faces covering their noses, they had no response and just laid there quietly breathing. The other babies tried moving their heads and tried to pull it off

Other studies of Chinese, Japanese and Hmong infants showed they were significantly less active, less irritable and less vocal than European American infants

Another study found variation bw Asian countries too: Chinese and Japanese infants were compared, Chinese newborns more irritable compared to Japanese

Temperament and Learning Culture The quiet and placid temperament in Asian backgrounds is further stabilized later in infancy = Chinese parents value the harmony through emotional restraint and emphasize and reinforce quiet bhrs. Temperament may therefore serve as a baseline biological predisposition of the infant that allows this type of learning to occur.

In Japan, non-reactivity (not expressing emotions) is more valued than in western cultures where higher levels of reactivity are more acceptable 1

 the differences in temperament may reflect each culture values about how to act/bhr

Dimensions of Temperament: A Focus on Behavioural Inhibition Six temperamental dimensions have been identified: (1) activity level (motor movement and squirming) (2)smiling and laughing (sociability), (3) fear (showing distress aka behavioural inhibition), (4) distress to limitations (when goal is blocked), (5) soothability and (6) duration of orienting (how long they pay attn to an object w/o simulation) The study of fear (aka behavioural inhibition) has received the most attention cross culturally.

Behavioural inhibition- as aspect of temperament where a child shows signs of wariness, discomfort, or distress when confronted w/ novel, challenging, or unfamiliar situations. Aka fearfulness or shyness.

i.e. shy ? has been linked to their adjustment and social competence in North America being shy is not a desirable trait, seen as immature and less liked by peers than assertive

children = it has also been linked to more anxiety, loneliness, negative and stressful family environment in China, it is a more desirable trait ? they are considered more mature, well behaved and understanding; tend to

have high self-esteem and do well in school; more socially accepted by peers if a child's temperament matches what is valued in their culture (aka goodness of fit) then more positive

developmental outcomes are expected culture provides the meanings and consequences related to temperament Cultures may change in terms of which temperamental traits are desirable. Chen (2009) study of urban and rural Chinese children demonstrates how cultural ideals concerning shyness are

changing in context of globalization. Shyness was associated w/ leadership, social competence and academic achievement ? but only for children living in the rural areas vs urban areas seeing shyness associated w/ more depression, social and school problems (similar to what north America believes too)

Sources behind Temperamental Differences Why does temperament differ across cultures? Developmental contextualism perspective differences in temperament reflect he differences in genetics and in reproductive histories as well as environmental and cultural pressures over generations that may have helped to produce minor biological differences in infants through a functionally adaptive process

Saco-pollit (1989) studied the differences in infants who were born in high altitude in Peruvia (from Andes) and low altitude (from Lima). Those raised in high altitude (Andes) were less attentive, less responsive and less active, and had a more difficult time quieting themselves. The harsh environment of living in the high Andes may contribute to this.

Escarce (1989) compared Nepalese infants (considered malnourished) w/ U.S. infants fond that Nepalese infants were more alert, better motor performances compared to U.S. infants. Could be b/c they are adapted to the poverty, and the cultural practice of daily massaging the infant, special rituals etc)

Asides from environment, the cultural experiences the mother experiences during pregnancy also factor in: Chisolm (1983) argued that Navajo infants were less irritable than European American infants partly bc of the prenatal environment. Mothers w/ high blood pressures during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters had infants who were more irritable ? and Navajo mothers (on avg) reported lower blood pressure than European American mothers. Mothers who reported high anxiety were more likely to have newborns who spent less time in quiet and active alert and showed poorer motor performance

There are group differences in various cultures, usually due to multiple factors i.e. temperamental styles that are valued in the culture, specific environmental demands (poverty, high altitude environments) and physiological aspects (high anxiety, blood pressure)

CULTURE AND ATTACHMENT Attachment- the special bond that develops bw the infant and his/her primacy caregiver and provides the infant w/ emotional security. The quality of the attachment has lifelong effects on our relationships w/ loved ones

There is evidence that 7-9mo-old infants in every culture studied showed distress when separated from their primary caregiver.

Bowlby's Theory of Attachment Bowlby's Theory of Attachment proposes that infants must have a preprogrammed, biological basis for becoming attached to their caregivers. The attachment relationship is a survival strategy ? infants have an increased chance of survival if they remained close to the caregiver for comfort and protection.

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Bowlby and Ainsworth's Classification System of Attachment Three attachment styles:

1. Secure- infants are described as warm and responsive to caregiver a. Become distressed when mother leaves and easily comfort her when she is back

2. Ambivalent ?children are uncertain in their response to their mothers, going back and forth bw seeking and shunning her attention. These mothers have been characterized as insensitive and less involved. "insecurely attached". a. Feel distressed when she leaves but when she returns they give her mixed signals ? the want to be comforted yet appear to have a difficult time letting her soothe them

3. Avoidant- children shun their mothers, who are suspected of being intrusive or over stimulating a. Do no seem distressed when mother leaves or comes back, they will actively avoid reuniting w/ her and focus attention elsewhere "insecurely attached".

Ainsworth replicated her results in a sample of Baltimore mothers and their infants: 57% securely attached 25% ambivalent and 2.5% ambivalent.

- Some cultures found similar distributions, some had considerable differences - True et. Al's (2001) study of Dogon of Mali didn't any avoidant infants. The mothers were very close to them at

all times and were very responsive. This prevented them from developing an avoidant attachment style.

Cross Cultural Studies on Attachment Due to her early studies, many have studied attachment, the Strange Situation, developed by Ainsworth herself became the most widely used measure. H/w the validity and meaning of the attachment of the attachment classifications themselves have been questions bc the meaning of the separation my differ across cultures.

i.e. in Chinese culture they encourage the child to be independent and they stress their reliance on non parent (usually grandparents) caregivers whereas Japanese mothers usually never have their child separated from them.

Several cross-cultural issues about Ainsworths Uganda study, and including whether maternal sensitivity is a necessary antecedent of attachment

according to Ainsworth, a major determinant of attachment security is having a caregiver who is sensitive and responsive to the child's needs

in a review of 65 studies of attachment, caregiver sensitivity was only modestly related to security of attachment and in other cultures there was an even weaker connection

maternal sensitivity is not consistently linked to secure attachment bc it is possible that sensitivity may mean different things and expressed in different ways across cultures

i.e. in US parents tend to wait for the child to express needs and then they respond to it whereas in Japan they anticipate their needs instead of waiting.

Is Secure Attachment a Universal Ideal? Attachment scholars have suggested that researchers should stop using terms such as "secure" and "insecure" and propose to describe it as "adaptive" or "maladaptive" which would take into consideration how cultures differ in particular attachment strategy that may be most appropriate for that culture

"maladaptive" would refer to relationships that promote the maximum level of safety for the child within a specific cultural context

It is suggested the attachments bw infants and caregivers is a universal phenomenon.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget's Theory Cognitive development- a specialty in psychology that studies how thinking skills develop over time. The major theory of cognitive development is that of Piaget.

He found that children tended to solve problems different at different ages, but children solved problems correctly and did the same mistakes of similar ages.

Piaget's four stages of development: 1. Sensormotor stage (0-2) ? children understand by perceiving and doing. Most important achievement is the capability to use mental symbols to represent objects and events ? object permeance. They begin to defer imitation and language acquisition.

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2. Preoperational stage (2-6) ? Their thinking is characterized by these concepts, just cannot yet think in logical or systematic manner: a. Conservation- an awareness that physical quantities remain the same even when they change shape or appearance b. Centration- the tendency to focus on a single aspect of a problem c. Irreversibility- the inability to imagine "undoing" a process d. Egocentrism- the inability to step into another's shoes and understand the other persons point of view e. Animism- the belief that all things, including inanimate objects are alive

3. Concrete operations stage (7-11)- acquire new thinking skills to work w/ actual objects and events. Able to imagine undoing an action and they can focus on more than 1 feature of a problem. They begin to understand there are points of view different from their own ? master principle of conservation.

4. Formal operations stage (12-adulthood)- develop ability to think logically about abstract concepts such as peace, freedom, justice. Become more systematic and thoughtful in teir approach to problem solving

He hypothesized that two primary mechanisms are responsible for movement from one stage to the next: (i) Assimilation- the process of fitting new ideas into a pre-existing understanding of the world (ii) Accommodation- the process of changing one's understanding of the world to accommodate ideas that conflict w/ existing concepts

He believed the stages were universal & believed knowledge was constructed through interactions bw biological maturation of the child and his/her actions and experiences w/ the physical/social environment.

Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective There are four central questions about his theory. The findings to date show an interesting blend of cultural similarities and differences in various aspects of cognitive development that parallel to his stages

1. Do his stages occur in the same order in diff cultures? Studies have demonstrated his stages occur in the same fixed order in other cultures.

2. Are the ages he associated w/ each stage the same in all cultures? There are cultural variations in ages at which children in diff societies typically reach the 3rd and 4th stages. In some cases the difference may be as much as 5-6 yrs.

3. Are there cultural variations within, rather than between, his stages? There is cultural variation within his stages. 4. Do non-western cultures regard scientific reasoning as the ultimate developmental end point? It is used to trace

the steps by which people arrive at scientific thinking ? it is widely accepting in North American public. In some cultures, few people are able to complete the fourth-stage Piagetian tasks ? but those tasks may not be meaningful in other cultures.

Tests of formal operations may tell us whether ppl can solve a narrow range of scientific problems, but they do not tell us whether people in diff cultures develop advanced skills in areas other than those selected by Piaget.

Questions are raised to the degree to which Piagetian tasks depend on previous knowledge and cultural values rather than cognitive skills.

The within-culture differences make it difficult to draw valid conclusions/inferences about differences in cognitive development bw cultures.

Our Theories of Cognitive Development One of the most influential stage theories of the early 20th c. was proposed by French philosopher Levy-Bruhl who developed the great divide theory- theory of cognitive development that suggests that the thought of westerners is superior to that of people who live in "primitive" societies

Drew most of his conclusions from material related to the mystical and religious beliefs of non-western peoples According to Levy-Bruhl, non-westerners were not bothered by logical contradictions and they lacked a clear

sense of individual identity. ? the cultural development or thought of non-westerners is usually judged as deficient/inferior to that of Europeans Note: stage theories produced by westerners judge ppl from other cultures in terms of how closely they resemble westerners (as superior).

o Stage theories persisted in evaluating the rationality of non-westerners in terms of their magical and religious beliefs, while the rationality of Western beliefs was usually not questioned

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Piaget's theory emphasized these important concepts: Cognitive development is ongoing, adaptive process Children actively participate in their development (by exploring, interacting) Cognitive development occurs within the context of important socialization agents such as parents and peers

MORAL REASONING What is moral? Moral principles and ethics provide guidelines for peoples bhrs w/ regard to what is appropriate and what isn't. Do children distinguish bw what is moral and what is not?

Elliot turiel studied this by presenting children w/ questions "is it okay to wear pj's to school" etc She outlined three types of rules that children as young as 3 yrs can differentiate:

o Moral ? rules that apply to everyone, cannot be changed, based on values such as safety o Conventional ? apply to certain groups, are changeable, based on agreed-upon norms o Personal- apply to individuals, changeable, based on the preferences of a specific person Studies show that children all over the world do indeed distinguish bw moral and non-moral issues.

Kohlberg's Theory of Morality His theory is based on Piaget's model of cognitive development. Most famous of his story is about the dilemma of Heinz (needs prescription drugs for his wife but cannot afford it and she may die). He proposed a stage theory of moral development:

1. Preconventional morality- the first stage, emphasizing compliance w/ rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards.

2. Conventional morality- the 2nd stage, emphasizing conformity to tules that are defined by others' approval or society's rules

3. Postconventional morality- the 3rd stage, emphasizing moral reasoning on the basis of individual principles and conscience

Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Findings from numerous findings support the first two stages being regarded as universal. h/w it is the last state that raises questions about the universal generalizability.

One of the assumptions of his theory is that moral reasoning on the basis of individual principles and conscience, regardless of societal laws or cultural customs, represents the highest level of moral reasoning

Researchers have criticized such cultural biases as studies have shown that ppl from diff cultures do reason differently about moral dilemmas o Indians considered not helping someone a moral transgression (sin) more than did the American participants o Cultural differences have to do w/ values of affiliation and justice, suggesting that Indians are taught a broader sense of social responsibility (which is to help others)

Chinese children emphasized altruism and relationships when reasoning about moral dilemmas, whereas Icelandic children emphasized contractual and self interest considerations

Three Ethics Approach to Moral Reasoning Jensen argues that there are a few key concepts of morality missing from Kohlerbs theory ? that are related to religion, spirituality, divinity and an emphasis on community and interdependence.

Ethic of autonomy- emphasizes individual rights and choices. Individual choices and freedoms are important to the extent that they do not harm others and others' choices and freedoms

Ethic of community- emphasizes interpersonal relationships and community. One's duties, obligations, and roles within a group are highlighted

Ethic of divinity- emphasizes the centrality of religious beliefs and spirituality o i.e. Baptists in the US consider divorce morally wrong based on their beliefs concerning the relationship bw God, the church and human relationships

Conclusion There are two key issues concerning human development: whether developmental pathways are universal or culture specific and how development occurs.

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