Para 1 - Cengage



CHAPTER 8

The Early Republic, 1796-1804

Learning Objectives

After you read and analyze this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain what the Federalists sought to achieve by engaging in a limited war with France in 1798 and how the Republicans reacted.

2. Describe the constraints Federalists tried to place on the incoming Republican president and analyze what Jefferson meant by the statement that “every difference of opinion is not a difference of principles,” along with the Federalists’ response to it.

3. Describe Jefferson’s vision of America’s future development when he became president and the policies he consequently adopted.

4. Analyze the impact of westward expansion during Jefferson’s presidency on Native Americans, African Americans, and on American society in general.

Chapter Outline

I. Conflict in the Adams Administration

A. The Split Election of 1796

1. The Republicans ran Jefferson for president and Aaron Burr for vice president.

a) Both shared a belief in democracy and republicanism.

2. The Federalists were divided between the two candidates for president.

a) Hamilton favored Thomas Pinckney.

b) Most backed John Adams.

3. Hamilton’s scheme to elect Pinckney led to the election of a president and vice president from two different parties.

a) Angry Federalists voted for Jefferson rather than Pinckney in the Electoral College.

b) Adams won the presidency and Jefferson the vice presidency.

4. Adams angered the Republicans.

a) He appointed Hamilton’s men to the Cabinet and refused to appoint James Madison to a diplomatic post.

B. XYZ: The Power of Patriotism

1. Adams faced conflict with France.

a) The French cut off relations with the United States because of the Federalists’ pro-British stance.

b) They began to seize American ships.

c) The XYZ Affair turned American public opinion against France.

2. A “Quasi-War” between France and the United States began.

a) Congress created a navy and authorized a standing army.

b) Hostilities did not occur on land but did take place at sea.

3. Federalists and Republicans differed sharply with regard to France.

a) Federalists favored full-scale war because of all that revolutionary France represented.

C. The Home Front in the Quasi-War

1. Congress enacted legislation to weaken the Republicans by countering the influence of immigrants.

a) The Naturalization Act extended residency requirement for citizenship from five to fourteen years.

b) The Alien Act gave the president power to deport foreigners identified as posing a danger to the U.S.

c) The Sedition Act outlawed criticism of the government or its officials.

2. The government prosecuted 15 Republican newspaper editors under the Sedition Act.

3. The Republicans responded to the Alien and Sedition Acts by turning to the states.

a) The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions asserted that the states could declare a federal law void.

4. The Quasi-War was financed by customs duties and land taxes.

a) In Pennsylvania, Fries Rebellion, a movement to free jailed tax resisters, was broken by federal troops.

D. Settlement with France

1. Sentiment for a peaceful settlement of the Quasi-War grew.

a) On his own, George Logan succeeded in making contact with the French government.

b) Adams decided to pursue Logan’s opening, and the United States and France agreed to end hostilities.

2. Adams’s decision for peace caused a widening of the gap between him and Hamilton.

II. The “Revolution of 1800”

A. The Lesser of Republican Evils

1. The Federalists were again split internally.

a) Hamilton sought Adams’s defeat as president and the election of C. C. Pinckney instead.

b) Southern Federalists supported Jefferson.

2. Jefferson’s election as president was decided by the House of Representatives.

a) Jefferson and Burr (who was running for vice president) had tied in the Electoral College.

b) Hamilton threw his support to Jefferson.

c) Two states mobilized their militias to prevent Jefferson’s defeat.

d) The Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution was adopted to prevent a recurrence of this kind of crisis.

B. Federalist Defenses and a Loyal Opposition

1. The outgoing Federalist-controlled Congress consolidated its hold on the judiciary.

a) The Judiciary Act of 1801 created new judicial positions, which Adams rushed to fill before he left office.

2. Jefferson sought reconciliation with the Federalists.

a) His inaugural address stressed the similarities between Republicans and Federalists and advocated free speech for the party out of power.

b) In turn, the concept of the loyal opposition began to take root.

C. Jefferson’s Vision for America

1. Jefferson favored a nation of small farmers.

a) The evils of overpopulation and large cities would thereby be avoided.

b) Manufactured goods could be imported from Europe in return for American produce.

c) Government would stay away from shaping the economy on behalf of business.

d) Free trade would benefit both America and Europe.

III. Republicanism in Action

A. Assault on Federalist Defenses

1. The Republicans moved to end Federalist control of the courts.

a) They repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801.

b) James Madison withheld undelivered letters of appointment—including William Marbury’s.

2. John Marshall developed the doctrine of judicial review.

a) In Marbury v. Madison, he ruled that the relevant law in Marbury’s attempt to obtain his letter of appointment was unconstitutional.

b) It established the principle that federal courts, rather than states, could decide the constitutionality of acts of Congress.

3. The Republicans attempted to remove presiding Federalist judges from the bench.

a) John Pickering was impeached.

b) The effort to impeach Samuel Chase failed, and this solidified Jefferson’s leadership of the Republican Party.

B. Implementing a New Economy

1. Albert Gallatin implemented Jefferson’s economic policies.

2. The government’s budget was slashed.

3. All internal taxes were repealed; customs duties and sale of western lands alone remained to finance the government.

C. Threats to Jefferson’s Vision

1. Conflict erupted again with the Barbary pirates.

a) Jefferson decided on war with them, rather than continue to pay them not to attack American shipping.

b) Hostilities lasted until 1805, when the United States ransomed captured Americans in return for a cessation of Barbary piracy.

D. Pushing Westward

1. Jefferson feared conflict with France over American access to the Mississippi River.

a) Spain had given its lands in North America to France and had suspended free trade at New Orleans.

b) America feared the French army sent to recapture Santo Domingo might next head for New Orleans.

c) Jefferson went so far as to contemplate an alliance with the British.

2. The Louisiana Purchase

a) France offered to sell all of Louisiana for $15 million.

b) Congress quickly ratified the purchase.

c) Even before the purchase, Jefferson sent the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore the area.

IV. Challenge and Uncertainty in Jefferson’s America

A. The Heritage of Partisan Politics

1. Federalists found themselves in a weak position as the election of 1804 approached.

a) Jefferson’s policies and achievements made the Republicans exceedingly popular and gave them the election by a wide margin.

b) The Federalists tried to make an issue of the Louisiana Purchase.

B. Westward Expansion and Social Stress

1. Critics of Jefferson’s vision had some justification for their concerns about the rapid growth of the West.

a) Eastern businessmen feared a decline in their political influence and profits and a rise in labor costs.

b) Western authorities struggled to absorb all the newcomers and to keep peace with the Indians.

2. The West’s economy was problematic.

a) Exporting produce proved expensive because of the country’s limited transportation routes.

b) The ebb and flow in new settlement led to economic unpredictability.

3. Social instability also appeared.

a) Settled mostly by young men, western communities were not orderly.

b) Economic opportunities available on the frontier lessened young people’s need to rely on their parents for support and lowered the age at which they began to break away.

(1) Young people also began to challenge their parents’ authority at home.

C. The Religious Response to Social Change

1. Religious developments mirrored the nation’s changing society.

a) Rationalism, culminating in Unitarianism, appealed to easterners seeking to advance in commerce and manufacturing.

b) Evangelical churches grew rapidly in the South and especially in the West.

D. The Problems of Race in Jefferson’s Republic

1. Jefferson believed that whites were superior to blacks.

2. In the North, blacks undertook to develop their own institutions.

a) Despite emancipation in the North, they were systematically excluded from white society.

b) African Methodist Episcopal churches developed in many communities.

c) The churches, in turn, developed educational and other institutions.

3. Jefferson regarded American Indians not as inferior to whites but as culturally backward.

a) Services for Indians developed by his administration aimed to transmit white culture to them.

b) Until acculturation was complete, the Indians should be protected.

4. Some American Indian groups—Cherokees and Creeks—began to centralize and to build their own economies.

a) Nearby whites regarded these developments as impediments to their own westward expansion.

b) Fearing conflict, Jefferson encouraged such American Indians to move farther west.

c) This idea of segregating Native Americans would form the basis for Indian policy for the rest of the century.

Identifications

Identify the following items and explain the significance of each. While you should include any relevant historical terms, using your own words to write these definitions will help you better remember these items for your next exam.

1. Benjamin Banneker

2. Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia Almanac and Ephemeris

3. election of 1796

4. Aaron Burr

5. Thomas Pinckney

6. Calvinists

7. statesman

8. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney

9. Affair

10. Quasi-War

11. Alien and Sedition Acts

12. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

13. states’ rights

14. excise tax

15. Fries Rebellion

16. Napoleon Bonaparte

17. election of 1800

18. Twelfth Amendment

19. lame duck

20. Judiciary Act of 1801

21. John Marshall

22. opposition party

23. urbanization

24. supply and demand

25. constitutionality

26. Marbury v. Madison

27. precedent

28. judicial review

29. manifesto

30. impeach

31. Albert Gallatin

32. Santo Domingo

33. FranÇois Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture

34. Louisiana Purchase

35. Meriwether Lewis

36. appropriation

37. William Clark

38. Sacajawea

39. anti-expansionist

40. balance of payments

41. Natchez Trace

42. evangelicalism

43. rationalism

44. Trinity

45. Unitarianism

46. Henry Ware

47. African Methodist Episcopal Church

48. James Forten

49. acculturation

Multiple-Choice Questions

SELECT THE CORRECT ANSWER.

1. In foreign affairs,

a. Adams sought an alliance with Spain to block British expansion.

b. the United States backed away from confronting the French on the high seas.

c. the Republicans favored France, while the Federalists supported Britain.

d. the Adams administration heeded Washington’s advice to stay away from engagement in European affairs.

2. Hamilton regarded the idea of democracy

a. as a good one whose time had not yet come.

b. in much the same way as Thomas Jefferson.

c. with disdain.

d. as the French Revolution’s greatest achievement.

3. The presidential election of 1796 was unique because

a. the president-elect and the vice president-elect represented opposing political parties.

b. political parties divided the electorate.

c. a former vice president was elected president.

d. the final electoral vote did not exactly mirror the popular vote.

4. To cope with the Republicans, the Federalists

a. sought to silence them by enacting the Sedition Act.

b. appointed them to important offices in order to win their support.

c. made certain to elect Jefferson to the vice presidency in 1796.

d. agreed to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801.

5. The Twelfth Amendment

a. barred partisan politics from the Electoral College.

b. separated the Electoral College balloting for president and vice president.

c. undermined the implied-powers doctrine.

d. gave constitutional recognition to the presidential cabinet.

6. In Marbury v. Madison,

a. the Federalist chief justice ordered Madison to let Marbury assume his judicial position.

b. the outcome made the Republicans attempt to remove as many Federalist judges as possible from the courts.

c. John Marshall asserted the power of the Supreme Court to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional.

d. Samuel Chase set the stage for his later impeachment trial.

7. Jefferson’s plans for the United States included

a. encouraging the development of large cities.

b. a smaller, less expensive national government.

c. government assistance to encourage the development of industry.

d. laws like the Sedition Act to keep the Federalists under control.

8. In his conflict with the Barbary pirates, Jefferson

a. enjoyed an overwhelming victory.

b. had to rescue Americans who were being held hostage.

c. used the naval superiority of the United States to excellent advantage.

d. resolved the conflict with a successful land invasion of Tripoli.

9. The Louisiana Purchase

a. made the Federalists threaten to impeach Jefferson.

b. led to war with Spain.

c. ended the Quasi-War with France.

d. ended the recurring problem of American navigation on the Mississippi River once and for all.

10. The Lewis and Clark expedition

a. explored all the way to the Pacific Ocean.

b. discovered huge gold deposits in California.

c. caused President Jefferson immense political embarrassment.

d. led to a war with the Indians because Americans had now crossed the Mississippi River.

11. The Louisiana Purchase affected life in the East because

a. with a remote place in which they could hide, husbands began to desert their families in large numbers.

b. young people could declare their independence at an earlier age and move west for abundant land.

c. new sources of grain undermined prices for farm produce raised in the country’s older areas.

d. a boom in road building to the West began.

12. Evangelicalism spread quickly in the West because

a. it evolved from the deism of respected men like Jefferson.

b. it appealed to people who were rebels against all established authority.

c. it provided a sense of order and stability in areas where well-established institutions did not yet exist.

d. western settlers viewed it as the appropriate form of religion in a republic.

13. Thomas Jefferson’s attitudes toward American Indians included the view that

a. Indians were culturally less advanced than Europeans and Americans.

b. they all ought to be expelled to Canada.

c. their cultural level could never be raised.

d. they were descended from people who had once lived in Africa.

14. African Americans developed their own institutions in northern states because

a. every other ethnic group did so.

b. they hoped to develop their own culture in order to return one day to Africa.

c. they were excluded from white ones.

d. they preferred to segregate themselves.

15. In the presidential election of 1804, the Federalists hoped to use as their primary issue

a. their opposition to the Louisiana Purchase.

b. the Jeffersonian handling of the Chase trial.

c. the growing national debt.

d. an unfavorable balance of payments in international trade.

Essay Questions

1. AS SOON AS HE BECAME PRESIDENT, JEFFERSON TOOK STEPS TO REVERSE THE TENDENCY OF THE FEDERALISTS TO INCREASE THE POWER OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. DO YOU AGREE?

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: It would be difficult to agree completely, in view of the fact that Jefferson took many decisive steps that added to the government’s power—and that of the president. He decided to go to war with the Barbary pirates. He sent out the Lewis and Clark expedition even before the United States had acquired land west of the Mississippi. Jefferson also acted decisively to purchase Louisiana.

On the other hand, Jefferson did not build up the government’s influence by taking positive steps to shape the economy as Hamilton had done. He did not, for example, create anything like Hamilton’s national bank. On the contrary, he believed that the marketplace should operate on its own, without government assistance or regulation. Jefferson (aided by Gallatin) also ended internal taxes, slashed the federal budget, and scaled back the government’s size, all of which would tend to reduce the power of the federal government.

2. Although the Louisiana Purchase and other western lands meant an opportunity for many Americans to improve their condition, westward expansion also gave rise to many social stresses. Explain how the western lands created strains in the lives of many Americans during the early 1800s.

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: Young people could leave home at an earlier age because of the availability of land in the West. Complex, culturally diverse communities sprang up. The new regions were unstable economically because of transportation difficulties that complicated the shipment of produce. The rise of evangelical religion all over the West mirrored the uncertainties in people’s lives, as well as the absence of traditional, well-established controls.

In the East, as well, migration to the West must have made people uneasy. Families could no longer control the young as readily as they once had. Children were able to declare their independence at earlier ages.

3. In his Farewell Address, George Washington warned the nation about the adverse effects of political parties. Do subsequent events during the Adams and Jefferson administrations in your opinion prove that Washington had good reason to be alarmed?

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: Some of the events that ensued do appear to bear out Washington’s alarm. The intensity of the conflict between Federalists and Republicans led to the Alien and Sedition Acts and to trials of newspaper editors for voicing their political opinions. Moreover, one could argue that political partisanship corrupted the courts. The Federalists rushed to appoint more judges before they left office. The Republicans then tried to purge the courts of Federalist judges on grounds other than those specified by law.

Other events and developments during Jefferson’s administration suggest that Washington need not have feared the rise of parties in American political life. In his inaugural address, Jefferson stressed that Federalists and Republicans shared many similarities. He argued for freedom of speech and made no effort to pay back the Federalists by using the Sedition Act against them, choosing instead to let it lapse. This attitude toward the opposition encouraged the development of the idea that the other political party was not the enemy. These examples point to parties as a reasonable development.

4. Had you lived at the end of the eighteenth century, would you have been a Federalist or a Republican? Explain what considerations would have led you to the Federalist Party and what to the Republican Party.

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: This question provides an opportunity to review the differences between Federalists and Republicans—between Hamiltonians and Jeffersonians—covered in this as well as the preceding chapter.

Reasons for affiliating with the Federalists can include: (1) If you were a businessman or a securities speculator, Hamilton’s economic program and his vision of America as a commercial and industrial nation would have served your economic interests. (2) If you feared social revolution, Washington’s firm handling of the Whiskey Rebellion and Adams’s response to the rebellion led by John Fries would have reassured you. (3) If the violence of the French Revolution horrified you, the Federalist pro-British policy and Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality would have appealed to you. (4) If you objected to the growth of democracy, Hamilton’s rejection of it would have pleased you.

Reasons for joining the Republicans can include: (1) If you were a yeoman farmer or otherwise a believer in Jefferson’s idea that America ought to remain an agricultural nation, the Hamiltonian economic program would have frightened you. (2) If you feared the growth of a powerful government, the handling of protest movements like the Whiskey Rebellion and Fries Rebellion by two different Federalist presidents would have caused alarm. (3) The manner in which the Federalists handled other points of view—by enacting the Alien, Naturalization, and Sedition Acts—would have confirmed for you that they did not believe in democracy and that a powerful government would indeed trample on the rights of the individual.

Map Exercises

1. Examine the opening map in Chapter 8 in your textbook. With a long history of tension between the East and the backcountry, did the government of the United States pursue objectives that were likely to win adherents in the West?

2. Examine Map 8.2 to identify factors that guided the selection of the route followed by Lewis and Clark when they explored the Louisiana Purchase. Could alternative routes have been selected?

Individual Choices

George Logan

To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Choices section at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Identify George Logan. What dilemma did he face?

2. What changed in 1798?

3. Identify Talleyrand.

4. How did Logan use the world political situation to attempt to get his way with Talleyrand and other French officials?

5. What, if anything, did Logan accomplish during his trip overseas?

6. How was he received when he returned home? Explain.

7. Identify and explain the significance of the Logan Act.

Individual Voices

Examining a Primary Source: Congress Debates George Logan’s Mission to France

To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Voices section at the end of the chapter.

1. Identify the diplomatic crisis that was plaguing the nation.

2. What is Otis saying here? What does he perceive as the motive behind the Republican criticism of a bill to outlaw acts like Logan’s?

3. What is Otis saying was the actual motivation for proposing this bill?

4. What conclusions can you draw from this statement about the nature of partisan politics in 1798? To what extent is such political practice in play today?

RUBRIC: Have students research the role of the Alien and Sedition Acts in American history and the court cases that challenged them.

|NAMES OF COURT CASES |YEAR |CONTROVERSIAL ISSUE |COURT DECISION |

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Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions

1. C. SEE PAGE 219.

a. Adams did not have significant dealings with Spain. For the essential features of his foreign policy, see pages 218-222.

b. On the contrary, the nation built a fleet of warships. Naval warfare ensued. See page 217.

d. Because of the continuing war between England and France, the United States found itself enmeshed in the Quasi-War with France. See pages 217-219.

2. c. He, like Federalists in general, feared social disorder would ensue from it. See pages 215-216.

a. Hamilton and the Federalists, in general, opposed it. See pages 215 and 218.

b. For example, the Jeffersonians were sympathetic to the French Revolution. See pages 216-217.

d. Hamilton saw proof of the dangers of democracy in the French Revolution. See page 217.

3. a. Adams was a Federalist; Jefferson was a Republican. See pages 216-218.

b. Although it is true to say that the electorate split between two political parties in 1796, this was hardly unique to that election. This has almost always been the case in American politics. See pages 216-218.

c. Although it is true that Adams had been vice president under George Washington, his is not the only case in which a vice president was later elected president in his own right. See pages 216-218.

d. There is no evidence for this. The election mirrored, rather, Hamilton’s manipulation of the vote in the Electoral College in an effort to deny the presidency to John Adams. See pages 216-218.

4. a. The Sedition Act outlawed criticism of the government or the president. See page 218.

b. They sought to control the Republicans by enacting the three Alien Acts and the Sedition Act and by prosecuting newspaper editors under the latter. See page 218.

c. Some Federalists did cast their Electoral College votes for Jefferson in 1796, but they did so because of disputes within their own ranks and not because of a scheme aimed at controlling the Republicans. See page 218.

d. On the contrary, the Federalists enacted the Judiciary Act of 1801. See pages 223-224.

5. b. This innovation was necessary in order to avoid the kind of deadlock that occurred during the election of 1800. See page 220.

a. It dealt with the election of the president and vice president. See page 220.

c. It had no effect on any section of the Constitution other than the one that dealt with the Electoral College. See page 220 for the amendment’s contents.

d. It dealt exclusively with balloting for presidential and vice presidential candidates. See page 220.

6. c. He reasoned that, because the Constitution did not give the Supreme Court power to issue certain orders, the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional. See pages 223-224.

a. He ruled, instead, that the Supreme Court did not have authority under the Constitution to issue the kind of order that Marbury sought. See pages 223-224.

b. Although the Republicans embarked on a strategy of removing Federalist judges, there was no real connection between that and the case of Marbury. If anything, the decision in that case upheld the action of the Republican administration. See pages 223-224.

d. It was the successful impeachment of Judge John Pickering that prepared the way for the attempt to impeach Chase. See pages 223-224.

7. b. Embassies, the army and navy, and government staffs were cut. See pages 223-225.

a. Jefferson viewed dense concentrations of population as corrupting. See pages 223-225.

c. Jefferson favored a nation of yeomen farmers. See pages 223-225.

d. Adhering strongly to the principle of free speech, Jefferson and the Republican Congress let the Sedition Act expire. They did not try to revive or extend it. See pages 223-225.

8. b. The United States had to pay a ransom in order to rescue hostages held by Tripoli. See page 225.

a. The United States lost the warship Philadelphia and had to pay $60,000 in ransom. See page 225.

c. The U.S. navy did not fare well in the struggle, losing the Philadelphia to the Barbary pirates. See page 225.

d. See page 225.

9. d. It consolidated the nation’s hold on the river. See page 227-228.

a. They based their opposition on its cost and his authority to purchase it but challenged him during the election of 1804 and not in any effort to impeach him. See pages 227-228.

b. The United States did not face war with Spain during Jefferson’s administration. See pages 227-228.

c. It had ended earlier with the Convention of Mortefontaine. See pages 227-228.

10. a. See pages 228-229.

b. It did not enter California. (The mouth of the Columbia River is north of California.) See pages 228-229.

c. There is no evidence for this. See pages 228-229.

d. To the contrary, the expedition produced promises of friendship with many Indian tribes, although Blackfoot Indians did attack the expedition at one point. See pages 228-229.

11. b. In the East, land shortages enabled parents to exert a great measure of control over the younger generation, whose members often did not become independent until they reached their thirties. The abundance of land in the West enabled many young Easterners to strike out on their own much earlier. See pages 230-232.

a. There is no evidence that this occurred. See pages 230-232.

c. The region was geographically isolated; western produce couldn’t be easily transported to the East. See pages 230-232.

d. There is no evidence for this. See pages 230-232.

12. c. See pages 232-233.

a. Deism was a very different form of religion. It was rooted in rationalism, while evangelicalism tended to emotionalism. See pages 232-233.

b. On the contrary, it introduced stability where traditional forms of authority often did not yet exist. See pages 232-233.

d. It was no more republican than deism and unitarianism in the East were. See pages 232-233.

13. a. He thought that the Indians were culturally retarded. See page 235.

b. He hoped they would settle in the Louisiana Purchase. See page 235.

c. Whites, he believed, would help them improve culturally. See page 235.

d. Jefferson thought Africans were biologically inferior to whites. He did not think this about the Indians. See page 234.

14. c. Free African Americans were often barred from white institutions, even in northern states, and therefore began to establish their own. See pages 234-237.

a. There is no evidence that this figured in their thinking. See pages 234-237.

b. There is no evidence that African Americans during the early 1800s sought to return to Africa. See pages 234-237.

d. There is no evidence that they preferred to live segregated lives. See pages 234-237.

15. a. See pages 229-230

b. There is no evidence that the attempt to impeach Chase was an issue in the election of 1804. See pages 229-230.

c. See pages 229-230.

d. There is no evidence for this. Earnings from international trade actually grew during Jefferson’s first administration. See pages 229-230.

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