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SAMSON AND DELILAHBY CAMILLE SAINT-SA?NSA Study GuidePrepared by Virginia OperaTABLE OF CONTENTSCast of Characters2Brief plot summary2Full synopsis with musical examples4Historical Background 12Discussion questions 16A Short History of Opera17The Operatic Voice19Opera Production20Glossary of Operatic Terms21SAMSON AND DELILAHMusic by Camille Saint-Sa?nsLibretto by Ferdinand LemairePremiereFirst performance on December 2, 1877 at the Grand Ducal Theater, Weimar, GermanyCast of CharactersABIM?LECH, Satrap of GazaBassHIGH PRIEST OF DAGONBaritoneFIRST PHILISTINETenorSECOND PHILISTINEBaritoneA PHILISTINE MESSENGERTenorAN OLD HEBREWBassDELILAH, a Philistine priestess, Samson’s former loverMezzo sopranoHebrews and PhilistinesBrief Plot SummaryACT 1Scene: the city of Gaza in Biblical times. In the shadow of the temple of the god Dagon, a crowd of Hebrews bemoan their persecution at the hands of the Philistines. Samson emerges, exhorting his people to trust their God to deliver them from oppression. They are slow to respond, but at their leader’s passionate urging, at last express renewed faith and hope. Abimélech mocks the Hebrews and their God, causing Samson to rise up in anger. Killing Abimélech, he holds the Philistine forces at bay, then joins the Hebrews as they flee. The High Priest of Dagon, infuriated at the Hebrew rebellion, curses Samson. The Philistines depart, bearing Abimélech’s body. As the sun rises, some Hebrew women and old men sing a hymn of praise to God for their deliverance. Led by Delilah, a group of priestesses emerges from the temple, singing of the pleasures of spring. Delilah declares that Samson has won her heart. As he looks on, she tempts him to join her in the valley of Sorek. Samson prays to God for the strength to resist her as an old Hebrew man warns him of the danger of giving in to temptation. ACT 2Scene: Delilah’s home in the valley of Sorek. Evening.Alone, Delilah calls upon the power of love to assist her in subduing Samson. The High Priest reports that the Hebrews have overpowered the Philistines thanks to Samson’s fearsome strength. Aware that Samson has yielded to Delilah in the past, he offers to pay her if she can entrap the Hebrew leader. Delilah scorns any payment, saying her hatred of Samson is her sole motivation. The two swear to have vengeance as the High Priest withdraws.As lightning signals an approaching storm, Samson enters in a state of anxiety; ashamed of his desire for Delilah, he is unable to resist her. When Delilah offers herself to him, Samson declares his love. Seizing the moment, Delilah claims to disbelieve him, saying that if he truly loved her he would reveal the secret of his great strength. Samson replies that he has taken an oath never to share the secret. Feigning fury, Delilah orders him away, running into her home. As the storm erupts, Samson begins to leave, hesitates, then follows her inside. Philistine soldiers descend upon her dwelling, taking Samson captive.Act 3Scene: a mill in Gaza, shortly before dawn.Samson, blinded and in chains, is slowly grinding a large mill-stone. He laments having disobeyed God. Distant voices of the Hebrew people, who once again are held in bondage, rebuke Samson for his faithlessness as he prays for death. At the temple of Dagon, the Philistines greet the rising sun as they prepare for a ritual celebration of their triumph. A bacchanal ensues, with dancing of ever-increasing wildness and eroticism. Samson is led into the temple by a boy. Delilah mockingly recalls how she conquered him. The High Priest laughingly dares Samson to call on his God to restore his sight as the Philistine people jeer.Delilah joins the High Priest in preparing for a sacrifice to Dagon, leading the Philistines in a hymn of praise. Sacred wine is poured on a burning altar; Samson stands alone with the child, lost in prayer. The High Priest calls for Samson to be brought to the altar. Samson instructs the boy to lead him between two pillars supporting the temple. Amidst the Philistine revelry, Samson offers up a final prayer. Asking God to restore his strength, he pushes the pillars apart, causing the temple to collapse. All are crushed to death as the curtain falls.Full Synopsis With Musical ExamplesAct 1Scene: a public square in the city of Gaza facing the temple of the Philistine god Dagon. Biblical times. The Israelites are currently enslaved by the Philistines.A brief orchestral introduction depicts the suffering of the Hebrew people. An incessant string pattern churns over groaning notes in the low strings:Example 1As the curtain rises, Hebrew slaves sing of their desolation, pleading with God to hear their prayers and expressing frustration that their people have been shamed and defiled.Samson, a man of God-given physical strength, emerges to address the crowd. Telling his people that God has promised to end their suffering, he offers to be their champion. The Israelites, however, respond with pessimism and despair. Undeterred, Samson continues to exhort them to remain faithful, making a final impassioned plea with sweeping vocal lines:Example 2The Hebrews are roused by his fervor and, their spirits restored, sing a lively chorus of faith and courage.This commotion attracts the attention of the Philistine forces, led by Abimélech, the satrap of Gaza. (A satrap, in ancient times, was a local provincial governmental official.) Warning the Hebrews not to rebel against their enslavers, he goes on to express his scorn for the Hebrew God boasting of Dagon’s superiority. Samson answers with a rousingly defiant declaration of liberty for Israel:Example 3The Hebrews echo his anthem. Samson goes on to condemn Abimélech’s blasphemy, prophesying that the Lord will destroy the Philistines. As he describes the striking down of the enemy, a repeated descending chromatic motive appears in the orchestra, played by trombones:Example 4This motive, as we shall discover, will appear in various forms and always represent the concept of doom and the downfall of a person or people. We shall refer to it as the “downfall motive”.As the Hebrews respond to Samson with growing enthusiasm, Abimélech draws his sword. Using his superior might, Samson seizes the sword, killing Abimélech with one blow. As the Hebrews begin to flee, Samson holds the Philistine soldiers at bay before making his own hasty exit.The temple doors open as the High Priest of Dagon enters, accompanied by a retinue of priests. Taking in the flight of the Hebrews and the corpse of Abimélech, he angrily questions two Philistine guards as to how these disastrous events came to happen. Shamefully, they confess that Samson’s prodigious strength was too much for them.A messenger enters, breathless with the news that the escaping Hebrews are destroying Philistine lands. The guards are reluctant to make war on a leader like Samson, but the High Priest sings a fiery aria in which he curses Samson and vows to destroy him. The solo is marked by a strongly rhythmic vocal line of martial character:Example 5In the course of his solo, the High Priest suggests that betrayal by a loved one may be the way to bring about Samson’s doom. The Philistines exit, bearing the body of Abimélech.Calm has been restored as dawn breaks the following morning. A group of Hebrew women and old men quietly sing a hymn of gratitude to God for their deliverance. The style, at first unaccompanied and then set only with simple chords, attempts to simulate the ancient musical device of plainchant:Example 6As Samson returns to the square, A group of Philistine women bearing flowers enters, led by the beautiful Delilah. They sing an alluring chorus of the pleasures of roses, love and springtime. Delilah speaks directly to Samson. Recalling their previous amorous affair, she declares her desire for him, inviting him to go with her to her home in “the sweet valley of Sorek”.Example 7Samson tries to turn a deaf ear to her words of love, praying to God for strength. However, he is clearly conflicted. An old Hebrew man warns Samson to stay away from her, saying she is full of poisonous guile as the three characters form a brief trio.Delilah begins to dance, joined by the other Philistine women. Delilah moves with seductive grace, aware that Samson’s eyes are fixed on her in spite of himself. In an aria, Delilah sings that she cannot enjoy the pleasures of spring unless she can have the heart of the man she loves.Example 8The “downfall motive” appears briefly in the orchestral strings as Delilah sings of her tears at the memory of Samson’s love, indicating that she already has a plan in mind to set a seductive trap for him:Example 9This passage foreshadows one of the themes of Delilah’s duet with Samson in Act 2 (see Example 13).The Old Hebrew, aware of Samson’s internal struggle, repeats his warning as the “downfall motive” rumbles in the low strings. Delilah, aware of her power over the Israelite champion, regards his discomfort as the scene draws to a quiet close.Act 2Scene: Delilah’s dwelling in the Valley of Sorek. The evening is darkening.A short orchestral prelude featuring the “downfall motive” foreshadows the web of seduction in which Delilah hopes to entrap Samson with a repeated motive representing the power of her voluptuous sexuality:Example 10Delilah emerges from her home, certain that Samson will shortly appear for a rendezvous, one that will bring about his doom. In an aria, she calls on Love itself to make Samson a slave to her charms.Example 11Her musings are interrupted by the High Priest; Delilah welcomes him warmly, calling him her “father”. The priest reports that the Philistine army is in disarray, thanks to Samson’s incredible physical strength; soldiers drop their weapons and scatter at the mere mention of his name. Realizing that Israel will achieve victory unless Samson is captured, the priest acknowledges Samson’s past dalliance with Delilah. He explains has come to recruit her in a plot to capture the Hebrew champion. Delilah acknowledges that Samson’s attraction to her is the weak link in the threat he poses. The High Priest offers to make her a wealthy woman in exchange for her services, but Delilah rejects the offer with scorn: she is motivated not by money, but by her hatred of Samson. The priest is surprised and pleased to learn that Delilah does not love Samson, as he supposed, but hates him equally. Delilah reports that, since their past sexual encounter, Samson has successfully resisted her advances. She has attempted to learn the mysterious secret of his strength on three occasions, but failed each time. However, she is determined that, should he appear tonight as expected, she will succeed in learning the source of his power.The scene closes with an intense and strongly rhythmic duet in which they vow vengeance and triumph for the Philistines:Example 11The High Priest withdraws; alone, Delilah privately wonders if she has over-estimated her hold on Samson. At that, as lightning flashes herald an approaching storm, Samson appears, clearly in a state of emotional turmoil. Deeply ashamed, he nonetheless confesses his love for her. Delilah entreats him to yield to his passions. Gathering his resolve, Samson announces that his reason for coming is to bid her a last farewell. He describes having heard God’s voice instructing him to lead the Hebrews to victory. Delilah counters by declaring that Samson has been claimed by a god even more powerful that the God of Israel: the god of Love. Re-kindling the memory of their past tryst, she arouses uncontrollable impulses in Samson, who surrenders helplessly.In an aria that develops into a duet, Delilah speaks words of love to her victim, begging him to love her as in the past, assuring him that her heart opens like a flower at the sound of his voice:Example 12An expansive refrain transforms the “downfall motive” into a languidly passionate new theme, signaling that the sweetness of her song is belied by the treachery of her intentions.Example 13Upon beginning the second verse of the number, the orchestra takes up the form of the “downfall motive” seen in Example 10 above, as if enveloping Samson in a web of sensual abandon. All caution now cast aside, he responds with an unreserved declaration of passionate love.Delilah, however, has not yet achieved her goal of discovering the secret of Samson’s strength. Feigning disbelief in his professions of love, she recalls that he has left her in the past. When he protests, Delilah asks him to reveal his secret as proof of his love. Horrified, Samson answers that he cannot break a sacred vow to God without bringing disaster to them both. Running into her home, Delilah furiously orders him to leave. Samson looks to the heavens as if in supplication, hesitating briefly before following after her. Philistine soldiers now emerge from hiding, slowly advancing on Delilah’s dwelling, awaiting her signal amid violent thunder and lightning. After several tense moments, she appears, calling to the soldiers as Samson screams that he has been betrayed. The Philistines take him as the curtain falls.Act 3Scene: The city of Gaza, some indeterminate time later. Samson is chained to a large mill-stone. Blinded and with his hair shorn away, he turns the stone, walking in slow circles. An orchestral introduction vividly depicts both the drudgery of his labor and his spiritual weariness with an incessant repeated figure:Example 14Pausing for a moment, Samson calls to God in misery and remorse for his weakness and sin. The initial vocal line suggests the austerity and depth of emotion of a traditional Jewish synagogue chant:Example 15As Samson returns to his toil, the distant voices of the Hebrews, now once again in bondage are heard rebuking their former champion for his failure.The scene changes to the temple of Dagon. A sacrificial altar is at the center of the stage. The temple’s structural integrity is supported by two massive pillars. Dawn is breaking.Philistine women greet the rising sun with a chorus similar to their ode to springtime of Act 1. A Bacchanalia ensues; sacred wine is consumed by men as women dance with ever-increasing eroticism. The dance reaches a climax of intense abandon with a powerful theme based on the so-called “Arabian” or double harmonic major scale (also called the Byzantine scale):Example 16At the bidding of the High Priest, Samson is led into the temple by a young boy. The priest greets him with mock honor and praise, teasingly directing Delilah to wait on him. The Philistines join in the ridicule while Samson quietly begs God for death.Now free to express her scorn to Samson, Delilah mocks him mercilessly in a light-hearted parody of her seduction refrain, complete with the “downfall motive” in bright tempo. As she proudly declares the honor of Dagon to haves been upheld, the crowd cheers her as the god’s defender.Not content with mocking Samson, the High Priest now belittles the Hebrew God, laughing at His inability to rescue the prisoner. Samson, outraged at such blasphemy, calls upon God to restore his physical power.The High Priest and Delilah approach the altar, upon which a fire is burning. They pour sacrificial wine onto the fire, causing flames to rise dramatically . Together, they lead the Philistine worshippers in a spirited anthem of praise to Dagon:Example 17As the wine and music have the crowd nearly in a state of delirium, the High Priest commands the child to lead Samson to the altar so he can be forced to make an offering to Dagon. Samson quietly instructs the boy to place him between the two pillars. Before the Philistines can realize what is happening, Samson raises his voice in a final prayer for one last moment of strength while the “downfall motive” makes its final appearance. As Samson gathers himself, a solo trumpet slowly recalls the theme of the Hebrews’ anthem of liberty from Act 1 Example 18With utmost exertion, Samson dislodges the pillars. The temple immediately collapses, crushing him and all the Philistines as the opera ends.Historical BackgroundSamson and Delilah in the BibleThe story of Samson and Delilah is found in the Old Testament of the Bible, in chapters 13-16 of the book of Judges. In the Old Testament, the term “judge” does not refer to one who rules in legal disputes, but rather a national hero or champion appointed by the God of the Hebrews to deliver them from various foreign occupations. Samson is the last such champion to have his exploits recounted. This period of history, around the 11th century B.C., appears to have been an era in which the Israelites lacked a monarchy, instead relying on these “judges” to restore peace after intermittent periods of bondage to various enemy states.Lemaire’s operatic libretto deals only with the last of Samson’s exploits; namely, his imprisonment by the Philistines due to Delilah’s betrayal, and his death in the destruction of the temple of Dagon. Here is a summary of details either omitted or referenced obliquely in the opera:Like six other Biblical characters, Samson’s birth was a miracle of God, as his mother was barren. Such births indicate God’s designation of favored status to the child.The Bible makes explicit the source of Samson’s super-human strength. When an angel of God announced Samson’s coming to his mother, she agreed to raise him in the tradition of the Nazirites, a Jewish sect whose members vowed never to eat grapes to touch dead bodies, to abstain from any alcohol, and to leave their hair uncut. In the opera, Samson never specifically mentions that his long hair is the source of his powers, yet stage directions indicate that his hair has been cut as Act 3 opens.Prior to meeting Delilah, described as a harlot in the Bible, Samson courted and married an unnamed Philistine woman in the city of Timnah. His engagement and wedding feast engendered several of his exploits, listed below.On the way to Timnah to see the woman, Samson was attacked by a lion which he killed with his bare hands. On his return trip home, Samson found a nest of bees in the carcass of the lion. He scooped out the honey and carried it home.Riddles are a key element in Samson’s story, as in many ancient myths and stories. At his wedding-feast, Samson challenged thirty Philistine men to answer a riddle within a week, promising them new clothing if successful. After three days, the men asked his wife to learn the answer. When she assisted them, Samson angrily killed thirty men in another town to fulfil his obligation by taking their clothing.When Samson’s wife was given to a Philistine man, he sought vengeance, burning down Philistine farmland. In response, his wife and her father were killed, spurring Samson to slaughter several Philistines before going into self-exile.An army of three thousand Judeans prepared to hand Samson over to their Philistine masters but, fighting back with the jawbone of a donkey as his weapon, he killed one thousand men. This episode was followed by twenty years of peaceful Philistine occupation.The Delilah of the Bible is paid by the Philistines to entrap Samson, in contrast to the operatic character who refuses payment and is motivated only by hatred.In Judges 16, Delilah makes several unsuccessful attempts to capture Samson. Each time she asks for the secret of his strength, he responds with falsehoods. When would-be captors use the false information to attempt to subdue him, Samson easily overpowers them. It is on the fourth attempt that he finally answers honestly. It is possible that the opera makes passing reference to these earlier attempts, as Delilah mentions Samson having left her following previous trysts.The Bible hints that Samson’s strength returned in captivity because his hair grew out again; the opera depicts the miracle of a final prayer for redemption as the cause.Scholars do not agree on the question of Samson’s existence in history. While some accept the book of Judges as an accurate historical document, others view Samson as an archetype found in several cultures: the hero/leader of extra-ordinary physical strength. The name “Samson” means “bright sun” or “sun-child”, perhaps indicating a divine aspect to the hero. Some trace Delilah’s name to “Layla”, the Hebrew word for “night”. Thus, the characters’ names may have been created to characterize them as hero and villainess.Samson’s adventures are closely related to a number of characters from mythology and popular culture, including:Heracles (or his Roman counterpart Hercules), who, like Samson, killed a lion.AchillesGilgameshSiegmund and his son Siegfried Paul BunyonA variety of contemporary super-heroes, including (but not limited to) Superman, Batman, The Incredible Hulk, Iron Man, et al.The creation of the operaThe composition of Samson and Delilah occupied nine years from conception to first staged performance, a period marked by delays, obstacles and criticism. Camille Saint-Sa?ns (1835-1921) began work in 1867, during the heyday of French Romantic opera. 1867 saw the premieres of Gounod’s Romeo et Juliet and Bizet’s La Jolie Fille de Perth. It was also the year of the first operatic commission given to Jules Massenet. In addition, masterworks by Berlioz had also been introduced in the recent past.Saint-Sa?ns had a flourishing career as a virtuoso pianist and organist, but he had a keen interest in finding success in the operatic arena. However, his very notoriety as a virtuoso worked against him in this quest, as theater impresarios were reluctant to entrust opera commissions to a pianist. Saint-Sa?ns’ failure to win the prestigious Prix de Rome likely worked against his reputation as well. Prior to Samson, he had completed the opera Le timbre d’argent in 1865, but it would not be performed for another dozen years. Saint-Sa?ns was a musician with a keen intellect who pursued a variety of interests in many fields over his lifetime. One of these was ancient history, including archeology and music history. Thus it is not surprising that he would have been attracted to a subject drawn from the Old Testament. His affinity for ancient music is reflected in the Hebrews’ chorus of thanks to God in Act 1 of the opera, with its obvious simulation of plainchant.Several commentators have observed that the prominence of the chorus in Saint-Sa?ns’ Samson and Delilah has the result of making the work something of a hybrid between opera and oratorio. This dichotomy is partially explained in that the composer’s original conception was of an oratorio, inspired by two Baroque works: an oratorio on Samson by Jean-Philippe Rameau with a libretto by Voltaire (never performed and now lost), and Samson, Georg Friderick Handel’s oratorio of 1743.Delilah was a daring and unpopular choice for an operatic character in two regards. First, Biblical subjects were considered somewhat inappropriate in French theater, despite the earlier success of Giuseppe Verdi’s Nabucco in Italy. Second, the character of Delilah, in her brazen, unapologetic sexuality and deceitfulness, was daringly risqué to audiences accustomed to more conventional depictions of women.These factors, along with the composer’s keyboard career, all factored into the reluctant acceptance of Samson and Delilah by the opera world. It was Franz Liszt, always the champion of living composers, who agreed to host a production in Weimar, Germany. Additional sporadic productions were heard in Germany in the next several years. Amazingly, it was not until 1890 that the opera was finally staged in Paris.Although Saint-Sa?ns composed thirteen operas in all, some of them finding success in his lifetime, Samson and Delilah is the only work to remain in the standard repertoire today.The Political Context of the OperaIn addition to such factors as its Biblical subject and scandalous heroine, there may be an additional explanation for the reluctance of France to embrace Samson and Delilah: it could well have been considered politically controversial.The opera depicts the Hebrews as an enslaved people who rise up in revolt against their oppressors in Act 1. France had barely recovered from two revolutions of its own working class during the gestation period of Saint-Sa?ns’ opera.Charles X had been forced to abdicate the throne during a revolt known as the “Three Glorious Days” in 1830. Charles had abolished the free press, taken away voting rights from most of the populace, and dissolved Parliament. He was replaced by Louis-Philippe I, who enjoyed brief popularity until his government transferred too much power to bankers, financiers and others of the so-called “financial aristocracy”. This fomented the civil unrest depicted in the Victor Hugo’s novel Les Miserables and the musical it spawned.By 1848, another major revolution took place in France. Violence erupted in the streets of Paris, causing Louis-Philippe to abdicate and flee in fear for his life.An opera about downtrodden people revolting against those in power, therefore, was still an incendiary subject as Saint-Sa?ns attempted to introduce Samson and Delilah, with the memories of bloody rebellions still vivid and discontent among workers still simmering.Saint-Sa?ns and the role of women in his life.Some biographers of Camille Saint-Sa?ns have speculated that his portrait of Delilah may well have been influenced by the problematic relationships he experienced with women throughout his life.The composer’s father died when the composer was an infant; he was raised by his mother Clémence and a great-aunt. However, as his health was very delicate as an infant, he spent most of the first two years of his life with a nurse, with the result that normal bonding with parents was inhibited.Clémence cultivated an abnormally close relationship with her son; Saint-Sa?ns lived with her until he was in his fifties, even during his short-lived marriage. His mother was domineering in her parental style, often subjecting him to abusive treatment. For example, when Saint-Sa?ns confessed to feeling nervous about an upcoming public performance, his mother responded with the following rebuke in a letter:You make me ill with your fears. I used to think you are a man; you are merely a coward. I treat you with contempt. I believed I had brought up a man. I have raised up only a girl of degenerative stock. Play as you ought to play: an artist of great talent. Either you play well, or I will renounce you as my child.The composer’s wife also received harsh treatment at the hands of Clémence. When the couple’s only child was killed in an accident, the marriage was essentially over; Saint-Sa?ns abandoned his young wife and never married again.This troubled history leads many to see a reflection of Saint-Sa?ns’ unhealthy interactions with females in the character of Delilah, a woman who dominates the powerful hero Samson and subsequently ridicules him before meeting a violent death.DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.Consider the finale of the opera, in which the curtain comes down immediately as the temple collapses, amid the screams of the dying. Compare this to the end of Mozart’s Don Giovanni, in which the violent death of a villain is followed by an epilogue in which the remaining, virtuous celebrate God’s justice. Why do you think Saint-Sa?ns chose not to include a final scene with the Hebrews rejoicing at their liberation?2.What do you think happened after the end of the opera? Were the Hebrews free to live in peace? What does the Old Testament say about their subsequent existence?3.Samson is depicted as having weakness of will power in the opera, but the libretto ignores his other character flaws such as his violent temper and the taunting of his wedding party with a riddle. What do you think of these omissions? Would the opera have been improved with less focus on Delilah and a fuller portrait of Samson? Why or why not?4.Samson and Delilah shocked nineteenth-century audiences with Delilah’s sensuality and the Bacchanal of Act 3. Does it still have the capacity to shock or offend today? What choices can directors make in staging the Bacchanal? When artists depict events that shock or offend the public, are they reflecting society as they find it, or are they “pushing the envelope” by changing societal norms>5.Samson and Delilah was written during the same generation as Bizet’s Carmen. Both leading female roles were written for the mezzo-soprano voice, an interesting choice as sopranos are the conventional choice for an operatic prima donna. What do Delilah and Carmen have in common that might account for the vocal color chosen by their composers? How might our impression of Delilah have been changed by the sound of a soprano voice?A SHORT HISTORY OF OPERAThe word opera is the plural form of the Latin word opus, which translates quite literally as work. The use of the plural form alludes to the plurality of art forms that combine to create an operatic performance. Today we accept the word opera as a reference to a theatrically based musical art form in which the drama is propelled by the sung declamation of text accompanied by a full symphony orchestra.Opera as an art form can claim its origin with the inclusion of incidental music that was performed during the tragedies and comedies popular during ancient Greek times. The tradition of including music as an integral part of theatrical activities expanded in Roman times and continued throughout the Middle Ages. Surviving examples of liturgical dramas and vernacular plays from medieval times show the use of music as an “insignificant” part of the action as do the vast mystery and morality plays of the 15th and 16th centuries. Traditional view holds that the first completely sung musical drama (or opera) developed as a result of discussions held in Florence in the 1570s by an informal academy known as the Camerata, which led to the musical setting of Rinuccini’s drama, Dafne, by composer, Jacopo Peri in 1597.The work of such early Italian masters as Giulio Caccini and Claudio Monteverdi led to the development of a through-composed musical entertainment comprised of recitative sections (secco and accompagnato) which revealed the plot of the drama; followed by da capo arias which provided the soloist an opportunity to develop the emotions of the character. The function of the chorus in these early works mirrored that of the character of the same name found in Greek drama. The new “form” was greeted favorably by the public and quickly became a popular entertainment.Opera has flourished throughout the world as a vehicle for the expression of the full range of human emotions. Italians claim the art form as their own, retaining dominance in the field through the death of Giacomo Puccini in 1924. Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, and Leoncavallo developed the art form through clearly defined periods that produced opera buffa, opera seria, bel canto, and verismo. The Austrian Mozart also wrote operas in Italian and championed the singspiel (sing play), which combined the spoken word with music, a form also used by Beethoven in his only opera, Fidelio. Bizet (Carmen), Offenbach (Les Contes d’Hoffmann), Gounod (Faust), and Meyerbeer (Les Huguenots) led the adaptation by the French which ranged from the opera comique to the grand full-scale tragedie lyrique. German composers von Weber (Der Freischütz), Richard Strauss (Ariadne auf Naxos), and Wagner (Der Ring des Nibelungen) developed diverse forms such as singspiel to through-composed spectacles unified through the use of the leitmotif. The English ballad opera, Spanish zarzuela and Viennese operetta helped to establish opera as a form of entertainment which continues to enjoy great popularity throughout the world.A SHORT HISTORY OF OPERA (continued)With the beginning of the 20th century, composers in America diverged from European traditions in order to focus on their own roots while exploring and developing the vast body of the country’s folk music and legends. Composers such as Aaron Copland, Douglas Moore, Carlisle Floyd, Howard Hanson, and Robert Ward have all crafted operas that have been presented throughout the world to great success. Today, composers John Adams, Philip Glass, and John Corigliano enjoy success both at home and abroad and are credited with the infusion of new life into an art form which continues to evolve even as it approaches its fifth century. THE OPERATIC VOICEA true (and brief) definition of the “operatic” voice is a difficult proposition. Many believe the voice is “born,” while just as many hold to the belief that the voice is “trained.” The truth lies somewhere between the two. Voices that can sustain the demands required by the operatic repertoire do have many things in common. First and foremost is a strong physical technique that allows the singer to sustain long phrases through the control of both the inhalation and exhalation of breath. Secondly, the voice (regardless of its size) must maintain a resonance in both the head (mouth, sinuses) and chest cavities. The Italian word “squillo” (squeal) is used to describe the brilliant tone required to penetrate the full symphony orchestra that accompanies the singers. Finally, all voices are defined by both the actual voice “type” and the selection of repertoire for which the voice is ideally suited.Within the five major voice types (Soprano, Mezzo-Soprano, Tenor, Baritone, Bass) there is a further delineation into categories (Coloratura, Lyric, Spinto, Dramatic) which help to define each particular instrument. The Coloratura is the highest within each voice type whose extended upper range is complimented by extreme flexibility. The Lyric is the most common of the “types.” This instrument is recognized more for the exceptional beauty of its tone rather than its power or range. The Spinto is a voice which combines the beauty of a lyric with the weight and power of a Dramatic, which is the most “powerful” of the voices. The Dramatic instrument is characterized by the combination of both incredible volume and “steely” intensity. Below is a very brief outline of voice types and categories with roles usually associated with the individual voice type.ColoraturaLyricSpintoDramaticSopranoNorina (Don Pasquale)Gilda (Rigoletto)Lucia (Lucia di Lammermoor)Liu (Turandot)Mimi (La Bohème)Pamina (Magic Flute)Tosca (Tosca)Amelia (A Masked Ball)Leonora (Il Trovatore)Turandot (Turandot)Norma (Norma)Elektra (Elektra)Mezzo-SopranoRosina (Barber of Seville)Angelina (La Cenerentola)Dorabella (Così fan tutte)Carmen (Carmen)Charlotte (Werther)Giulietta (Hoffmann)Santuzza (Cavalleria)Adalgisa (Norma)Azucena (Il Trovatore)Ulrica (A Masked Ball)Herodias (Salome)TenorCount Almaviva (Barber of Seville)Don Ottavio (Don Giovanni)Ferrando (Così fan tutte)Alfredo (La Traviata)Rodolfo (La Bohème)Tamino (Magic Flute)Calaf (Turandot)Pollione (Norma)Cavaradossi (Tosca)Dick Johnson (Fanciulla)Don Jose (Carmen)Otello (Otello)BaritoneFigaro (Barber of Seville)Count Almavira (Le nozze di Figaro)Dr. Malatesta (Don Pasquale)Marcello (La Bohème)Don Giovanni (Don Giovanni)Sharpless (Madama Butterfly)Verdi BaritoneGermont (La Traviata)Di Luna (Il Trovatore)Rigoletto (Rigoletto)Scarpia (Tosca)Jochanaan (Salome)Jack Rance (Fanciulla)BassBartolo (Barber of Seville)Don Magnifico (Cenerentola)Dr. Dulcamara (Elixir of Love)Leporello (Don Giovanni)Colline (La Bohème)Figaro (Marriage of Figaro)Buffo BassDon Pasquale (Don Pasquale)Don Alfonso (Così fan tutte)Basso CantateOroveso (Norma)Timur (Turandot)Sarastro (Magic Flute)OPERA PRODUCTIONOpera is created through the collaboration of different artists. First and foremost are the actors who portray characters by revealing their thoughts and emotions through the singing voice. The next very important component is a full symphony orchestra that accompanies the singing actors and actresses, helping them to portray the full range of emotions. The orchestra performs in an area in front of the singers called the orchestra pit while the singers perform on the open area called the stage. The creation of an opera begins with a dramatic scenario crafted by a playwright or dramaturge who alone or with a librettist fashions the script or libretto that contains the words the artists will sing. Working together, the composer and librettist team up to create a musical drama in which the music and words work together to express the emotions revealed in the story. Following the completion of their work, the composer and librettist entrust their new work to a conductor who assumes responsibility for the musical preparation of the work. The conductor collaborates with a stage director (responsible for the visual component) in order to bring a performance of the new piece to life. Set, lighting, and costume designers, wig and makeup designers and even choreographers must all work together to participate in the creation of the new production. The set designer combines the skills of both an artist and an architect using “blueprint” plans to design the physical set which will reside on the stage, recreating the physical setting required by the storyline. These blueprints are turned over to a team of carpenters who are specially trained in the art of stage carpentry. As the set is assembled on the stage, the lighting designer works with a team of electricians to place light onto both the stage and the set in an atmospheric as well as practical way. Using specialized lighting instruments, colored gels and a state of the art computer, the designer creates a “lighting plot” by writing “lighting cues” which are stored in the computer and used during the actual performance of the opera.During this production period, the costume designer in consultation with the stage director has designed appropriate clothing for the actors and actresses to wear. These designs are fashioned into patterns and crafted by a team of highly skilled artisans called cutters, stitchers, and sewers. Each costume is specially made for each singer using his/her individual measurements. The wig and makeup designer, working with the costume designer, creates wigs which will complement both the costume and the singer as well as represent historically accurate “period” fashions.As the actual performance date approaches, rehearsals are held on the newly crafted set, combined with costumes, lights, and orchestra in order to ensure a cohesive performance that will be both dramatically and musically satisfying to the audience. GLOSSARY OF OPERATIC TERMSALTO (It.)The lowest female voice. Also called contralto.ARIA (It.)pronounced (AH-ree-ah) - A song for solo voice.BARITONE pronounced (BARR-ah-tone) - The middle range male voice, between tenor and bass.BASSpronounced (BASE) - Lowest of the male voices.COSTUME Clothing a singer wears to portray a POSER The person who writes the music.DESIGNER The person who creates the scenery, costumes and lights. DUET pronounced (do-ET) - Music written for two people to sing together, usually to each other.ENSEMBLE Two or more singers singing at the same time to express their emotions and tell the story.LIBRETTO (It.) pronounced (lih-BRET-oh) - The word literally means “little book.” Thetext or words of an opera.MELODY A series of musical tones that make up a tune.MEZZO-SOPRANO (It.)pronounced (MEDZ-oh soh-PRANH-oh) - The middle female voice, between soprano and contralto.OPERA pronounced (AH-per-ah) - A play that uses singing instead of speaking and is accompanied usually by piano in rehearsals and orchestra in performances.PIANO (It.) pronounced (pee-AN-oh) – A musical instrument used to accompany singers in rehearsals when there is no orchestra. The orchestral score is reduced from parts for many instruments to one part for the pianist, which combines all the important music that must be played to give a complete sound for the singers.RECITATIVE pronounced (ress-it-uh-TEEVE) - A type of music using words sung with the rhythm of natural speech with some melody added. Recitative can come before an aria or stand alone and it gives information or moves the story along.REHEARSAL The time singers and musicians spend practicing before a performance.PROPS Objects placed on the stage, excluding scenery. Short for “properties.”SCORE The book which contains both the music and the text of the opera.SET The scenery used on the stage to show location for the action.SOPRANO (It.)pronounced (soh-PRANH-oh) - The highest female voice.STAGE DIRECTOR The person who decides how the singers will move on stage and how they will act while they are singing their parts.TENOR pronounced (TEH-nor) - The highest male voice.TRIO (It.)pronounced (TREE-oh) - Music written for three characters to sing together.VIBRATO (It.)pronounced (vi-BRAH-toe) - The natural way for a voice or instrument to enlarge its sound through a very rapid but very tiny waver in pitch. VOCAL RANGEThe scope of the human voice from its highest to its lowest sounds. Voices fall into these categories: ................
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