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Child DevelopmentThis Course Guide is for Instructors who teach Child Development in the Bachelor of Education Elementary (Honors) program. The Guide includes learning goals derived from the National Standards for Teacher Education, a summary of essential knowledge for teaching the course, and a planning guide for a 16 week semester course. A Student Reader accompanies the Guide.-4953005842041910058420504190058420562610058420This material is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Pre-Service Teacher Education Program (Pre-STEP) in PakistanCourse Guide FOR Child DevelopmentTable of ContentsCOURSE SYLLABUSSUMMARY OF ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGECOURSE MAPSAMPLE ASSIGNMENTSASSESSMENTSUnit 1Introduction to Child DevelopmentUnit Outline (Including Outcomes & Resources) Detailed Planning GuideOption DetailsAdditional Options and Sample Lesson PlansUnit 2 Early Childhood DevelopmentUnit Outline (Including Outcomes & Resources)Detailed Planning GuideOption Details______Unit 3 Elementary School Age Development__________________________________Unit Outline (Including Outcomes & Resources)Detailed Planning GuideOption DetailsUnit 4 Adolescent DevelopmentUnit Outline (Including Outcomes & Resources)Detailed Planning GuideOption Details Unit 5 Differences in Development and Special NeedsUnit Outline (Including Outcomes & Resources)Detailed Planning GuideOption Details______Unit 6 The Influence of Society and Culture on Child Development______________Unit Outline (Including Outcomes & Resources)Detailed Planning GuideOption DetailsSYLLABUSFACULTY: ?????????????SEMESTER 1, year 1, B.Ed. Elementary (Honors) ???????????????????????DURATION: ???03 credits, 48 class hoursPREREQUISITES:noneCOURSE DESCRIPTION The primary focus of this course is learning about children in order to become an effective teacher. It provides prospective teachers with an overview of child development and growth as a holistic process. The latest research and thinking with regard to the conditions that affect children’s learning and development will be addressed across developmental domains and stages of development. Development of language and cognition as well as emotional, social, and physical characteristics of children will be explored through major themes such as nature vs. nurture and universality vs. individuality. Students will form their own child development theory. Implications of child development theory for schools, teachers, and society will be considered. Student will be provided with real experiences to study/observe children at different levels of development in order to enhance their understanding of how people learn, individual differences and learning styles, and how theories of learning and development relate to classroom learning and teaching. The course will enable students to create learning environments that suit the needs of an individual child as well as children in general. COURSE OUTCOMESAfter completing this course, pre-service teachers/teachers will be able to:describe major theories and big themes in how children develop compare the characteristics of various developmental stages according to various theorists identify factors influencing the learning process design different age appropriate teaching methods based on developmental theory identify individual differences of students and children with special needs design different age appropriate teaching strategies based on developmental theory reflect on their conceptions about child development and its implications for teaching and learning. LEARNING AND TEACHING APPROACHESA variety of teaching and learning approaches will be used throughout the course, for example, group work, peer learning, class debates and discussions. Students will collaborate on performance-based tasks such as performing role plays, making informational posters, and writing letters to teachers. The course links learning approaches and assessments to provide Prospective Teachers with opportunity to accept responsibility for their own learning. ?SEMESTER OUTLINEUnit 1 – Course Introduction (2 weeks/6 hours)The first unit will provide students with an overview of the course and the key models, theorists, and debates in child development. It will emphasize development as a holistic process.Week 1Overview of Growth and DevelopmentPsycho-social ModelsBehaviourism and Socio-cultural ModelsWeek 2:Cognitive ModelsFactors That Affect the Child: Key Issues and Controversies (3 Big Debates)Approaches to Classroom DevelopmentUnit 2 – Early Childhood Development (2 weeks/6 hours)This unit looks at the first three stages of child development: infant, toddler, and preschool. It focuses on knowledge essential for elementary and middle school teachers about how children grow and how this knowledge can inform intelligent practice in children’s later years.Week 3:Unit Introduction Pre-Primary Child Development3 Domains of Toddler DevelopmentDevelopmentally Appropriate Practices for ToddlersWeek 4:3 Domains of Preschool Child DevelopmentDevelopmentally Appropriate Practices for Preschool Child DevelopmentUnit ReviewUnit 3 – Elementary School-Age Child Development (3 weeks/9 hours)In this unit, students will explore the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development of elementary school-age children (6-12 years old). Emphasis will be on understanding the child as a whole. Using key reading materials, major concepts, and reflections detailing observations and ideas, student will analyse stages of development during this critical period of growth. They will have opportunity to consider how early childhood development can inform their study of primary child development.Week 5:Thinking About Primary School Child DevelopmentAspects of Physical DevelopmentEncouraging Healthy Physical DevelopmentWeek 6:Cognitive Development: Overview and Piaget’ Concrete Operational TheoryCognitive Development: Industriousness and Intelligences Emotional DevelopmentWeek 7:Social Development: Changes and Parental RolesSocial Development: Peer Interaction, Friendship, and GrowthUtilizing Play in the ClassroomUnit 4 - Adolescence and Development (3 weeks/9 hours) ?In this unit, students will learn about the complex changes that children undergo as they reach adolescence. ?We will examine the impact these stages have upon adolescent cognitive development, social development and behaviours such as motivation and identity-formation. We will also consider critiques of adolescent developmental theory.Week 8:Teacher’s influence on student motivation and Unit III conclusionIntroduction and physical developmentSocial/Emotional development I: Erikson, development of self-identityWeek 9:Social/emotional development II: Adolescent peer groupSocial/emotional development III: Motivation/self-regulationCognitive developmentWeek 10:Cognitive/linguistic developmentCognitive, Individual differencesConclusion and reviewUnit 5 – Differences in Development and Special Needs (3 weeks/9 hours)Students will examine learning differences, both normal variation in learning styles and disabilities and disorders. Students will consider the role of the school and the instructor in managing and accommodating learning difference in classroom practice in addition to the perspectives on national educational policy in Pakistan on accommodating diverse developmental needs.Week 11:Differences in student learning and performance strengthsThinking About Child Development and DiversityReview of Child Development and DiversityWeek 12:Recognizing disability and learning disorders I - emotional and behaviouralRecognizing disability and learning disorders II - language, physical and sensoryCognitive differences: Delays and giftednessWeek 13:Addressing special needs in the classroom: Differentiated InstructionSchool resources and support services for special needs students in the National Policy ContextReflection and reviewUnit 6 – The Influence of Society and Culture on Child Development (3 weeks/9 hours)In this unit, students will examine how families, society, schools, and teachers influence child development. ?Students will reflect on major concepts of child development and the implications for teaching and learning. The role of the teacher will be considered.Week 14:Role of Nuclear and Extended FamilyRole of Community, Culture and SocietyRole of culture and society: gender balanceWeek 15:Role of culture and society: influence of media in child developmentRole of school, peers, and teachers in child developmentInfluence of teachers and peers on child developmentWeek 16:Involving Parents as Partners in EducationUnit ReviewCourse Reflection and ReviewTEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES Bredekamp, S. & Copple, C. (eds.) (1999). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.Child Development Institute Early Childhood Development (ECD) Pakistan Website: on Early Childhood Development: (Available in English and Urdu) ; ECD Programme. Nurture: Pakistan’s Pioneer Publication on Early Childhood Development. . 40 Developmental Assets for Early Childhood, K-3, Middle Childhood, & Adolescents. HYPERLINK "" , L. (1999). ?Adolescence, fifth edition. McGraw-Hill. ASSIGNMENTS Assignments will be listed on a separate handout. These assignments will contribute to your learning and count toward your final grade. GRADING POLICY A variety of assessments will be used in the course, including mid-term and final examinations.INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION (office hours, contact information)Course Guide SUMMARY OF ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGEThe course provides examples of theorists who look at child development from different perspectives on the growing person. Each has implications for teachers. PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORYErik Erikson is an example of a psycho-social theorist. He followed Freud’s theory, but altered it. He is best known for his theories on the stages of human development, from infancy to old age. Erikson says that humans, in particular, children, experience a series of life stages that correspond with a crisis. The way that an individual resolves (or fails to resolve) the crisis affects their overall social, psychological, and cognitive development. Each crisis involves a goal or ‘virtue’ that acts as the intended goal of that stage. There are many implications of Erikson’s theory for education, among them:Children need support for resolving developmental tasks. For example, a child who has not been able to develop trusting relationships with adults at home may have difficulty trusting his or her teachers. They will need to experience the teacher as trustworthy. Children also need classroom environments that provide opportunity for private thinking, interaction with materials, and social interaction.BEHAVIOURIST AND SOCIAL-LEARNING THEORYBehaviourism has been of enormous influence on educational psychology. Its influence lingers in outcomes-based perspectives that view learning as a product that can be measured. Behaviourism, also known as the learning perspective, proposes that all things that people do, from acting to thinking and feeling, can be regarded as behaviours. Learning becomes a key element and biological factors are only important as a basic foundation. This perspective studies behaviour instead of constructs of the mind. Two main behaviourist theorists are Watson and Skinner.Watson believed that directly observable events - stimuli and responses - should be the focus of study, not the internal constructs of the mind. Watson thought that children could be taught to develop in any way adults wanted if they controlled the stimulus-response associations.Watson’s historic experiment - classical conditioning in children’s behaviourSkinner also proposed conditioning theory that reinforcement and punishment forms children’s behaviour. A child’s behaviour can be encouraged by following it with a wide variety of forms of reinforcement, such as praise, a friendly smile, or a new toy. Other behaviours can be discouraged by punishments such as withdrawal of privileges or disapproval. Social Learning Theory accepted principles of conditioning and reinforcement of earlier behaviourists and built upon these principals. They also considered inner motivational factors and challenged the assumption that learning represents a change in behaviour. Bandura is associated with social learning theory. Alfred Bandura thought that observational learning and modelling is the basis for a wide variety of children’s behaviour, such as aggression, helping, sharing, or gender responses. Children acquire skills in the absence of direct rewards and punishment by watching and listening to others around them. Social learning theory outlines three requirements for people to learn and model behaviour which include: retention (remembering what one observed), reproduction (ability to reproduce the behaviour), and motivation (good reason) to want to adopt the behaviour. Bandura later introduced more cognitive elements to his theory by of his focus on motivational factors, rather than just environmental factors. His idea that families and teachers should promote the social-efficacy of the child is very important in education. Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation and is a powerful influence in how people think, behave, and feel.Behaviourism and Social Learning theory have implications for education. Behaviour modification is often used with children who have behavioural problem. It refers to a set of practical procedures that combines reinforcement, modelling, and manipulation of situational cues to eliminate children’s undesirable behaviours and increase their adoption of socially acceptable responses. Teachers who promote the child’s feeling of self-efficacy will help the child to take risks and try out new ideas. Teachers can promote self-efficacy through setting up environments that are age appropriate and welcoming to children, accepting that every child has something important to offer and every child can learn, using methods of teaching that allow children to experience success and gain confidence.Socio-Cultural theory, Leo Vygotsky Central to Vygotsky’s theory is that all human development is responsive to and influenced by social context and is the result of the interactions between children and their social environment. For Vygotsky, social interaction precedes development. Consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior. Social context and environment can include interactions with parents, teacher, friends, and sibling and with objects such as books and toys. Children are active in making in these interactions, constructing knowledge, skills, and attitudes and not just copying the world around them. Language is critical; people use social/cultural tools such as speech and writing to mediate their environment. The zone of proximal development is an idea that Vygotsky developed to address a child’s development in relation to certain concepts or abilities. He had in mind those skills a child has begun to develop but had not mastered. He refers here to an understanding or skill that was a “bud” or “flower” rather than a fully developed “fruit” in his metaphor. It is this stage of development that the teacher should seek to nurture and develop, helping a child to realize understandings and abilities.Vygotsky’s theory is considered one of the foundations of constructivist theory in education. Support of language development and helping to build bridges from the known to the unknown through a rich, interactive learning environment will support children’s learning. COGNITIVE MODELS OF DEVELOPMENTCognitive models of child development focus on growth of mind. The emphasis is on children’s logical thinking processes and how they change over time. Children play an active role in their own development.Jean Piaget is the most known cognitive development theorist. His research is known around the world and is very broad, touching on emotional development, peer relationships, moral reasoning, and cognitive development. Piaget argues that child-thinking is different in kind than adult thinking. It is not a watered-down version of adult thinking, but follows its own logic based on the appearance of things. Following Piaget’s theory, teachers should:Give students opportunities to experiment with physical objects such as water, sand, balls, going on nature walks, colour paints. Adolescent students can experiment with science lab equipment, cameras, food and cooking tools.Help students reason through giving problem solving tasks and deep questions. Remember the four stages when developing lesson plans to help guide thinkingPresent new situations that challenge students to rethink their current understandingsPlan group activities so that students can share their beliefs and perspectives with one another. Jerome Bruner’s Cognitive Theory. Bruner talks about how human beings are constantly forming categories. Categories are how we organize what we learn. He describes three modes of representation: enactive representation (physical activity-based) or concrete thinking, iconic representation (image-based) or semi-concrete thinking, and symbolic representation (language-based) or abstract thinking. Bruner does not propose ages and stages in the way Piaget describes growth. Ability to engage in modes of representation is only loosely associated with age. Bruner suggested that even young children can learn complex material if the instruction is organized in a way that allows progression from concrete to abstract. He is often thought of as the father of constructivist education. Scaffolding A scaffold is a temporary framework that is put up for support as a structure is being built. Bruner first suggested that scaffolding occurs in early language learning. Parents seem to know intuitively how to scaffold their children’s attempts in communicating. A child may not be able to articulate or explore learning independently and the teacher provides ways of handling the task that support greater independence, for example: materials, a problem to work out, key questions, an outline, an interesting task. Bruner’s theory suggests:When facing new material a student can follow a progression from concrete to abstract and achieve success.Teachers should provide scaffolding for students to differentiate instruction by using concrete, semi-concrete and abstract examples and materials in their teaching.Children benefit from experiences that allow them to categorize information through use of materials as well as ideas.KEY ISSUES AND CONTRAVERSIES IN DEVELOPMENTAL THEORYNature vs. Nurture - Nature refers to genetic influences on growth and functioning. Some of these influences appear in almost all members of the species; for instance, almost all children have natural talents for upright mobility (walking, running), language, and the use of simple tools. Other genetic characteristics differ from one person to another; for example, people’s physical appearance and athletic ability vary widely. Such psychological traits as temperament (for example, being shy or outgoing), aggression, and intelligence may also be partly influenced by genes. Such types of characteristics are not always perceived at birth. Many come about slowly by maturation. Although certain basic kinds of environmental support, such as food, are necessary for maturation, a person’s genes provide powerful instructions for certain changes to occur despite a wide range of environmental factors.Nature’s equal partner is nurture, the influence of factors in children’s environments. Nurture includes the effects of family, peers, schools, neighbourhoods, culture, the media, and the society in which people live. It affects children’s development by many ways- physically through nutrition and opportunities for activity, knowledge-wise through experience and instruction, socially through adult role models and friendships, etc. Historically, the relative influences of nature versus nurture have caused much debate among developmental theorists; you will find many instances during this course. But increasingly, those who study development are beginning to realize that nature and nurture are connected in ways that we can probably never separate apart. Universality vs. context-specific - Some changes occur in just about everyone, this reflects a degree of universality in development. For example, unless disabilities are present, all young children learn to sit, crawl, walk and run in that order. Other changes are highly individualistic, reflecting a context-specific nature. For example, children differ in strength and the ability to keep running fast as they engage in physical activity. Some theorists propose that genetics lead to universality. Others say that children acquire similar ways of thinking about the world because, despite their unique interactions with objects and people, they are all likely to see similar things occur (objects always fall down rather than up, people often get angry when something is grabbed away from them, etc.). Continuity vs. discontinuity - Sometimes development comes in sudden, dramatic changes in behaviour or thinking; reflecting discontinuity, or discontinuous change. For example, when children learn to run, they move their bodies forward in a way that is very different from walking. When they begin to talk in two-word sentences rather than with single words, they are, for the first time, using beginner forms of grammar that restricts the ways in which they combine words. More often, however, development occurs as a gradual process, with many small additions to behaviours and thought processes, reflecting continuity, or continuous change. Theorists’ fascination with discontinuous change is reflected in their tendencies to identify development in “stages” or fixed periods of time during childhood and adolescence when changes occur. Often however, research doesn’t support theories of stages, at least not that they progress in a fixed, distinct way. Many children display traits of two or more different stages at the same time. At the same time, many researchers are hesitant to abandon the idea of stages because it is clear that children of different ages tend to think and act in extremely different ways.There is a great deal of value at looking across the developmental span of preschool through adolescence. Elementary and middle school teachers who know about how children grow are more equipped to engage in informed, intelligent practice in a child’s later years. Developmental “ages and stages” are descriptive of what children tend to do, however, not prescriptive of what every child should do. DIFFERENCES IN DEVELOPMENT AND SPECIAL NEEDSWhile child development defines what is considered ‘normal’ development, it is important to keep in mind that no child develops in exactly the same way. Some “difference” is normal. Children usually grow cognitively, socially, emotionally and physically at different rates. Of course, some children develop outside of normal limits and education works to accommodate those children as well. Given the varied strengths (and weaknesses) of children and young adults in the realities of classroom practice, schools must be prepared to consider student differences. A number of strategies attempt to address special needs children in the regular classroom, for example, differentiated instruction and inclusive education. Students need to consider the role of the school and the instructor in managing and accommodating learning difference in classroom practice. All children can learn. Children learn differently and have different strengths and needs. Some students have more constant needs, such as those with disabilities. Pakistan’s educational policy has shifted in the past decade and is working towards including more students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms as well as working to develop separate facilities that work with students with special needs. Regardless of the approaches towards accommodating learning differences, it is important to recognize and build off of student strengths. Families, society, schools and teachers all influence a child’s development and should all work MON MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CHILD DEVELOPMENTTeachers in training are likely to enter their program with some or all of these common misconceptions about child development and how it interacts with human learning. The Instructor needs to be aware of them and constantly search for ways to help prospective teachers confront and critique them.Human learning:The child is an empty vessel/blank slate into which the teacher pours knowledgeCoverage of a broad set of key concepts in a discipline is essential (breadth v depth)Memorization of key concepts/facts demonstrates learning (v. deep understanding and ability to apply information in new situations)Teachers should teach to the average student and try to help students who are faster and aren’t getting it to the extent that they can (v. differentiation of instruction)Developmental theory:Development is fixed and invariant across cultures (v culturally situated)Theory tells us what children can and should do at different ages and stages (v a description of possibilities)Intelligence is fixedCOURSE MAPTHE COURSE PLANThis Course Guide is structured in the following way. Units cover 16 weeks of instruction. Each week students are expected to attend 3 sessions each one hour long. This document provides teachers with up to 2 lesson options for each session that they can use to guide planning and teaching. Difficult aspects of options are written up in more detail and appear at the end of the Unit. Lesson Plans are written for two lessons in Unit 1 for faculty who need an illustration of planning from the options. These, too, appear at the end of each unit. The Course Guide is organized in this way to provide examples of what all can be done with the course content without suggesting that there is one best way to plan and teach. Many faculty will prefer to create their own plans and will use the Guide as an additional resource. We encourage all faculty to accept the challenge of teaching in ways that promote active learning. For those who have not used active learning strategies, begin by experimenting with one or two ideas. Try a small change, such as asking students to read something in advance and talk about it in small groups at the beginning of a session. See how it works.SAMPLE ASSIGNMENTSAssignments are suggested in each of the session plans. The Instructor will want to use his or her own judgment in using these or choosing others. In general, short-term assignments will include activities such as reading an article, preparing something for class or bringing in materials. Longer-term assignments should allow students to integrate their learning. Some examples are below.Individual Reflective Journal from Field Observations -All pre-service teachers taking the course will be expected to conduct observations of children. ?Students will be expected to find their own observation sites and secure permission to observe either at a local school or community organization working with children. ?Students’ child observations will involve one hour outside of class each week. ?Students will keep field notes during their observations and write a one page reflection per week focusing on topics that the instructor assigns. ?Weekly observation journal topics will encourage students to connect course content with field observations. ?Specific data collection and observation techniques will be explained by the course instructor. ? This assignment could incorporate the Individual Reflective Journal. It is also a good assignment to coordinate with other faculty. For example, the science Instructor or Islamic Studies Instructor might want to require observation for how children are learning these subjects. Components assigned by other faculty should be graded by that faculty. The assignment might also become part of a larger portfolio to be developed over the 2-4 years of the program.Child Study AssignmentYou will be required to write a child study about a child between 5 – 10 years-old. The purpose is to follow the child’s development in school. Arrange with a school that is convenient to conduct a child study. The teacher may have suggestions about the child you should study. Choose a child who doesnot seem to be a “problem” to the teacher andwhose behavior, learning needs and the like aretypical. You will also need to have permission from the child’s parents. The study will not evaluate the child, but document growth. The child may be a relative or someone you have not met before. If you choose a relative, get permission from the child’s teacher to visit the school. Plan to observe at the school for 40-60 minutes a week for 8 weeks.Once the study is completed and graded, set up a time to meet with the teacher and a separate time to meet with the parent or caregiver to go over what you have learned. Be prepared to discuss this with the class.Your study should include the following headings:IntroductionSubject’s first nameSubject’s sex & ageSetting where observation and interaction occurredOther persons presentAdditional information that makes the report clear and descriptiveTalk with the parents and teacher to find out all you can about the child. Information such as date of birth, when she/he walked, first words and the like should be collected. Then write a description of the child, the child’s interests, strengths and needs. Include a physical description. You may also interview the child to gain additional information. The Child at SchoolDescribe the child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, artistic and self-help skills. Who are the child’s friends? Samples of school workSummary of your observations (about 1-2 paragraphs in length)Report During the semester, collect information about the child by observing and taking notes. As you take notes, write down what you actually see, not your opinion. For example, you might write, “Nida has a frown on her face and there are tears in her eyes. She hits the table with her fist.” This would let us see what you saw. If you were to write, “Nida is angry,” you are interpreting what you saw, but we aren’t sure exactly what you did see. Try to observe the child during each of the primary school subjects (e.g. science, mathematics, reading/language, arts and calligraphy), at play and at lunch. Write a brief summary of each observation focusing on what you saw. In a separate paragraph, describe how the observation connects to what you are learning about child development in class. RecommendationsBased on your study, what suggestions do you have for teachers?Raw DataAttach your field notes as an Appendix to the document. These will include notes from interviews, questionnaires you may have devised, notes from observations and the like.Group Project and Presentation - Students will choose one unit to work on a group project to present to their classmates at the beginning of the semester (topics will include: pre-primary education, primary education, adolescence, special needs education, and inclusive education). ?Each group will write a letter of advice to future teachers making recommendations for how to best support child development and learning for each of the topics. ?Letters should include at least 10 suggestions for practice and give justifications based on theory/cases/methods studied in class. In other words, students will write and support what they would do in a classroom and why to foster positive development. ?At the end of each unit, the group assigned will prepare a presentation of their ideas in the letter to the class.ASSESSMENTMultiple forms of assessment will be used in the course. ?Many of these may be new to prospective teachers. ?By using multiple forms of assessment, the instructor will have many windows on the knowledge, skills and dispositions of prospective teachers. In general, you will find suggestions for assessment included with each unit.Plan to collect on-going information (formative assessment) about student progress. This could include activities such as:Short quizMinute paper Ask students to take one minute to write a response to what they are learning in class.Observing & Recording Keep a log in a small notebook. Notice student involvement in the activity that is underway. Make note of their engagement. From time to time you may wish to look at your notes and see who isn’t mentioned. Make a point to see who does not contribute to small groups, who dominates and the like. Write down questions you hear students ask, facial expressions, body position and gesture. Consider what your notes tell you about how students relate to the topic at hand. Your log should help you think about the class holistically and pinpoint issues that may need more attention or those that require additional support for a particular Trainee. Your notes also help you to judge whether you need to reframe the activity, clarify explanation and the like. JournalingHave your students keep a course journal. Following each session have them record reactions to the session, what they are learning about themselves, what they are learning about teaching. This can be an effective tool for metacognitive development.For the journal to be effective as a learning tool, you need to look at it and provide comment from time-to-time. (There is research on journaling with student teachers, for example, that suggests that when supervisors fail to comment on student dialogue journals, their comments dry up.) You might check a few journals each day so that everyone gets feedback once over a two week period.Another strategy is for students to share their journals and make these the subject of discussion about their own learning strategies, styles and the like. This further helps develop their metacognitive skills and emphasis on collaborative community. You can also keep your own journal about yourself as an Instructor, your reactions to a session and the like and share it with students in an exchange. Reading Log? Readings will be drawn from a variety of sources.? Students are expected to develop a list of assigned readings with notes about the reading that will be useful to you later in finding resources for your work. Annotations should be about a paragraph in length.Summative, or end-of-term assessment is important, too. In addition to the tests that are given by the university, you will want to have your own summative assessment. For example, if you assign the Child Study or the Group Project described above, the completed product will make an excellent summative evaluation, offering you a window on how well your students have learned. Your Formative assessments will contribute to an over-all picture of the student’s progress, too.Introduction to Child DevelopmentUnit 1Unit 1 Detailed Planning Guide Introduction to Child DevelopmentThe first unit will provide students with an overview of the course and the key models, theorists, and debates in child development. The Student Reader includes assignments and readings for the unit.Week 1:Understanding Growth and Development as a Holistic ProcessPsycho-social ModelsBehaviourism and Socio-cultural Models Week 2:Cognitive Models Factors Affecting the Child: Key Issues and Controversies (3 Big Debates)Approaches to Classroom DevelopmentLearning Outcomes: At the end of the unit, students will be able to:Describe major theories and big themes in how children develop Reflect on their conceptions about child growth and developmentCompare and contrast views about effect of nature and nurture on child development Identify factors that influence child development Essential Questions:How much do children determine their own behaviour? How much does society determine a child’s behaviour? What does it mean for development to be “normal”?Enduring Understandings:Child development is not a static field. The theories it involves and the best practices that grow out of those theories are widely debated.Theories represent different perspectives on children.Many different people have many different yet valid theories on how children develop.There is a great deal of variety in the way children develop.a Resources:Berk, Laura E. (1991). Child Development, 2nd edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Lee, Alison (2008). Childminder’s Guide to Child Development. New York, NY: Continuum.Santrock, J & Yussen, S. (1987). Child Development, an introduction, 3rd edition. Dubuque, IO: WM.C. Brown Publishers.Child development theories and theorists: Erikson’s stages.myclass.sec/12/23539/Lessons/Erikson.pp (power point of all 8 stages, you may wish to use through the slide for 15-18 years). comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky: Power point, detailed presentation of Piaget’s theory and critiquvirtualpsychology.co.uk/powerpoint/PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment.pptResources for Developing Additional Topics in the Unit:Theories of moral development (including Kohlberg):’s nativist approach to language development: more: Chomsky's Stages of Language Development | Rogers holistic theory of personality and implications for education: Reader:Erik Erikson’s Theory of DevelopmentIdentifying Erikson’s Stages of Child Development Behaviourism, and Socio-cultural ModelsCognitive Theories“Piaget, Champion of Children’s’ Ideas”Key Issues and Controversies: 3 Big DebatesComparing Examples of Developmental Theory TableReview: Comparing Examples of Developmental Theory Table (for use any time during the course)Session Planning GuideWeek 1, session 1: Overview of Growth and DevelopmentNote: many of the sessions require reading from the course reader prior or assignments to be completed prior to the session. Students who are not used to preparing before class discussion on a topic will need to be socialized into making preparation in advance. If a reading or assignment is required for a session, it will be listed at the beginning of the session option for which it is required. Look ahead to see if an assignment needs to be made. Option 1:Introduction to the Course (15-20 min. maximum) Instructor gives brief overview of the importance of child development for teachers (the detailed course outline for Unit 1 may be helpful). Brainstorming (5 min.) Conceptions of child development and growth. Ask the following questions, give students a moment to write down the firstideas that come to mind. There are no right or wrong answers.How do you think children grow and develop? What is the difference between growth and development?What part does a child’s heredity play in his/her growth and development?What part does family, culture and environment (e.g. city/country) play on a child’s growth and development?Pair-Share in pairs or triads (5-10 min.) Have students talk to the person next to them or on either side about their lists.Whole Group Discussion (20 min.) Take as many ideas from class members as time permits. (Ideas may be noted on chart paper or simply discussed and summarized. Instructor notes ideas that are repeated or on which there is consensus.)Point out that during the semester we will encounter different answers to these same questions. Review of Syllabus (10 min.) Faculty who are comfortable with active learning may want to try Option 3, at the end of Unit 1. Hand out copies of the syllabus. Give Prospective Teachers an opportunity to look it over, and then highlight the various sections. Point out that the approach to teaching and learning that will be used in this course may be very different than their previous educational experiences. Some of them may find it uncomfortable at first. Encourage them to give ittime and try to enter into activities and do their best.Option 2: Introduction to the Course (10-15 min.) Instructor gives brief overview of the importance of child development for teachers. Self-Reflection on Development (10-15 min.) Have prospective teachers complete the following list, working individually. Answer the questions quickly and to the best of your recollection. Answers will be used for discussion, so don’t worry about how accurate they are. The idea is for students to write down what they remember, not an exact description. (Some students will not remember; they may want to think about a younger sibling or a relative.) What does your family tell you about your infancy? (e.g. appearance, interaction, temperament, growth)As a pre-schooler, what were you like? (e.g. food preferences, when you learned to walk, talk, your appearance, interaction with others, first words, temperament, growth)See Option Details at the end of Unit 1 for tips on forming groups. What were you like at school age? (achievement, did you like school?, friends, food preferences, language, what you liked to play, when you learned to read, when you learned to write)Small Group Share (15 min.) Have prospective teachers share in groups of 3-5 people. Ask them to notice what is alike, what is different in their experience. Whole Group Discussion (15 min.)Instructor elicits ideas from a few of the groups: What do you think this activity can tell you about what to expect from a course on child development?Review of Syllabus (10 min.)Hand out copies of the syllabus. Give Prospective Teachers an opportunity to look it over, and then highlight the various sections. Point out that the approach to teaching and learning that will be used in this course may be very different than their previous educational experiences This option is also available as a fully developed lesson plan found at the end of Unit I.Unit 1.Week 1, session 2: Psycho-social ModelsOption 1: Review (5-10 min) Point out that we can learn a great deal about child growth and development by thinking about our own childhood. Ask questions to stimulate thinking. Have students write down the first thought that comes to mind:Ask questions to stimulate thinking. Have students write down the first thought that comes to mindWhat are one or two major events that occurred in your life as a child? or major events happening in the lives of your own children?For notes on making lectures more meaningful for students see Option Details at the end of Unit 1.Did the way you handled those experiences (as a child or as a parent) affect you in positive or negative ways?Lecture (20-30 min.) Instructor reviews the stages of Erikson’s Psycho-Social Development model.Pair Work (15 min.) Students complete the “Identifying Examples of Erikson’s Stages of Child Development” hand-out in pairs. Instructor goes over answers with the class.Reflection and Discussion (10 min.) Ask students if they agree with the linear structure of Erikson’s model. Can children move on to other stages of development if they have not resolved previous stages? Point out that Erikson doesn’t think so, but people have different opinions.Option 2:Review (5 min) Students reflect and write down ideas on the question: What are some major social and psychological issues facing Pakistani children of different ages today?Lecture (30 min.) Instructor elicits several ideas and writes on board or chart paper. Ask them to keep their lists as they will refer to them at the end of the period.Review the stages of Erikson’s Psycho-Social Development model, referring to the list, if possible.Reflection (10 min)Identify an incident in your own life that demonstrates one or more of one of the first 5 developmental stages according to Erikson. How did your actions affect your ability to resolve the ‘crisis’ of that stage? Share with a partner.Group Discussion (15 min) Class breaks into groups of 4-5 and discusses the points they wrote down at the beginning of class about issues facing Pakistani children. How would Erikson classify these problems into a stage/struggle? What are some suggestions for practices based on the model that could address these issues for Pakistani youth?Week 1, session 3: Behaviourism and Socio-cultural ModelsOption 1:Review (5 min) Instructor leads participants to review the main concepts of the psycho-social perspective from the previous session. Lecture (30 min.) Instructor reviews main ideas of behaviourism, social learning theory, and socio-cultural theory and the different theorists associated with these ideas. (Assign reading, Behaviourism and Socio-Cultural Models from the Student Reader prior to this session or as a follow-up reading.)Discussion (10 min.) How do these theorists’ ideas differ from the psycho-social theorists? What criticisms do you have of the theories?Group work (15 min.) Think of an example for how teachers or other children try to modify children’s behaviour using reinforcement or punishment? Group members share observations and anecdotes, and then choose one example to share with the whole class.Take a few minutes for whole-class sharing.Option 2:Review (5 min) Instructor leads participants to review the main concepts of the psycho-social perspective from the previous session. Group work (20 min.) Participants divide in groups of 4-5 to review the readings and prepare to present the main ideas of a theorist assigned to them (Watson, Skinner, Bandura, Vygotsky). There may be more than one group per theorist.Participants should prepare to present the main idea of the theorist, criticisms, and an example of how a teacher would use the theory in the classroom.Presentations (20 min.) Each group has 4-5 minutes to present the main ideas to the class (depending on number of groups).If there is more than one group for a theorist, notice any differences in interpretation.Lecture (15 min.) Instructor uses the main ideas from each group presentation to correct understanding and highlight how the perspectives of theorists differ. Note that teachers usually use ideas from several theories.Week 2, session 4: Cognitive ModelsOption 1:Group work (20 min.) In small groups, students discuss the reading. Assign half the group to consider Piaget and half to consider Bruner: How is Piaget’s (or Bruner’s) cognitive model of development different from psycho-social, behaviourist, and socio-cultural models? Jigsaw. Divide the groups in half. Ask the half who discussed Piaget to go to a group that discussed Bruner. Have the combined groups each take 5 min. to explain their discussion to each other.Lecture (20-30 min.) Instructor covers the key ideas of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, presents the four stages of cognitive development, implications for teaching practice. (Or use a power point presentation, one is listed in references for this unit.)Contrast these with Bruner’s ideas about modes of representation. Think, pair, share (10 min.) Students work with a partner to think of 1 to 3 short classroom activities that reflect cognitive theory’s implications for teaching practice. This option is also available as a fully developed lesson plan found at the end of Unit I.Unit 1.After working in pairs, Instructor calls on several partners to share one activity idea with the class and explain how it reflects Piaget’s or Bruner’s cognitive theory. Option 2: Assignment At the end of Session 3, ask students to bring an articlepicture, or title from newspapers or magazines that is related to children in some way. They may bring in more than one. The Instructor should bring additional pictures, etc. to add to what they bring. Review (5 min.)Ask students to quickly write down the names of the theories we have studied in the course so far in the order of their preference. Ask a few students to share their first choice and why.Classifying Articles/Pictures (20 min.) Have students meet in groups. Each group will spread articles/pictures out on a table or desks and look at them. Ask them if they can find any categories that they could use to group articles/pictures. Accept their groupings. Provide chart paper/markers/paste or tape and have them mount the materials on chart paper & label their categories. Groups post them in the room. (Instructor moves around the room observing during the activity. Notice how groups are making their decisions.) Give students a few minutes at the end to walk around the room and look at various ways people grouped pictures/articles and answer questions asked by their peers.Lecture (30 min.) Talk about what you noticed as people developed groups of things. Point out that Bruner talks about how people categorize things. His theory describes categories of thinking: concrete, semi-concrete and abstract. Compare Bruner’s idea of categorization to Piaget’s idea about how the mind creates categories or schema. You may want to show the power point to describe Piaget’s theory in more detail (see Unit 1, Overview references). Ask students if they have changed their preference for theories we have studied after today’s session on cognitive theory. Have them explain why/why not to the class, taking as many opinions as time permits.Week 2, session 5: Three big debatesMore detail on the Review strategy for this option is available at the end of Unit 1. See Option Details. Option 1:Review (15 min.) Before class, write on strips of paper, mix up and place randomly on tables:names of major theories studied (Psycho-Social, Behaviorist, etc.), names of theorists studied, major concepts proposed by each theorist (put these on separate strips, e.g. trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, learning initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, learning identity vs. identity diffusion. Have students walk around the room and see if they can group theory, theorist and terms in the right categories. Everyone can consult and be involved. Provide tape to post their groupings on the wall or a chalk/white board. Do not correct them, but allow students to look at what they are doing and make corrections. At the end of 10 minutes have everyone stop. Hand out Comparing Examples of Developmental Theory, Student Reader. Give them 5 minutes to try to complete the groupings.Individual activity (10 min.) Have students take out a piece of paper and write: their favourite food, favourite school subject, age they stopped growing taller, a special talent or skill, way they prefer to spend time: with friends or family. Active Lecture (20 min.) Pose the question: Where do our preferences, characteristics, growth patterns and talents come from? Get the opinion of class members:How many people in the class think that who we are is basically inherited from our parents? (ask for a show of hands)How many people think we are basically shaped by our environment—family and culture? (ask for a show of hands)Using notes from the Unit Content Outline, talk about how the issue of heredity and environment has led to 3 inter-related debates: nature vs. nurture, universality vs. context-specific, continuity vs. discontinuity. Provide an explanation for each and ask students to follow up by reading Key Issues and Contraversies: 3 Big Debates in the Student Reader for homework.Option 2:Review (5-10 min.)Lecture (25 min.) See course reader/content guide. Overview of 3 debates: nature v. nurture, continuity v discontinuity, universality v context specificPair activity (15 min.) Students break into pairs and see if they can come up with an example of a situation for each debate (nature v nurture, continuity v discontinuity, universality v context-specific).Discussion (10 min.) Come together as a class and have groups share their answers.Week 2, session 6: Approaches to Classroom DevelopmentOption 1:Group discussion (5 min.) The students think back to their experience in classrooms as children. When did they learn to read? An informal classroom survey is taken. Is there variation? What are some possible explanations for the variation?Lecture (20 min.) The instructor discusses the concept of diversity of developmental abilities in classrooms and how major instructional approaches respond to that diversity. At the end of the lecture, students share one thing they learned with a partner. Unit review (10 min.) The instructor reviews the major concepts and themes of the unit.Concept web poster activity (20 min.) Students consider the models discussed in the lecture. Are there any connections that can be made to theorists and major concepts discussed? Students make a web of concepts and relationships in groups on a poster. These are shared with the class.3-2-1 (5 min.) Students write three things they have learned, two that they would like to know more about and one idea/skill they have mastered from the unit.Option 2:Review (5 min.) The instructor leads review on the major debates in child development.Think/pair/share (10 min.) –Students consider their strengths as learners. They share one of these strengths with a partner. Each partner reports the strengths of the other to the class and a list is generated. Are their differences? Does this support classroom realities you remember from growing up?Lecture (20 min) The instructor discusses the concept of diversity of developmental abilities in classrooms and how major instructional approaches respond to that diversity. At the end of the lecture, students share one thing they learned with a partner.Self-reflection (5 min.) What models do you recognize? Which are foreign to you? What model is typical of schools in Pakistan?Unit review (15 min.) The instructor reviews the major theorists, themes and concepts from the course.Miniature essay (5 min) Students write about one concept covered in the course that they are interested in learning more about. Tell how they intend to do so.OPTION DETAILSIn this section you will find explanations for challenging or unfamiliar strategies. also see Option Details for Unit 2 for a possible semester-long project for the whole class.Week 1, session 1: Overview of Growth and DevelopmentOption 2:Some tips for forming instructional groups.There is no one best way to form groups. The best way for you is the way that suits your purpose. Use a more complicated strategy if students need a break or need to be energized. Use a simple technique if time is short.Ask people to count from 1 to 5 (depending on the number of people you want in a group). Appoint all the #1s to go to one table (or area of the room), all the #2s, etc.Before class, determine how many people you want in a group or how many groups you need. Used different coloured stickers, stars or dots. Put one on each student as they enter class. Then when it is time to group, ask them to find people with the same sticker and sit together.Put different coloured bits of paper in a cup or jar on each table. Have people take one and find people in the room with the same colour to form a group.Have students get together with everybody born in the same month as they were.Make adjustments to the groups as needed.Week 1, session 2: Psycho-social ModelsOption 1Active Lecturing Many of the options in this course guide suggest use of lecture for about 20-30 minutes or interactive lecturing. An active lecture is not too different from any good lecture, but it attempts to directly involve listeners. There is no one best way to give an active lecture, but it includes:Giving information in small chunks (about 10 minutes), then having people do something with it for 1-3 minutes. Here are some examples of activities. You might use the same one after each chunk of information-giving or you might vary the activity:Write a 1 minute reaction to what you have just heard, Talk to the person next to you about what you heard and what they heard.Do you agree? Do you have questions?List as many key points as you can pare notes taken during the 1-minute chunk. Help each other fill in gaps or determine if crucial information is missing. (Some people do not allow note taking during the lecture, but this is up to the Instructor.)Another way to do an: active lectureGive out 3 colors of cards or slips of paper. When people are listening to your comments, have them hold up a color for:I understand. I don’t understand.I disagree. Then either stop and allow questions or adjust what you are saying so there are more “understand” colors showing. This is particularly effective with large groups of 50 or more people.Week 2, session 5: Three big debatesOption 1:More detail on the review strategy for this session is available at the end of Unit 1.Review (15 min.) This is an activity that you can use to help students review the unit and to assess how well they are learning. To prepare, create labels on strips of paper or chart paper. Distribute them randomly and equally on tables/desks in the room so they are there when students enter.Across a wall or on a white/board, create the following headings: Theorist & TheoryBirth – 18 months/2 years Preschool- 2 4-years Younger Children-4-6 yearsOlder Children-7-12 yearsAdolescence – 13-19 yearsEriksonWatsonSkinnerBanduraThis activity could be extended to take the whole session with more discussion about choices and time for critique of decisions and correction of misconceptions. VygotskyPiagetBrunnerPsycho-social theoryBehaviorist theorySocio cultural theoryCognitive theoryTrust vs. MistrustAtonomy vs. Shame & DoubtLearning Initiative vs. GuiltIndustry vs. InferiorityLearning Identity vs. Identity DiffusionZone of Proximal DevelopmentSensory MotorPre-Operational ThinkingConcrete OperationsFormal OperationsEnactive representationIconic representationAbstract representationThese labels represent theorists and major concepts proposed by each. When students enter class, have students walk around the room and look at the labels. Challenge them to see if they can group theory, theorist and terms in the right categories. Everyone can consult and be involved. Provide tape to post their groupings on the wall or a chalk/white board. Do not correct them, but allow students to look at what they are doing and make corrections for themselves by moving labels. At the end of 10 minutes have everyone stop. Don’t worry about how many labels are remaining. Hand out Comparing Examples of Developmental Theory, Student Reader. Let them look at it and give them 5 minutes to try to complete the groupings.Unit I, or Any Unit For tips on tests as a form of assessment and preparation, seeAppendix B at the end of the curriculum.Using Quizzes or Pop TestsShort Quiz (15 min.)Prepare and give a short quiz over the different aspects of child development covered in the unit.Have students take the quiz, then circle items they are unsure of.Triads Share (10 min.)Have students meet in groups of three to go over items they are uncertain about. Review (30 min.) Go over the quiz with students, having them look at their own work and make corrections. Notice points they had difficulty remembering and take time to review them. You may ask students to assist with this, talking about how they were able to remember.This is a time to correct any misconceptions.Have students save their quiz for future study.ADDITIONAL OPTIONS AND LESSON PLANS for Unit IAdditional OptionsUnit I, Session 1: Overview of Growth and DevelopmentIntroduction (5 min.) Brief introduction and welcome to the course.Brainstorm (20 min.) Form groups of 4-5 students. Based on what you already know from your own experiences, brainstorm answers to these questions. 1) What are children like? 2) What kinds of activities seem to appeal to them? 3) What topics would you choose for each age group to learn at school? They are no right or wrong answers. Share your opinions. Have students create 4 columns on chart paper to record their ideas. Do not spend time making a decorative chart. List headings & quickly put down your ideas. Fill in as much information as you can in the given time. (Note: New undergraduate students often spend energy on creating the poster rather than the ideas. Insist that they focus on substance, not form. Discourage drawing a table grid or borders around the page.) Pre SchoolYounger Elementary SchoolOlder Elementary School AdolescentsWhat children are like at this period?Kinds of activity most suitable for them at this ics for them to learn about.Gallery Walk (10 min.) Have groups post their work. Class members to walk around and look at what others have done. Do not comment on their choices.Mini-Lecture & Summary (10 min.)Point out that based on our own commonsense and experience, we know a lot about how children learn and grow. We have ideas about what they like to do and what they need to know. Use this activity to focus remarks on why study of child development can benefit teachers.LESSON PLANSWeek 1, session 2: Psycho-Social ModelsLesson Plan for Option 1Learning Outcomes: Students will be able to describe Erikson’s psycho-social theory and identify practical classroom applications.Students will reflect on their conceptions of child growth and development. Materials: UTube video on Erikson or powerpoint: (use through the slide on age 18).Prerequisite: Students will have read Erik Erikson’s Theory of Child Development (see Student Reader).Learning Experiences and ActivitiesINTRODUCTIONReview session one (10 min): Show the following quotation on an overhead or have it written on the chalk/white board:We are studying [children] from every possible biological and cultural angle, putting the results together for one common goal: that tomorrow's children may have life more abundantly, because we are learning from today’s children.Ask students to think about how the quotation applies to teachers. Elicit 2-3 opinions. (There is no right answer, but the quotation is thought provoking.)Point out that we can learn a great deal about the child growth and development theories we will be learning by thinking about our own childhood. Ask questions to stimulate thinking:What are one or two major events that occurred in your life as a child? or major events happening in the lives of your own children?Did the way you handled those experiences (as a child or as a parent) affect you in positive or negative ways?Ask students to keep their answers to these questions in mind as you talk about child development from the psycho-social perspective of Erik Erikson.DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSONActive Lecture (20-30 min.): Review the stages of Erikson’s Psycho-Social Development model. (This may be done through viewing a video clip or power point about Erikson, two resources are listed above or you may draw from Unit 1 Content Outline.)Erikson’s Developmental Stages from Birth to Adolescence:Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1-year-old)Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (2- 4-years old)Learning Initiative vs. Guilt (4-5-years old)Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12-years old)Learning Identity vs. Identity Diffusion (13-19-years-old)Answer questions.Ask if they can recall the stages of play that Erikson identifies and give an example. Autocosmic Play (self-play) Microcosmic Play (small toys & things) Macrocosmic Play (social) Pair Work (15 min.): Students complete the “Identifying Examples of Erikson’s Stages of Child Development” hand-out in pairs. Give students a few minutes to work together. Then go over answers with the class.Reflection and Discussion (10 min.): Ask students if they agree with the linear structure of Erikson’s model. Can children move on to other stages of development if they have not resolved previous stages? Point out that Erikson doesn’t think so, but people have different opinions.CONCLUSIONSummarize: (1 min.) Briefly summarize by stating that today we have thought about Erik Erikson’s psycho-social theory of development. In the next session we will look at Behaviourist and Socio-cultural theories.Assessment: Use observation for on-going (formative) assessment of this lesson. Notice who contributes to class discussion and who over-contributes. As students engage in Pair Work, walk around the room and listen to their conversations. After class, you may want to make notes as part of a record of participation.Week 2, session 4: Cognitive ModelsLesson Plan for Option 2Learning Outcomes: Students will be able to describe Piaget’s cognitive theory and identify practical classroom applications.Students will be able to describe Bruner’s modes of representation and identify practical classroom applications.Students will reflect on their conceptions of child growth and development. Materials: Newspaper clippings, pictures from magazines, titles from newspapers or magazines, advertisments that depict or describe children.Power point, detailed presentation of Piaget’s theory and critique:virtualpsychology.co.uk/powerpoint/PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment.pptPrerequisite: Students will have read Cognitive Models (see Student Reader). At the end of session 3, assign students to bring in pictures, short newspaper articles, titles from newspapers of magazines, advertisements that depict or describe children.Learning Experiences and ActivitiesINTRODUCTIONReview session 3 (5 min): Tips on forming groups may be found at the end of Unit 1 under Option Details.Ask students to quickly write down the names of the theories we have studied in the course so far in the order of their preference. Ask a few students to share their first choice and why. (Psycho-Social Theory, Behaviorist, Socio-Cultural Models or they may name theorists: Erikson, Skinner, Watson, Bandura, Vygotsky)DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSONClassifying Articles/Pictures (20 min.) Have students meet in groups of 4-5 members each. Each group will spread articles/pictures they have brought on a table or desks and look at them carefully. Ask them to group articles/pictures into at least 3 groups or categories. They must be able to give their categories a name and explain why they have grouped them as they have.Moves around the room observing during the activity. Notice how groups are making their decisions. Accept their groupings. Provide chart paper/markers/paste or tape and have them mount the materials on chart paper & label their categories. Have groups post their charts in the room. Gallery Walk (5 min.) Have one member of each group stand by their poster and be prepared to explain categories or answer questions about it. Other students walk around the room and look at various ways people grouped their pictures/articles and answer questions asked by their peers.Active Lecture (30 min.) Talk about what you noticed as people developed groups of things. Point out that they were using a concept formation strategy. The activity is a reminder of how much we classify in our regular lives, and how there are different rationales for different classifications. Bruner talks about how people categorize things. His theory describes categories of thinking, or representation: enactive representation (physical activity-based) or concrete thinking, iconic representation (image-based) or semi-concrete thinking, and symbolic representation (language-based) or abstract thinking. Compare Bruner’s idea of categorization to Piaget’s idea about how the mind creates categories or schema. Key concepts and principles for Piaget’s theory of child development:Children are active and motivated learners. They are naturally curious about the world around them.Children organize what they learn from their experiences and construct a view of how the world operates by observations. These things that children learn are organized in schema – or groups of similar thoughts. Later, these schemes become part of larger mental processes, or operations. Children adapt to their environment through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when people deal with a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme. When new events or objects are unfamiliar, people use accommodation or modify or create a new scheme. Interaction with the physical environment and with other people is critical for cognitive developmentChildren think in qualitatively different ways at different age levels or in stagesYou may want to show the power point to describe Piaget’s theory in more detail (see materials, above) rather than presenting this in lecture form.CONCLUSIONSummarize: (5 min.) Ask students if they have changed their preference for theories we have studied after today’s session on cognitive theory. Have them explain why/why not to the class, taking as many opinions as time permits.Briefly summarize by stating that today we have thought about the cognitive theories of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. In the next session we will think about 3 big debates in child development.Assign reading, Key Issues and Controversies: 3 Big Debates in the Student Reader.Assessment: Use observation for on-going (formative) assessment of this lesson. Notice how students participate in cooperative groups. After class, you may want to make notes about participation.Early Childhood DevelopmentUnit 2Unit 2 Detailed Planning Guide Early Childhood DevelopmentThis unit looks at the first three stages of child development: infant, toddler, and preschool. It focuses on knowledge essential for elementary and middle school teachers about how children grow and how this knowledge can inform intelligent practice in children’s later years.Week 3:Unit Introduction and Infant Development 3 Domains of Toddler DevelopmentDevelopmentally Appropriate Practices for ToddlersWeek 4:3 Domains of Preschool Child DevelopmentDevelopmentally Appropriate Practices for Preschool Child DevelopmentUnit ReviewLearning Outcomes: Identify perspectives on development for infant, toddler and pre-schooler.Identify major transition points in pre-primary development.Associate developmental stages with daily interactions children have with other children.Design an age-appropriate stimulus to initiate or enhance development in a child.Defend the importance of balanced or wholesome development of a child. Justify knowledge of early childhood development in planning programs for older children.Identify the difference in application of “ages and stage theory” as descriptive versus prescriptive of what a child can and should do.”Essential Questions:How are the major developmental stages differentiated?What are indicators at each developmental stage? How does context influence the development of very young children?What are the roles of parents, care givers and peers in the lives of a developing child?How might over-reliance on developmental stage theory limit possibilities for children?Enduring Understandings:Strong development in the earliest years of a child’s life is critical for future stages of developmentIntensive care from family members and caregivers is crucial to balanced developmentLove, care and affection enhance pre-primary child developmentYoung children need to feel that they belong and that their ideas and needs are taken seriously.Every child is both unique from and similar to all other children.Resources:Adler, Martha A. & street, Trepainer. (2007). College Student’s Beliefs about Preschooler’s Literacy Development: Results from a National Survey of Jumpstart. Early Childhood Research and Practice 9 (2). , S. & Copple, C. (eds.) (1999). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.ECD Programme (2010). Nurture: Pakistan’s Pioneer Publication on Early Childhood Development. Childhood Development (ECD) Pakistan Website: on Early Childhood Development: , J. McVicker (1986). The Effect of Variations in Quality and Type of Early Child Care on Development. New Directions for Child Development 32: 31-48. . Christopher. J. (2003). Comment on Marcon (ERCP, Vol. 4, No. 1, Spring 2002): Moving up the Grades: Relationship between Preschool Models. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 5(1). Retrieved from Marcon, Rebecca A. (2002). Moving up the Grades: Relationship between Preschool Model and Later School Success. Early Childhood Research and Practice. Vol 4 (1). Phenix, P., Promoting Personal Development Through Teaching. Teachers College Record Volume 84 Number 2, 1982, p. 301-316 , M., Zabihi, A., Modarresi, Y., Pour Heidari, M.A. (2007). A comparative study on language features and educational situation of orphan versus non orphan children with 7. Permanent Link: Reader:Ready to Learn or Already Learning?Fact Sheet on Toddler DevelopmentImportance of Childhood Health and Care`Fact Sheet on Pre-School Child DevelopmentCollege Students Beliefs about Pre-schoolers Literacy DevelopmentSession Planning Guide Week 3, Session 7: Introduction to New Unit: Pre-Primary Child DevelopmentOption 1:Introduction to new unit (5 min.)Introduce the unit by pointing out that an understanding of how growth takes place over time helps us to understand how much a child has accomplished by the time he/she gets to school. A great deal has been happening in their lives. They have already developed ways of understanding and coping with the world around them that began from the moment of birth. While we will look at landmarks in development, such as size and weight, the unit will not divide growth and development into domains (mind/body), but will look at the child as a whole. You may want to ask students to come prepared by having read the essay, “Ready to Learn or Already Learning?” in the Student Reader. (Or it may be an assigned reading following the session.)Recording student experiences (10 min.)You can collect information quickly by asking 2 class members to be recorders. Have them alternate in writing comments. This will keep discussion moving.Ask participants to think about interactions they have had with infants and pre-schooler children. What have you noticed? What have you heard? Ask as many as possible to share something. Record comments on the chalk/white board. (There are no right answers.)Active Lecture (30 min.)Teacher gives a general overview of each developmental stage: infant, toddler, and preschool.Use comments that students have contributed to illustrate key points you want to make. (This cannot be comprehensive in 25 minutes. Focus on key concepts.)Writing activity (10 min.)Participants write the critical developmental milestones observed in each of the developmental stages. Instructor emphasizes the need to look Having students weigh & measure children is a favorite activity for some Instructors. However it will not result in enough learning to justify the expenditure of time in or out of class. What are other more efficient ways to illustrate differences in growth rate? See Option Details at the end of the unit. at the four domains of child development – physical, cognitive, social and emotional.Option 2:Introduction to new unit (25 min.)Divide the class into thirds. Assign each group a developmental stage: infant, toddler, pre-schooler. Subdivide each developmental stage group to make sub-groups of 3-5 members. Brainstorm Each group will think about what they have learned in Unit I and their own life-experience about the age group to which they have been assigned and jot down key things that children can do at each age. Focus on their accomplishments.Graphic Representation Have each group use their list to create a poster with some kind of graphic representation that shows developmental characteristics of the age group they’ve been assigned. They may not make a list, but should think of visual images such as trees, boxes, spirals, arrows, symbols to show relationships between areas of growth that contribute to a whole child as they understand these areas. They may create 3-dimensional posters using scrap paper, scissors, glue, objects found in nature (twigs, leaves, small pebbles) or other “junk” items. The idea isn’t to be “pretty” but to illustrate. Discourage complicated borders, making ruler lines and the like. Encourage messy, but illustrative work.Circulate among groups to observe. Keep the group members being productive—one member should not be making the chart for the group, but all members working on part of the chart. Give a 5 minute warning for finishing and clearing.Gallery Walk and Discussion (15 min.)Ask one member from each group to remain with the group’s poster to explain it. Other members go to as many posters as they can within the allotted time. Participants discuss major developmental milestones they have noticed in their observations, or from children in their own lives. After about 5 minutes pose a question for discussion: Do developmental milestones matter? Why/Why not?Participants discuss practices that they see in observations, or in their own teaching or parenting. What practices seem to support development? What practices might not be helpful? Save graphic representations for an end of the Unit Review. Follow-up (10 min) Invite class to think about why you have introduced the unit with this activity. What do they think you were trying to accomplish? Elicit several opinions. You may share your answer if you wish or ask them to continue thinking. (Two possible reasons: active way of assessing what they recall from Unit I and how they can apply it to Unit II. Focusing them on children’s strengths and accomplishments rather than their weaknesses.) Elicit two or three answers to the question: Do developmental milestones matter? Why/why not? See if there are differences of opinion. Do not comment except to note that the question will continue to be discussed. Reflection (5 min.)Ask students to write a minute paper in response to the question: What kind of criteria can you use in judging teaching practices as helpful/not helpful to toddlers or preschool children? Have students save their minute papers and look at them again in about 4 weeks to see if their answers are similar.Save the Posters to revisit in the last session.Assignment: Have students read the essay, “Ready to Learn or Already Learning?” in the Student Reader.Week 3, Session 8: The 3 Domains of Toddler DevelopmentOption 1:Lecture (20 min.)Instructor discusses the developmental changes that occur during the transition from infancy to the toddler stage.Reflection (10 min.)Participants refer back to their reader to look at Erikson’s first and second developmental stages, and write down how toddlers’ relationships with their parents change.Group Discussion (20 min.)Class is divided into small groups that discuss their views on Erikson’s theories on the developmental crisis (“Hope”) and struggle (“Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt”). ?Ask them to jot down their opinions on the following questions:Based on your observation and life experience, what is your opinion on the capacity and limitations of toddlers?In what ways do you agree/differ with Erikson? How might early childhood teachers and/or parents support development at this time in a child’s life? Ambassadors is a useful way to get groups or individuals to exchange information. Two or more members move from one group to another to share/compare discussion, etc. Or you may wish to have half the group exchange with another group. This is especially useful if you do not have ample time for a full class discussion.How do Erkison’s descriptions compare with Piaget’s description of preschool development?Ambassadors (10 min.) Have half of each group go to another Group to share what they discussed. Each group gets about 5 minutes. Option 2:Small Groups (20 min.)Instructor hands out Fact Sheet on Toddlers (see Student Reader). Give groups time to go over it and discusses the developmental changes that occur during the transition from infancy to the toddler stage. Point out that they will need to use the information. Move among the groups to answer questions or clarify.Have groups think about: How does the information on the “Fact Sheet for Toddlers” compare with their personal knowledge of toddlers?Role Play activity (25 min.)Working in pairs, participants will use the information given about toddler development to inform their role play as either the parent or the babysitter of a toddler.The student acting as the babysitter must think of a list of questions to ask about the needs and behaviours of the child, and the parent must think of a “to-do” list of suggestions for activities or things to be aware of for the babysitter. Pairs will work on their lists individually and share insights as a whole classReflection (5 min.) Students are encouraged to think of suggestions they would give to parents of toddlers from the educator’s point of view on how to create a supportive, encouraging environment for their children at homeWeek 3, Session 9: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for ToddlersOption 1:Lecture (30 min.)Instructor reviews theories and practices supporting healthy development for toddlersReflection and Reading (15 min.)Participants complete brief written reflections on the relationship between health and nutrition, and cognitive thinking and development. Students then read the handout “Importance of Childhood Health and Care”Class discussion (15 min.)Instructor guides class discussion where students share their written reflections, and new insights that they gained from the reading ?Instructor reviews main points and answers questionsOption 2 requires a great deal of in-class reading. If students find reading English too much of a challenge at this point in their first year, you may wish to alter the plan by asking them to read the Fact Sheet Prior to Class and go over the longer article with them rather than working in groups. Then have them do the Text Against Text activity, but allow at least half of the class time for their Text Against Text discussion. Share main insights with the whole class at the end. See Option Details.Option 2:Handout (10-15 min.) Hand out the “Fact Sheet on Toddlers” for practices supporting healthy development for toddlers. ?Go over handout with studentsReading (30 min.) Have students work in groups of 3-4 to read handout “Importance of Childhood Health and Care.” Have them form their groups based on who is more/less comfortable reading English text. If possible, each group should have someone who can assist with the language for entering students who may not yet feel as comfortable reading at this level.Circulate among groups. Be ready to assist if the reading level is too challenging.Summary, Review (5 min.)Provide a quick summary of the article to be sure students understood main points.Text Against Text (10 min)Have small groups compare the article with the “Fact Sheet on Toddlers.”What insights do they have in considering the two texts together?Week 4, Session 10: 3 Domains of Preschool Child Development Note: This option focuses on designing a field project for a group of students to observe a 3-year-old child and a 5 year-old-child. They will have an opportunity to think about observed developmental stages and the transition of a child from toddler to preschool child. If an early education centre is not nearby, they should identify family of group members who live nearby and have siblings or faculty members with children. Develop a permission form for parents to sign, promising classroom use only and use of pseudonyms. Prerequisite reading: “College Students’ Beliefs about Preschoolers’ Literacy Development: A Discussion”Option 1: Introduction: (10 min)The instructor introduces the unit. If the reading has been assigned, ask for several students to briefly share how they answered one of the reflection questions. Take one-2 comments for each question.Planning the project: (about 20 mins.)Choosing a project/field observation: Form groups of 3–5 students to plan their field project.Participants are asked to locate behavioural differences between the 3 year old child and the 5 year old childAmbassadors (20 min.)Groups each send half their group to meet with another group. Each half-group will have 10 minutes to present their plan of action for observing the child aged 3 and 5 gather feedback. Groups will then return to their original planning groups. They will now have two sets of opinions on their plan to use in revision (one from the Ambassadors who “travelled” to another group and one from the Ambassadors who came to their group. Circulate among groups and make notes of ideas that are promising or that will present difficulty.Revising plan (5 min.)Instructor uses observational notes made during Ambassadors activity to point out what will make a good plan for observation. Groups will revise their plans during out of class time and prepare for and then discuss about their subject and prepare for the presentation in the 2nd session of the unit. The presentation of the plan may be made in session 11, observations collected during out of class time and presentation of what they have noticed in session 12. The Instructor will create suitable options for these activities.Option 2:You may wish to make a Preschool Child fact sheet using the material in the expanded outline of essential knowledge for the course. (See Appendix A, Unit II.) An alternative for this option would be to do a Text Against Text activity using the prerequisite reading.Prerequisite reading: “College Students’ Beliefs about Preschoolers’ Literacy Development: A Discussion”Introduction(5 min.)Introduce the topic of preschool development. Have students recall some ofthe developmental milestones of toddlers and preschool children. Note as many milestones students mention on the board as time permitsActive Lecture (30 min.) Present three domains of preschool child development: physical, cognitive, emotional, using an active lecture approach. (See Week 1, session 2)A Graffiti “wall” may be displayed in the classroom for use all term. Students may write down thoughts, feelings or expressions before or following each session and sign their name. Anonymous comments are not suitable. Ideas generated in class may be posted on the “wall.” Use paper from a large roll of craft or newsprint paper or join several cardboard boxes together to make a wall that can be stored between sessions. Students can take turns getting and putting away the wall each session.Student activity (20 min.)Pair up and design an activity that is developmentally appropriate for the three domains of preschooler development. It should involve physical activity, thinking and feeling.As pairs are working, give each pair a large note card or paper (about ? letter size). They participants may write down their idea to post on a Graffiti wall for others to see. Encourage the participants to design activities that are culturally relevant and sensitive.Recalling the lesson (5 min.)Ask: how did reading the article on pre-service teacherbeliefs inform your thinking before and during this Session?Week 4, Session 11: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Preschool Child DevelopmentOption 1:This option should be taught if the instructor chose Option 1 of Week 4, Session 10Introduction (5 min.) Talk briefly about the purposes of observing young children and establish the purpose for the lesson.Student presentation (30-40 min.)Student groups present their observation plans. Each has 5 min. to present. Allow 5 min. for questions/critique.Lecture (10 min.)If you plan to use this option, remember that you will need to provide a time for students to discuss what they learned from observing. You may want to do this next session or give them more time to complete the activity. The expectation for this assignment is that they get out and watch children, not that they develop sophisticated plans and carry them out with perfection. Focus should be on what they learned, not the write-up of a report.Review what makes a good observation. Without embarrassing groups with weaker plans, call attention to exemplary parts of plans from several groups (e.g. selected a realistic setting, has planned who will observe what/when, has developed an observation protocol, etc.) Option 2:Introduction (15 min.) Have students do a gallery walk to look at the activities posted on the Graffiti wall.After they have had about 10 minutes to look, ask if there is anything they notice about the activities they want to comment on. This is not an evaluation activity, but and activity to consider and think of ways of doing things.Ask: what makes one activity more “developmentally appropriate” than another? Elicit 3-4 opinions without comment.Active Lecture (30 min.)Talk about developmentally appropriate practice using an Interactive Lecture. Be sure to point out that “developmentally appropriate” has been criticized. Pause in the lecture and give students 5 minutes to brainstorm about this. Elicit 3-4 ideas before continuing. Point out how Brunner’s idea of scaffolding may help children go beyond what we traditionally expect of children. You may want to review Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development. Student reflection (10 min.)Students consider challenges using developmentally appropriate activities in classrooms they know about? (e.g. crowded conditions, poor facilities) How could these challenges be overcome?Sharing (5 min.)Elicit as many student comments as time permits.Week 4, Session 12: Unit ReviewThis would be a good time to organize student presentations of their observations of children. Or plan to have presentations early in Unit III.Option 1:Reflection (30 min.) Students individually write one or two reflections of what they learned about toddler and pre-primary child development that changed their way of thinking about how children grow up and learn.Groups of 3 or 4 exchange papers to read one other person’s reflections. Group discusses reactions, observations about what they have read. Be prepared to share one shared observation/reaction with the class.Whole Class Discussion (10 min)Lead the class in sharing what they noticed or observed in doing the activity and reading each-other’s papers.Concept Formation (20 min.) The instructor reviews the major themes and concepts of the unit through having students categorize a list of characteristics of children in each of the three groups studied. You may use characteristics described in the Extended Essential Knowledge Outline for Unit II in the Appendix. Place a complete set of labels/terms on each table and ask the group to organize them into Infant, Toddler and PreSchool Groups. Create a handout with the categories you expect to give them to check themselves about 5 minutes before the session ends. (See week 2, session 4 Optional Plans. In this activity you are thinking of set groups so you are checking for concept attainment.)Summary and Closure Instructor makes comments after observing the concept activity.Option 2: Revisiting Our Graphic Organizers (40 min.)Have students return to the group that they worked in for session 10. An easy way to do this would be to have them find their poster and find a place to work.Have each group who worked on a poster look at it again and consider what they might want to add or change before moving on.Ask each group to find another group who worked on the stage immediately before or after the one they depicted (e.g. infant might choose toddler; toddler group/s can choose either infant or preschool. Be sure every group has another group to work with.Ask the combined groups to create a bridge that shows transition points between the two stages. Hand out poster paper for them to use in creating their bridge. They may wish to choose another symbol for transition points. Question and answer (20 min.)Display the bridge posters around the room. Invite the class to join you at each poster. Give each group a minute to say something about their bridge. Use the posters as a way of reviewing major themes and concepts of the unit. Point out things that might be added or need more clarification.OPTION DETAILS for UNIT IIWeek 3, Session 7: Introduction to New Unit: Pre-Primary Child DevelopmentOptions 1 & 2Consider following a children’s growth during the unit or for the whole semester. Find out if any of the class members have an infant in their family or extended family. Pick two or 3 infants to follow as a class. Class members who have the identified infant will collect information to post for the whole class to follow. It need not be detailed or precise, the idea is to illustrate differences in growth and how quickly an infant changes. If parents agree, at the beginning of the unit post a chart with a pseudonym for the baby’s name and list: weight & length at birth,weight & length on day 1 of Unit 2, session 2 + any noticeable changes in behaviour (crying patterns, moevments & the like.Post new information each week along with the date. You might consider doing this in the beginning of the course and follow the 2-3 infants for the duration of the course to see how much they have developed during one semester. Additionally, select 2-3 toddlers to follow & post weight & height at the beginning of the unit (or semester if you choose to make this a semester-long project)select 2-3 pre school children & adolescents to follow. You will have simple data on all the age groups covered in the course for a period of a few weeks. This will illustrate how quickly young children grow as well gradual changes in older children. Without spending a great deal of time in class or out of class students will be able to follow children’s development.Week 3, Session 9: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for ToddlersOption 2, Text Against Text – A StrategyText Against Text is a way of helping students learn to analyse and compare written documents. The idea is to look at two documents and search for overlap, confirmation or disagreement. It is a way of looking at different perspectives. Sometimes it is useful to give students readings prior to class and ask them to compare the readings, following a set of study questions. For example: Look at each author separately. What do you think the author’s main point is? How does the author support his/her argument? Look at the authors together. In what ways do the authors agree? What are their points of disagreement? What is your opinion on the issue? Text Against Text may be used to compare a new reading or set of information with a reading or information students have already read and discussed in another unit or earlier in the unit. In classrooms where the whole class uses a single textbook Instructors often find they are teaching against what is in the textbook. Sometimes it is hard for students to accept that a textbook can and should be questioned. Putting together a Text against Text activity using the textbook and an article or a set of articles to read instead of the text can help them understand that there are differences of opinion that are legitimate. Another way to use the activity is to put a set of materials at each table or with each group of students. Some college/university faculty like to put together text sets that include both scholarly and non-scholarly works and have students to think about differences. For example, in looking at the topic of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), one might also provide all students -- regardless of reading level or learning style -- with a "way in" to thinking about DAP. Even competent adult learners seek out "easy books" or materials to learn about a new or complex topic. Providing a picture, newspaper article and children's book in a text set for DAP might give everyone a means of connecting to or understanding some aspect of the larger subject. Primary Child DevelopmentUnit 3Unit 3 Overview Primary Child DevelopmentIn this unit, students will explore the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development of primary school-age children (6-12 years old). Using key reading materials, major concepts, and reflections detailing observations and ideas, student will analyse stages of development during this critical period of growth.Week 5:Thinking About Primary Child DevelopmentAspects of Physical DevelopmentEncouraging Healthy Physical DevelopmentWeek 6:Cognitive Development: Overview; Piaget’ Concrete Operational TheoryCognitive Development: Industriousness and Intelligences Emotional DevelopmentWeek 7:Social Development: Changes and Parental RolesSocial Development: Peer Interaction, Friendship, and GrowthThe Role of Play in Primary Child Development and Course ReviewLearning Goals: Identify stages of development for primary-age childrenRecognize the interconnected nature of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social elements of development for young childrenAnalyse developmental processes from the perspective of major theoristsConsider practices that support development for the whole childEssential Questions:What developmental changes take place around the time children begin primary school?Why do primary-age children learn and develop at different paces?How do family and peer relationships affect the way a child thinks of her/himself?How do aspects of children’s development affect their learning in and out of school?Enduring Understandings:Development is an integrated system of parts, and that strong development in each of these categories is essential for a happy and healthy childPrimary-age children should be engaged and active in and out of the classroom by having projects, activities, and ample time for free and structured play Children need to be treated with love, affection, and respect by their parents and friendsResources:Bergen, D. (2002). The role of pretend play in children’s cognitive development. In Early Childhood Research and Practice, 4(1). , S. & Copple, C. (eds.) (1999). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.Child Development Institute RCC; ECD Programme (2010). Nurture: Pakistan’s Pioneer Publication on Early Childhood Development. Childhood Development (ECD) Pakistan Website: on Early Childhood Development: SHEET: A summary of the rights under the Convention on the Rights of the Child crc/files/Rights_overview.pdfFree Play Network. Play in Educational Settings. on Scotland. Emotional Balance. (2008). Middle Childhood: Physical Development Teaching Guide. Magna Systems, H.A. & Nadeem, S. (2010). Stress management for children and adults. Nurture: Pakistan’s Pioneer Publication on Early Childhood Development. Retrieved from: . 40 Developmental Assets for Early Childhood, K-3, Middle Childhood, & Adolescents. Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bonds. Pediatrics 119 (1), pp. 182-191 (doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2697) Reader:School Health Programme: A Strategic Approach for Improving Health & Education in PakistanGoing Deeper: An Overview of Cognitive Development: Piaget’s TheoryAssessing Abilities in Primary ChildhoodGardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesEnvironmental Strategies to Support Multiple Intelligences Five Ways to Support Healthy EmotionsChildren and StressWays to Prevent Bullying in School Managing Conflict in the ClassroomMyths about ConflictVignettes on Peer InteractionThe Right Way to PlayThe Right to PlayHow Excellent Teachers Motivate Students to Learnsession planning guideWeek 5, Session 13: Thinking About Primary Child DevelopmentOption 1:Introduction to the new unit (5 min.) 3-week unit on primary child development, looking at key physical, cognitive, emotional, and social developmental processes as well as major theorists.Reflection and pair work (10 min.) Participants think about major aspects of pre-primary development discussed in the previous two weeks, and how this affects children’s development. How might certain experiences foster or hinder the development of a primary-age child, and what actions were suggested to encourage healthy development? Students then discuss in pairs.Lecture (25 min.) The chart, Comparing Examples of Developmental Theory, might be useful here. See Student Reader, Unit I. Instructor gives a brief overview of who the primary child is and the changes that take place during the primary stage of development. Also briefly notes relevant theorists (Erikson, Piaget, Bruner, Vygotsky) and the challenges that children at this age face as their bodies, minds, and experiences change. Writing activity (15 min.) Participants think about and write down notes from their field observations about how teachers interact with their students. What are your impressions about how the teacher considers the developmental needs of their students? At the end of the course students may come back to these observations and thoughts and see what has or has not changed. Option 2:Introduction to the new unit, Writing Activity (10 min.) Have student thinks of a child they know between the ages of 6 and 11. Describe the child as he or she is now in as much detail as possible, including physical characteristics, language and their behaviours. After they have written for about 10 minutes ask: What are the biggest changes you notice since last year about this time? Elicit 4-5 comments. Have students keep their written descriptions out to refer to at points during the lecture.Active Lecture (40 min.) Instructor gives a brief overview of who the primary child is and the changes that take place during the primary stage of development using an Active Lecture method. Briefly note theorists they have studied and how they describe this period of development.Pause after about 10 minutes and ask them to look at their notes about a child they know to see if any of the information you have discussed applies. Make note if it does. Have students share their notes/ideas with a peer sitting next to them.Continue the lecture. You should have at least 3 pauses for comparing notes about their child with information you are sharing. Give them 5 minutes to compare and peer-shareReflection (10 min.) Ask students to write down one important thing they learned that applies to the child they describe Allow 1-2 minutes.Sharing. As time permits, have students share their one written comment with the whole class.Ask them to keep their notes about the child they know for next session.Week 5, Session 14: Aspects of Physical DevelopmentOption 1:Reflection (10 min.)Students quickly write a description of the physical attributes of the child/ren they are observing and compare with the physical characteristics of the child they described in session 13. (If they are doing a child study, they should use this child.) Do the children seem to have the same physical characteristics? Participants who are not observing primary-age children can pair with peers who are observing primary-age children for this activity.Small Groups Read and Discuss a Text (30 min.)If reading in English is still a challenge for your students, consider reading it with them and having them discuss the questions in their small groups. Or work with a group/s that will have more difficulty than others.Prepare a fact sheet for physical characteristics of primary school children, using the expanded outline of Essential Knowledge for the unit in Appendix A (see Primary Child Physical Development). Hand this out and have students work in groups of 3-4 to read and discusses document. Make sure groups have at least one member who has good English language reading skills. Ask them to consider the following questions as they read together:What are the big changes that you notice in the transition from preschool to primary age?What do you think these physical characteristics suggest about designing an appropriate school environments for children during this period?Why do you think physical activity is so important at this age? Summary and Discussion (10)Make summary comments about physical growth, health and safety based on what you hear students discussing in their groups.Note any misconceptions or issues. If time permits, have groupsshare answers to the questions they were to discuss. Pair and share (10 min.)As a concluding thought-provoking activity, have participants work with another student and discuss the following question: How do children use space?Note: Primary schoolchildren share their time in many different types of indoor and outdoor spaces. How do children utilize different types of spaces for non-classroom learning? Name as many spaces as you can where you have noticed children playing.Option 2:Pre-requisite Assignment Prepare a fact sheet for physical characteristics of primary school children, using the expanded outline of Essential Knowledge for the unit in Appendix A (see Primary Child Physical Development). Give it to students prior to this session as an assigned reading. Ask them to bring it to class.Active Lecture (25 min.)Ask students to refer to the fact sheet during your lecture. Discusses the changes that occur during the transition from pre-primary to primary-age development and changes that continue over the course of the 5-6-year primary period. Focus on the importance of keeping children physically active. “Chunk” the lecture into 2 sections so there can be student discussion of what you are presenting. You might ask them to refer to the fact sheet to see which characteristics have been mentioned. Or you might have them pair share following a chunk, discussing the following question: How will you use this information to plan appropriate school environments for children?Group role planning activity (25 min.) Students divide into groups of 4-5. Each student is given a different content area to think about as a teacher (Urdu, literacy, math, social studies teacher, etc.). The school is planning an all-day outdoor field day event. You are especially focused on the content area you have been assigned and want to take advantage of the field day to strengthen children’s learning. Given your content-area and desire to strengthen children’s learning, what are your learning goals for your students for this day? Think of 1-2 outdoor activities for students that can help fulfil this goal.Discussion (10 min.)Groups share their ideas and make suggestions and critique. Instructor summarizes key points.Week 5, Session 15: Encouraging Healthy Physical DevelopmentOption 1:Brief discussion (10 min.) Pose each question to Students to discuss as a whole class. Invite opinions, including differences of opinion. Probe, but do not evaluate their opinions (e.g. Can you say more about that? What makes you think so? Do other people share this opinion?)What are some of the biggest health concerns facing children in Pakistan?/in this Province? A mini-lecture contains all the components of a good lecture. It is sharply focused. It begins with an introduction that provides an overview of what you will talk about.It makes one or more sharply focused points with an illustration of each. It summaries the main point or points and concludes. What kind of knowledge about healthy living and disease prevention is age- appropriate for primary-age children? Who should be responsible for imparting information to children about healthy livingand disease prevention?Mini-Lecture (20 min)Overview of importance of supporting healthy physical development and of using the schoolas a place to encourage healthy practices related tonutrition, exercise, and oral care. Group activity (20 min.)Students will brainstorm games they know that introduces positive practices for physical development to primary children. Be prepared to explain what practices are promoted by the game. ORDiscuss and be prepared to present an idea for how you would teach primary age children about one aspect of healthy living. Topics include diet/nutrition, exercise, hygiene, oral hygiene, disease prevention.Sharing & Discussion (15 min.)Students share what they have learned and have the opportunity to ask questions about terms and concepts. If there is not sufficient time, try using an Ambassador activity so that every group gets to share its ideas with at least one other group. See Unit II Option notes.Assignment: Have students read School Health Programme: A Strategic Approach for ImprovingHealth & Education in Pakistan in the Student Reader. Those who wish and have access may find the full document on line.Option 2:Assignment prior to class: Have students read School Health Programme: A Strategic Approach for Improving Health & Education in Pakistan in the Student Reader. Those who wish and have access may find the full document on line (see reference located on the reading). Ask them to bring the document to class.Discussion (10 min.) As a whole class, participants recall the first health-related habits they formed as children, or the first habits they imparted to their children (if applicable). Elicit as many as time permits, ask students to avoid mentioning habits that have already been mentioned. Ask: Why don’t all children come to school with good health-related habits? Elicit as many answers as time permits. Do not judge the answers, just receive them.Discussion of Reading (20 min.) Have participants meet in groups of 4-5 to look at the assigned reading. Ask them all to take notes as one of them will be asked to report for the group. Have them decide on a position to take as a group (i.e. they will agree/disagree with all or parts of the report or they may have differences of opinion within the group):1. Are health and safety behaviours the responsibility of school? Be able to justify your position.2. In addition to what is mentioned in the Strategic paper, what are obstacles that prevent children from learning and/or adopting healthy habits and practices? 3. If a school is unable to provide all of the facilities recommended in the Strategic paper, what alternatives might be provided in order to have a school available for children? Are some facilities more crucial than others? 4. Can/should teachers attempt to influence families and communities to adopt new health practices? Reporting, (15 min.)Ask someone from each group to report. Begin with #1 and have each group report on it before moving on to #2. Keep comments brief. As Instructor, comment on points of disagreement in #1. If there are none, question Some educators argue that there is one specific way to use strategies such as brainstorming, cooperative groups, & the like. Most strategies may be used flexibly. For example, in this option the Instructor is asked to have everyone take notes rather than appointing a recorder. The intent is to encourage full participation of all members. The key is to use strategies in ways that suit your purposes, rather than being slave to one “best” way.why/why not. If you do not have time to get to all groups, appoint 2 members in each group to list theirideas and post them on the Graffiti wall.Group brainstorm activity (25 min)Participants continue in their groups and comeup with strategies to overcome children’s obstacles to forming healthy practices. Students share as a class. Instructor debriefs and reviews important points; answers questions.Week 6, Session 16: Cognitive Development: Overview & Piaget’s Concrete Operational TheoryOption 1:Reflecting on Primary School Children (handout) (20 min.)Participants complete the handout on Assessing Abilities in Primary Childhood individually and compare in pairs. Go over the answers as a class and discuss areas of disagreement/confusion.Note that many of the answers will depend entirely on the child. They may also bring out some of the criticisms of Piaget that you will address in the Active Lecture.Active Lecture (30 min.)virtualpsychology.co.uk/powerpoint/PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment.pptYou might download the above power point and show all or the section on concrete operations. It offers a good summary as well as resources and critique. An excerpt that includes research notes and critique of Piaget may be found at the end of Unit III under Option Notes.Reviews how primary age children construct knowledge and acquire new cognitive and linguistic skills and abilities, using Piaget’stheory of concrete operations. Discuss Piaget’s theory on the transition from pre-primary pre-operational stage to the concrete operational stage. Include critique. Remember to “chunk” information into 10-15min. segments with time for students to review notes taken or engage in a structured activitythat you have planned to reinforce the lecture.Reflection (10 min.)Write a 1 minute reaction paper to the class session.Pair-share reaction papers (each reading and listening).Ask: Why do you think Piaget has had so much influence on primary education around the world? Accept opinions. Share your opinion in summary.You may want to assign the summary of Piaget’s concrete operations in the Student Reader as follow up reading.Option 2:Assignment: Prior to class ask students to review the material on Concrete Operations in the Student Reader.Preparing a Presentation for Parents (45 min) If you have access to a computer lab, ask students to meet in the computer lab for the first part of this session. Have them work in groups of 4-5 to create a Power Point Presentation suitable for a Parent Night at school.Ask students to work together in small groups to prepare a 10 min. Presentation suitable for parents using poster, Power point, or overhead transparencies to describe cognitive development in primary age children. Ask them to draw on readings and notes for Unit I (especially the reading and chart in the Student Reader) as well as their assigned reading. Include:1. Cognitive developmental characteristics2. Piaget’s theory of conservation3. Critiques of Piaget’s theory (their own or those they find in their research).Have them make notes on slips of paper or note cards that you distribute about points they are unsure of and on which they would like you to provide clarification. Question-Answer (15 min.). Have groups meet as a whole and collect note cards. Take each in turn and provide an explanation. Point out that they will need to work on their presentation in Out of Class time and be prepared to share it with another group.Week 6, Session 17: Cognitive Development: Industriousness and IntelligencesTheory of Multiple IntelligencesIn this session multiple intelligences is briefly introduced. You may want to spend more time on this topic. See Option Notes at the end of Unit III.Option 1:Small Group Classroom Design (40 min.)Given what you now know about child development, including cognitive development, how would you set up a primary school classroom? Create a classroom“map” or 3-dimensional design. Use any of a variety of materials such as small blocks, pebbles, cardboard cylinders from toilet paper & paper towel rolls, pieces of cardboard, bits of paper. Work in pairs to show how you would set up a primary school classroom to encourage interaction and learning. Label parts of your classroom with the name of a theorist you will use to justify your choice (e.g. if you have a large cardboard box with a hole cut in the top for ventilation where children can crawl to have quiet, alone time, you might label it Erikson’s macrocosmic play space)Gallery Walk Lecture (20 min.) Point out that you are going to give a lecture tour of the classroom designs. Have everyone walk around with you to see what others have done. One person in each group should be prepared to explain features if it is necessary. Where there are examples that illustrate points you want to make about changes in children’s cognitive development, Erikson’s goals of encouraging industriousness by building competency, and how children exhibit different strengths at different times and in different activities. Introduce the concept of different kinds of intelligence. Ask students to think about the following two questions as they complete the assignment for this session in their Out of Class time:1. What do you think about Erikson’s view that healthy primary child development is contingent on building competency? 2. What other concepts or skills are essential for building cognitive development? Assignment Have students make a one-page informational sheet for parents. Choose one type of “intelligence” and list 3 activities that parents can do with their children to facilitate industriousness and build competency. Read “Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences” in the Student Reader.If you assign the information sheet activity, take about ten minutes at the beginning of the next class to have students do a pair share of their activities. Ask them to be critical friends for each other. A critical friend will offer helpful, constructive feedback rather than accepting or agreeing with everything.A critical friend will not be harsh and demeaning.Encourage them to use “Environmental Strategies to Support Multiple Intelligences” to compare with their list of activities.Bring these to the next class. Option 2:Assignment prior to class have studentsRead “Gardner’s Theory of MultipleIntelligences.”Presentations (40 min.)Pair each group with one anotherGroup. If necessary, three groups can workIf you did Option 2 last session you will want to provide time for students to share Presentations. You’ll also need to work key points about Erikson’s concept of industriousness and multiple intelligences into the session. together or the whole class can view onethe presentations. (If so, select a group whovolunteers.) Have each group take 20 min. to1. share their presentation with their partnergroup and2. get feedback from their peers in the partnergroup. Be sure to have someone keep strict time so that one group does not take all the time at the expense of the second.Mini-Lecture (15 min.)Talk about changes in children’s cognitive development, Erikson’s goals of encouraging industriousness by building competency, and how children exhibit different strengths at different times and in different activities. Introduce the concept of different kinds of intelligence. Reflection (5 min.)Participants reflect in journals about strategies for building competency in children from a parental or teacher perspective. In what ways does this promote social development? Volunteers share insights and suggestionsInstructor summarizes key points.Week 6, Session 18: Emotional DevelopmentOption 1:Individual reflection (5 min.)Participants write in their journals about the following questions:What environmental changes take place at the beginning of the primary years? What new stressors and challenges do children have to adjust to?You might Hand out Five Ways to Support Healthy Emotions from Student Reader and organize your comments around these points, bringing in issues of stress and self-esteem as these relate. Active Lecture (40 min.). Instructor discusses key aspects of emotional development, focusing on helping children name and manage emotions, issues of stress, and self esteemConsider having students work in pairs following each 10-15 min. chunk of information to give examples from their experience to illustrate key points.Group Activity (10 min.)In small groups, participants discuss examples of how emotions are treated in the classrooms where they are observing. What examples of children expressing strong emotion have they seen in the classroom, on the playground, as children go to and from school?What practices and daily strategies for managing stress do they notice (negative and positive)?What support for healthy emotions and stress management would be helpful in the classrooms where they are observing?Summary (5 min.) Have students share ideas generated in groups as time permits.AssignmentRead Children and Stress in the Student ReaderWrite in reflective journals in response to the question: How should parents and teachers, deal with overactive or stressed children? What is the place of punishment? What is the place of prevention?Option 2:Assignment prior to class, read Children and Stress in the Student Reader. Have them bring their copy to class.Introduction (10 min) Have students write in their journals. Think of a time in elementary school in which you had a very strong emotional reaction to something or somebody. Don’t spend time trying to choose something. Write about the first thing that pops into your mind You may have been really, really angry or disappointed or frustrated. Or you may have been really, really happy or excited. Describe: 1. What happened, 2. Where it happened, 3. Who was involved, 4. How you felt when it was over.Suggest that if they want to, they can find a group of peers and share what they have written during out of class time. Point out that emotions as well as the events that trigger them, have a lasting effect on us.Text Against Text (40 min.)Hand out copies of Five Ways to Support Healthy Emotions. Have students read together and compare to Children and Stress. Answer the following questions:1. What are the author’s main points in each article?2. What would the author of Five Ways to Support Healthy Emotions be likely to say to the author of Children and Stress?3. How can teachers benefit from these articles?Discussion (10 min.)Lead the class in a large group discussion of the issues raised by the three questions. Help students to clarify their thinking and correct their misconceptions about emotional development and health.Week 7, Session 19: Social Development: Changes and Parental RolesOption 1:Lead-in discussion (15 min.)Ask groups to create a web, map or visual representation that shows as many different types of relationships that primary age children have that they can think of, in order from strongest relationship to least strong. Put these on chart paper. Show how you weight or rank the relationships in terms of influence and importance to the child. Show how you think each relationship can support positive development.Gallery Walk (15 min.)Groups may go to any poster. They should try to visit as many of the posters as they can in the allotted time.Have one group member remain with the group’s chart to explain it to visitors. Mini-Lecture (15 min.) While students are working and during the Gallery Walk, take notes that you will use to build on in the mini lecture. Key points:Changing relationship between children and parents as children reach school-age, emphasizing the importance of continued love, support, and affection. How parental relationships effect relationships children have at school with teachers and other students.Small Groups Brainstorm (10 min.)What can teachers learn from parents that will help them be better teachers?What can parents do to support the child’s learning at school?Option 2:Assignment prior to class ask half of the class to each conduct a 15 minute interview with a primary school teacher to find out:What can teachers learn from parents that will help them be better teachers?What can parents do to support the child’s learning at school?Ask the other half of the class to conduct a 15 minute interview with a parent of a primary school child to find out their opinion on the same two questions.Have them bring notes to class for discussion.Small Groups Compare Interview Notes (30 min.)Place participants in small groups of 6. To the extent possible, half the group should have parent interviews and half the group should have teacher interviews. Have groups share answers to the two questions. Think about how perspectives match/do not match. Take notes. Be prepared to summarize the discussion without going into great detail.Whole Class Discussion (25 min.) Guide the class in sharing what they learned from conducting and comparing the interviews. As opportunity presents itself in the discussion, call attention to the changing relationship between children and parents as children reach primary school age, emphasize the importance of continued love, support, and affection.Reflection (5 min.)Participants list ideas for strategies for parents and teachers to both encourage independence for their children/students.Week 7, Session 20: Social Development: Peer Interaction, Friendship, and GrowthOption 1:Assignment prior to class assign students one of the three readings from the Student Reader for this session (Bullying, Managing Conflict, Myths About Conflict). Tell them that they will be responsible for sharing the basic ideas in the article they read with other class members.Jigsaw of Readings (30 min.) Place students in groups of 6. Where possible, have 2 members who have read each of the articles so that all 3 assigned readings are represented.Assign one member to be a time keeper.Ask people who read each article to collaborate in summarizing its main points in no more than 5 minutes, allowing another 5 for people to ask for clarificatioApplying Readings (20 min.)Give each group the Vignettes handout from the Student Reader. Have the groups choose Naeem or Qamar to work with. Answer the questions posed in the Vignette. Use the text set that you have just discussed in your jigsaw to support your decisions.Reporting (10 min.) Lead the class in reporting their discussion as time permits.Listen for misconceptions of peer relationships, social competency and indicators of challenging behaviour.Option 2:Pair-Share, Vignettes (20 min.) Hand out the vignette for Naeem to half of the pairs. Give the other half of the pairs the vignette for Qamar. Ask pairs to take 20 min. to read and come up with answers to the questions posed. Instructor observes pairs and takes note of misconceptions, assumptions and the like.Discussion (10 min.) Lead the class in discussing how they went about their task. What did they find challenging? What did they want to know that wasn’t in the Vignette? What misconceptions did they bring to the task?Raise the question to think about: Is the teacher’s job to solve all of the problems? Why? Why not?Active Lecture (25 min.) Talk about children’s peer relationships, the importance of friendship, building social competency, and indicators of pro-social behaviour. You may want to draw on readings from the Student Reader for this session and assign one or all of them as follow-up reading.Chunk your lecture so that students have time to compare notes or raise questions.Reflection (5 min.) Participants reflect individually and then discuss in pairs the prompt: How can conflict be a good experience?Week 7, Session 21: Utilizing play in the classroom Field Observation pre-requisite:For field observations, consider how play is encouraged and/or limited during school. Both options use field notes. Option 2 will use them in class.Can children go outside? What kinds of toys do they play with? Is play encouraged through class activities? Option 1: Assignment Read The Right Way to Play, Student ReaderIndividual reflection (5 min.) Participants use field notes to estimate how much time the children they are observing spend playing at school. What kinds of activities and games are they playing? With whom are they playing?Text Against Text(40 min.)Hand out copies of The Right to Play from the Student Reader (based on Article 31 of the UN Convention- Rights of the Child. Small groups of 4-5 students go over the article. Be sure to group students so that at least one English proficient student is in each group. Compare this article with The Right Way to Play students to compare the two texts. Who is the target audience for each text?What is each article trying to get across?Are the purposes of play at home the same as for play in school?Think of a primary school subject and topic within that subject you have observed being taught. In what ways might play be used to teach the topic? Group Discussion (15 min.)Consider using the graphic Quotable Quotes: What Experts Say About Plan organize the discussion, p.23 of volume V, Nurture, . You might look at each quotation with the class and use it to discuss an aspect of development enhanced by play: physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development discussed in the two articles. Option 2:Analysing Children’s Play (20 min.) Have students meet in small groups of 4-6 members.Ask students to use field notes to compare how play is being used in different classrooms. Estimate how much time the children they are observing spend playing. What is the most time spent using play activities?What is the least time spent?What kinds of activities and games are they playing? Who are they playing with?Mini-Lecture (15 min.)Stress the importance of play in primary school classrooms, both structured and un-structuredYou might give students the reading The Right to Play and focus on the description of the types of play that can be used in classroomsPlanning in Small Groups (20 min.)Working in groups of 3-4, choose a primary grade, subject and topic from the curriculum. Plan a classroom environment that will suggest unstructured play related to the topic.What might you put in different areas of the classroom?If the classroom does not have interest areas (e.g. building area with blocks, small boxes, toilet paper and paper towel cylinders, etc. for building things; math & science area with things to touch, feel, measure, weigh; writing area with pencils, recycle paper to write on, note pads, little books made up and ready to write in; arts & crafts area with scissors, paste, crayons, old magazines, paper, etc.) what areas might you want to create?Plan a structured play activity to teach the topic. Have a recorder write up notes about your plans to post on the Graffiti Wall for others to see.Summary (5 min.) Ask for one or insights about the importance of play or the challenges to implementing play in schoolsEncourage groups to look at ideas on the Graffiti wall and offer each other helpful critique. Week 8, Session 22: Teacher’s influence on student motivation and unit conclusionYou might want to use a short test or quiz to review, see Unit I, Option Details.Option 1:Assignment prior to the session have students read How Excellent Teachers Motivate Students to Learn for class.Small Group Unit Review (20 min.) Form small groups of 4-6 members. You will need at least 5 groupAssign each group one the 5 things excellent teachers do in the article they have just read.(You might want to paste each passage on a card or paper and hand out one to each group.)Have each group read the passage they have been given and check with each other to see if they all understand it. As Instructor, circulate during this activity and assist if needed.Ask them to brainstorm examples of how primary school teachers school demonstrate this characteristic. They may draw on their observations, readings or personal experience.Choose one of the examples to share with the whole class.Readers theatre is a group dramatic reading from a text. The focus is on oral expression of the part being read, rather than on acting and costumes. Reader’s Theatre is a way to bring a text to life. Readers take turns reading all or parts of a passage. It is a good idea to go over passages to be read aloud with students so they are familiar with any difficult words. Sometimes it is used to get student interest in a text. They hear passages read first, then read the longer text. Options 1 and 2 use Readers Theatre in different ways.Reader’s Theatre and Sharing (20 min.) Choose 5 students who have good skills in English. Assign each of them one of the things excellent teachers do. Ask them to be prepared to it aloud read aloud to the whole class as a Reader’s Theatre. Ask the first reader to read her/his passage.The group assigned this passage shares their example.Take turns until all 5 passages have been read andexamples shared.Small Group Discussion 10 min.Ask group members to reflect on the following question: How do teachers acquire the skills/characteristics described in the article and ouractivity?List insights, ideas.Whole Class Discussion Take several ideas from the groups. Ask them to listento each other so that if one group has already mentioned something they listed, they should not repeat, but mention that they thought of it too.If it has not come up, point out that if teachers understand child growth and development they are more likely to be able to engage in the kinds of behaviours suggested by the article. Point out that motivation should not be an external gimmick that the teachers uses to get children to do things they do not like to do, but based on a deep understanding of how children grow and learn, and their physical, mental and emotional needs.Option 2:Assignment prior to the session ask students to bring something (an object, picture) that represents oneor two major things they have learned in this unit.It should be something they will be able to attach to a class display (nothing too valuable to leave).Reflection and Pair-Share (10 min.)Ask children to remember a teacher from their childhood days who really made them interested in learning about something. Write a description of that teacher. Take 3-4 minutes.What was it about the teacher that drew you in?Give an example of something you remember learning about?Pair-Share: Each member reads or describes what he/she has written.Reader’s Theatre and Discussion (20 min.)Prior to class, choose 5 students who have good skills in English. Give each of them a paper or note card with one of the 5 things excellent teachers do that are listed in the article, How Excellent Teachers Motivate Students to Learn. Ask them to be prepared to read it their assigned passage aloud to the whole class as a Reader’s Theatre. Ask the class: What are some of the kinds of things that teachers you wrote about did that made you want to learn? Take several ideas.Ask each reader to read her/his passage in turn.Ask the class how the things they wrote about compare to these ideas. If time permits, you may want to have each reader go over the passage again and ask if anyone wrote about an experience that illustrates the point in the passage. Ask: How do you think teachers develop the skills/characteristics that describe excellent teachers? Take several answers.If no one mentions it, point out that teachers who understand child growth and development they are more likely to be able to engage in the kinds of behaviours suggested by the Reader’s Theatre. Call their attention to the article in the Student Reader and suggest that they read it.Small Group Sharing of Symbols (20 min.) Students each take about 3 min. to share the symbol they have selected.Tell why you chose it.Tell what it means.How you think it might connect to learning to be an excellent teacher.Group members place their symbols on poster paper. (A cardboard box cut and opened up makes good display if resources are limited). Ask each to writea brief explanation.Gallery Walk (10 min.)Groups look at each other’s work and talk about what has been learned over this unit.Option NotesWeek 6, Session 16: Cognitive Development: Overview & Piaget’s Concrete Operational Theory An additional option would be to show the power point from virtual psychology virtualpsychology.co.uk/powerpoint/PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment.ppt or another website. There are several available on-line and may be found with a quick search for Piaget, power point presentations. You can draw on the Extended Essential Knowledge in Appendix A to prepare a Power Point. In addition, criticisms of Piaget’s studies are important for students to consider.Other researchers suggest that Piaget:1) Underestimated the importance of knowledge Gagne: Complex skills can be acquired easily once simpler prerequisite skills have been learned. Development is based on LEARNING new skills – this is a continuous not discontinuous process.2) Underestimated the ability of children. Tasks were methodologically flawed.Blank & Rose (1974) suggest that the way in which the question is asked is important. When they replicated Piaget experiment, the percentage of 6-year olds that could conserve increased.McGarrigle & Donaldson (1974) found that when a ‘Naughty teddy’ (hand puppet) messed up the counters instead of the researcher, they found more 4-6 year olds could conserve.3)Underestimated the impact of CULTURE: Piaget’s tasks are culturally biased. Schooling and literacy affect rates of development. Summary of CriticismsDemand characteristics:- the children may have wanted to please the experimenter therefore changing their behaviour.Social setting:-Piaget ignored the effect of the social setting upon the child. The way adults use language and gestures.From: virtualpsychology.co.uk/powerpoint/PiagetsCognitiveDevelopment.pptWeek 6, Session 17: Cognitive Development: Industriousness and IntelligencesHoward Gardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesNotesMost educators agree that the underlying principle that IQ cannot contain all of intelligence is commonsense. They also agree that individuals have different domains of knowing and strengths. Gardner was welcomed by primary school teachers as vindication that children learn in multiple ways. So you may want to spend more time than is allowed here on Gardner’s theory. This might be done by assigning Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences in the Student Reader or organizing a session around the topic.However, it is important to consider critiques of the theory. Researchers argue that there are no published studies to confirm the validity of multiple intelligences. “In 2004 Gardner asserted that he would be ‘delighted were such evidence to accrue’ (p. 214), and he admitted that ‘MI theory has few enthusiasts among psychometricians or others of a traditional psychological background’ because they require ‘psychometric or experimental evidence that allows one to prove the existence of the several intelligences’ (2004, p. 214)." (Waterhouse, 2006a, p. 208).ReferencesGardner, H. (2004) Changing minds: The art and science of changing our own and other people's minds. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, p.?196.Waterhouse, Lynn. (2006a). Multiple Intelligences, the Mozart Effect, and Emotional Intelligence: A critical review. Educational Psychologist, 41(4), Fall 2006, pp.?207–225.Critique of GardnerA n article listing various critiques of Gardner is to be found in Appendix C.Adolescence and DevelopmentUnit 4Unit 4 Overview Adolescence and developmentIn this unit, students will learn about the complex changes that children undergo as they reach adolescence. ?We will examine the impact of these changes upon adolescent cognitive development, social development and behaviours such as motivation and identity-formation. We will also consider critiques of adolescence as a developmental category.Week 8:Intro and overview of physical developmentPhysical dev. II: Individual/group differencesSocial/emotional dv. I: Erikson, self and identity Week 9:Social/emotional dev. II: Adolescent peer groupSocial/emotional dev. III: Motivation/self-regulationCognitive/linguistic dev. I: PiagetWeek 10:Cognitive/linguistic dev. II: VygotskyCognitive/linguistic dev. III: Appropriate assessmentCritiques of adolescent development. Conclusion/reviewLearning Goals: Demonstrate an understanding of the importance of adolescent development, and how it fits into the broader context of child development.Understand the inter-relatedness between adolescent physical development and theories of cognitive/linguistic and social/emotional development.Explain what major theorists said about adolescent development along the continuum of child and human development.Recognize social and individual patterns and differences among adolescent students.Defend an opinion about the role of adolescence as a developmental category.Design age-appropriate classroom tasks and assessments. Essential Questions:How do differences in adolescent physical development relate to differences in cognitive and social development?What role does society and culture play in adolescent growth and maturity?What is the appropriate role for the teacher in fostering an effective learning environment for adolescent students?In what ways might the developmental category of adolescence be “socially constructed”?Enduring Understandings:Although generalities can be made, there are wide discrepancies in the rate at which adolescents develop.Adolescents can’t be understood separately from the environment in which they learn and grow.Teachers have an important role to play in assisting adolescent growth and maturity..Resources:Islamway Sisters. Sisters Area-Adolescence retrieved from , M.R. Teaching permitted and prohibited relations to Muslim children and teenagers. Retrieved from , M. Ages in stages: an exploration of the life cycle based on Erik Erikson’s eight stages of human development. Retrieved from development. Retrieved from , K. Background and key concepts of Piaget’s theory. Retrieved from Development Institute. Stages of intellectual development in children and teenagers. Retrieved from , A. (2000). Adolescents and reproductive health in Pakistan: A Literature Review. Research Report No. 11. Islamabad: The Population Council, Pakistan Office. , T.M. & Ormrod, J. E. (2002). Child Development and Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.The Population Council. Adolescents and Youth in Pakistan 2001-2002: A Nationally Representative Survey. Islamabad: The Population Council, Pakistan Office. , L. (1999). Adolescence, fifth edition. McGraw-Hill.Student Reader:Key Points in Adolescent DevelopmentAdolescents and Youth in Pakistan 2001-2002: A Nationally Representative Survey, from The Executive SummaryResearch on Puberty DifferencesChallenging BeliefsWhat Studies of Adolescents Tell Us About Common BeliefsIdentity Formation in Adolescent LifeEmotional Literacy: Education versus IgnoranceThe Adolescent Peer Group: A Problem or a Necessity?Estimating children’s social acceptance among peersAdolescent Motivation, Student Scenarios Cognitive Development of AdolescentsPendulum TaskLanguage Development in AdolescentsMeasuring IntelligenceUnit IV Detailed Planning GuideAdolescence and developmentWeek 8, Session 23: Introduction and physical development Option 1:Reader’s Theatre (10 min). Have handout on Challenging Beliefs from Student Reader, on tables or desks when students arrive and encourage them to be looking at it as others arrive.Point out that we are beginning a new unit on adolescent development and they will encounter very different views about the topic. The beliefs listed on the worksheet represent some of the ideas people have about adolescents.Have 4 people stand and read each of the 4 beliefs.Ask people to keep the handout to complete along with their assignment at the end of the session.Small Groups Text Against Text (40 min.)Form 5 groups. Hand out From the Executive Summary of the Adolescents and Youth study in the Student Reader.Review the Introduction and Conclusion sections with the whole class, going over it with them.Jigsaw. Assign each group one of the paragraphs reporting findings about Social Context of People’s Lives, Education, Work, etc.Allow time for each group to complete its paragraph (time will vary with English skill of your students).Have each group report on its paragraph so that all groups are aware of the information in the report. Hand out the Physical Characteristics section of Key Points in Adolescent Development or a summary of puberty and physical development you create from the Expanded Essential Knowledge for Unit IV in Appendix A.Point out that some critics of adolescent development theory suggest that the idea of adolescence is a social construction and very Western. It is a more affluent societies where people between 14-19 have the leisure to live without having to support themselves and their families and opportunity for continued education. Challenge the group to look at the description of physical development and critique it in light of their own knowledge of Pakistani youth and the Executive Summary.What suggestions, if any, do you have for the lists: “How do these changes affect teens?” and “What can you do?”Discussion (10 min.) Find out if there were any changes the groups wanted to make. Why? Why not?Establish purposes for the unit, building on the activity they have just completed.Highlight physical developmental milestones. Assignment: Complete handout Challenging Beliefs and read What Studies of Adolescents Tell Us About Common BeliefsOption 2:Brainstorming activity (10-15 min.)Students will need strips of paper (recycle would be good) and markers or crayons.Think back to when you were 13 or 14 years-old. Think about words or short phrase you would use to describe yourself at that time. Try to think of as many as possible.Choose one word or short phrase you feel is especially descriptive of your early adolescence and write it on a the paper strip you have been given.Post your description on the white/chalk board.Pair Work: Thinking About Physical Development (40 min.) Hand out a description of adolescent physical development using an excerpt from the Student Reader, Key Points in Adolescent Development or a summary of puberty and physical development you create from the Expanded Essential Knowledge for Unit IV in Appendix A.Give pairs some time to look at the document together and see if they can “locate themselves” in the description. Ask if they think the description is reflective of Pakistani youth.What might they want to add to “How do these changes affect teens?” and/or “What can you do?”Provide each pair with one of the following scenarios: 1. A 12-year old girl comes to you after class one day complaining of a lack of privacy in the bathroom at school. You know that the girls’ bathroom needs a lot of repairs. 2. A 12 year old boy cannot seem to sit still in math class. Although he is bright and eager to answer questions correctly, he is disruptive for the other children and lacks the ability to concentrate for long stretches. 3. A 15 year old girl is picked on by other students for being “fat”. She does seem to eat more than the other children, often offering small change/school supplies for larger lunch portions or candy. 4. You notice that a 14 year old boy has begun to engage in risky behaviour compared to his classmates. You catch him in the schoolyard one day smoking a cigarette.How do you respond to this child? What might you do to help this young person address their issue(s)? Would you respond differently if the child were a member of the opposite sex than the one in your scenario? Ask students to keep their responses in their journals or with their notes and look at them as the unit continues to see if their ideas change during the unit. Summary (5-10 min.) Point out that some critics of adolescent development theory suggest that the idea of adolescence is a social construction and very Western. It is a more affluent societies where people between 14-19 have the leisure to live without having to support themselves and their families and opportunity for continued education. “In earlier times, and in Pakistani society even today, societies did not mark out adolescence as distinct time of life. People simply moved from childhood into young adulthood with no stopover in between”. (see )Challenge the group to look at the description of physical development and critique it in light of their own knowledge of Pakistani youth and the Executive Summary in the Student Reader.What suggestions, if any, do you have for the lists: “How do these changes affect teens?” and “What can you do?”Assignment: Complete handout Challenging Beliefs and read What Studies of Adolescents Tell Us About Common BeliefsWeek 8, Session 24: Social/Emotional development I: Erikson, development of self-identityOption 1:Review (10 min.) Students should have a copy of Comparing Developmental Theories from Unit I. Ask them to bring it to class or distribute copies.Look at the ages 7-12 and 13-19 on the chart.Identify ways theorists describe it.Active Lecture (30 min.) Erikson and Self-IdentityPrepare a handout with a summary of key points describe Erikson’s theory of Identity Development. Use the Expanded Summary of Essential Knowledge, Appendix A. Both the section in Unit I and Unit V will be anize your lecture so that you can stop at two or three points to allow students to fill in notes using the handout or compare notes.Brainstorming (15 min.) As a class, come up with five to ten ways students come to identify themselves as they get into adolescence (athlete, scientist, religious, “outsider”). What can the teacher do to encourage students to engage in such activities, keeping in mind what you just learned? What kind of activities did you want to be with most in your early teen years?What kind of activities do you want to be identified with now?Summary: (5 min.) Ask for students to summarize what they have learned in the session. Call for volunteers or call on students you want to encourage to participate.Assignment Assign half the class to read Identity Formation in Adolescent Life and half to read Emotional Literacy: Education versus Ignorance from the Student Reader. People are free to read both, but will need to be prepared to be a resource person for the article assigned. Option 2: Small Groups Analyse Scenarios (20 min.)Introduce the topic by giving one of the vignettes to half the class and one to the other (or one you construct vignettes targeted to a situation your students might encounter). 1) Rabiah is one of the better students in your class. But she seems to be acting out more and more. Last week, she tried playing football with some of the boys during recess. One of the teachers came over and scolded her, and told her she should be with girls during this time and that she was only looking for attention. Then yesterday, the Islamic Studies teachers said she is worried. Rabiah is questioning some teachings during an Islamic Studies class. The Islamic Studies teacher sent Rabiah to the principal and her parents were notified.How would you have responded to Rabiah in each of these situations?Taking in mind some of the things we’ve talked about, recommend a course of action for the teacher to take (if any) regarding Rabiah. 2) Saleem seems to always be getting angry and losing his temper. The boys were getting ready to start a cricket game and when he couldn’t be first he started shoving other boys. When you try to talk with him he just looks down and shrugs his shoulders. Another time you handed out tests that you had graded and when he saw that he did not get a perfect score, he wadded up the paper and threw it in the trash. Then today, you learn that when he was in Maths class, another boy laughed at him. Saleem got up and hit him in the face.What can you do about Saleem’s angry behaviour?Taking in mind some of the things we’ve talked about, recommend a course of action for the teacher to take (if any) regarding Saleem. Have pairs read the vignette and try to answer the questions.Reading groups: (30 min.)Ask students to get into small groups of 4-5 students based on their scenario.Check to see if there is someone in each group who feels comfortable in reading English.Give one of the articles from the Student Reader to each group:Rabiah groups - Identity Formation in Adolescent LifeSaleem groups - Emotional Literacy: Education versus IgnoranceAsk the groups to read the article together then look at their case study again to see if there is additional information that might assist them.Go to each group to observe their discussion and correct any misconceptions.Mini lecture (10 min.) Go over key points in Erikson’s theory of identity formation.Connect it to the two cases.Assignment (5 min.) Read the article that was handed to the other half of the class.Week 9, session 25: Social/emotional development II: the adolescent peer groupOption 1:This strategy will be a good one if most of your students are 19-years-old and under. If you have an older group you may want to introduce the session another way.Assignment prior to class assign The Adolescent Peer Group: A Problem or a Necessity? in the Student Reader.Brainstorming About Peer Influence: (15 min.)Tell the class that when you give them a word, write down their first thought:favourite kind of musicfavourite musical groupfavourite singerfavourite filmfavourite actorfavourite way of dressingfavourite things to do Ask them talk to move about the room and find as many people as they can in 5 min. who have the same favourites that they do. Write the person’s name next to the favourite item. Keep track of time. Quickly survey by asking students to raise their hand to find out who got the most for each item. Who/what is the favourite & how many agreed?Ask: How much do you think your ideas have been influenced by peers? Take as many responses as time permits. What favourites are influenced by culture? Take as many responses as time permits. Mini Lecture (20 min.)Role of peers. Note differences of opinion about influence of peer groups in different cultural contexts.Pro-social and aggressive behaviour in teensImplication for teachersPair Work (20 min.) Students form pairs. Hand out Estimating children’s social acceptance among peers from the Student Reader.Think of examples they have observed in classrooms, from among younger adolescents they know, and their own experiences. Read the examples of classroom strategies. Have you observed any of these in your classroom visits?Based on the assigned reading and mini-lecture, are there other strategies you would include? Discuss pros and cons of peer group formation. Are they different for boys versus girls? Use this option if you used Option 1 in the last session.Summary (5 min.) Option 2:Rethinking Scenarios (5 min.)Have students return to the groups they were in last session for vignettes of Rabiah and Saleem.Ask them to keep their vignette in mind during the lecture as they will be applying new information to their discussion of the two vignettes.Active Lecture (40 min.)Role of peers. Note differences of opinion about influence of peer groups in different cultural contexts.Place of peer groups in Pakistani culture; urban culture, rural culture, ethnic group and minority culture.Pro-social and aggressive behaviour in teensImplication for teachersChunk information into 10 min. segments and give students an opportunity to compare notes following each.Rethinking Scenarios (15 min.)Have students rethink their cases now that they have the information from the lecture.Ask them to consider: How might peer pressure be influencing Rabiah or Saleem?How might peer influence be used in a positive way?Would it make a difference if you knew Rabiah or Saleem were members of a minority group? What would you do as teacher?When organizing small groups, make sure group membership varies so students have an opportunity to work with different peers.Week 9, session 26: Social/emotional development III- motivation/self-regulationOption 1:Small Groups Analyse Scenarios (20 min.)Organize into small groups.Hand out Adolescent Motivation, Student Scenarios from the Student ReaderAssign each group to one of the scenarios.Ask them to brainstorm about clues that might help them work with the child described, based on what they know about adolescent development.What might be plausible reasons for the behaviour?Mini Lecture (15 min.) Motivation and Self-RegulationPoint out in reference to the scenarios that we cannot always know what causes behaviour that we see in students. We have to think about how to help them become more effective even when we can’t be sure why they are acting as they do. Summarize key points about motivating adolescents and how to help them become more self-regulating.Prepare a handout of Fostering Motivation in the Classroom from Expanded Essential Knowledge, Unit IV, Appendix A to give at the end of the mini-lecture.Scenario Group Work (15 min.) Use the Fostering Motivation handout to look at the scenario assigned. What strategies might you use with your scenario?Is the behaviour they exhibit necessarily negative? What kind of encouragement would you provide to make sure the student remains (or becomes) engaged in school?Summary Discussion (10 min.)What did students find challenging about dealing with the scenarios?What insights did they gain from the exercise?Option 2Mini Lecture (15 min.) Motivation and Self-RegulationPoint out that we cannot always know what causes behaviour that we see in students. We have to think about how to help them become more effective even when we can’t be sure why they are acting as they do. Summarize key points about motivating adolescents and how to help them become more self-regulating.Prepare a handout of Fostering Motivation in the Classroom from Expanded Essential Knowledge, Unit IV, Appendix A to give at the end of the mini-lecture.Guided Pair Work (45 min.)Read each of the descriptions in turn. Ask students to use the handout and write down one or two ideas about how they might motivate the student. You have a 12 year old girl in class who constantly needs to be the centre of attention. She is constantly around her peers, and is often seen as the leader. Ask several pairs to share ideas they have for dealing with the student. Ask probing questions to help them evaluate their ideas. Go on to read each of the following, give time for pair discussion and elicit ideas from students as time permits. You have an 11 year old boy who doesn’t associate much with his peers, he is often picked on. But he always seems to follow you around, trying to impress you with his knowledge and generally showing off.You have a very competitive 14 year old boy in your class. He always raises his hand, and often answers questions in class without you even calling on him. He is very eager to contribute, and at times even seems to get bored with the class.Positive ExamplesNegative ExamplesGeneralizeEatingSymbolsCloudsLogicalCricketFutureSoundsReasonOrangeAbstractClubIntelligenceSchoolThinkPotato chipRationalWindReflectDupataMentalRubbish Problem solvingLunchJudgmentFilmKnowledgeSingingMindRaindropThoughtPlayForm hypothesesConcrete thinkingForman operationsConservation13-19 year-oldsSemi-concrete thinkingWeek 9, session 27: Cognitive development Option 1:Concept Attainment (30 min.)Engage students in this activity to help them think aboutthe concept of adolescent cognitive development. By thinking about attributes that can be used to say if something isan example or not an example, they begin to identify andclarify properties of the concept. The negative examples become more specifically related to examples in order to sharpen the concept as you get near the end of the activity.Have a poster or headings on the chalk/white board that read:Positive Examples Negative Examples Put two words on the chart/board: generalize, eatingAsk students to look at the two words. Generalize belongs in a category we are going to think about. Eating does not. As we go through the exercise, I want you to try to decide what the category is that we will be thinking about.Add the next two words: symbols, clouds.Look at this pair of words. Symbols is part of the category we are thinking about, objects is not.What do generalize and symbols have in common that eating and objects do not?Think about it.Continue by adding the next two sets of words, pausing after each: logical, cricket; future, soundsNow what are you thinking? Please write down a hypothesis about what the category is that we are going to be working with. Think about what the positive examples have in common that they do not share with negative examples.Present the next positive example (on a paper or write to the side of the lists) logicalAsk: Based on your hypothesis, should this be a positive example or a negative example? Ask for a show of hands. Go on to give the next few words, but not in pairs. Have students tell you which category they go in: future reason, cricket sounds, orange, abstract, club, school, intelligence.When most of the class seem to be able to put things in the right category, ask them if they will share their hypothesis about the concept you are looking for. If they are incorrect,give them some more words and have them place these in categories. After you have added these, ask if someone can give you a positive example. If it is an attribute of adolescent cognitive development accept it.If you work through all of the words without anyone guessing, ask them to think of what these words are characteristic of. If they guess thinking help them see that concrete and conservation describe a kind of thinking. Don’t spend too much time beyond this, but point out the concept is adolescent development.Pair Reading (20 min.)Hand out Cognitive Development of Adolescents from Student Reader.Summary (10 min)Summarize key concepts about adolescent cognitive development. Note the contrasting perspectives of Piaget and Vygotsky brought out in the reading.Assignment Read The Pendulum Task in the Student Reader. Try out the task with a friend.Option 2Prepare a handout on Similarities and Differences Between Piaget and Vygotsky and another on Teaching Strategies using the Expanded Essential Knowledge, Unit IV, Appendix A.Lecture (20 min.)Hand out note cards or slips of paper. Ask students to write down questions they have during the lecture.Summarize adolescent cognitive development.Offer contrasting views.Question-Answer (10 min.)Collect the questions.Answer in turn, skipping those that are written illegibly or that are duplicate.Hand out the Fact comparing Piaget and Vygotsky for students to read later as a review.Small Group activity (20 min.) Hand out on teaching strategies.Have groups look at each one and talk about examples they have seen, if any, in their classroom observations. Discussion: (10 min.) Lead the class in discussing whether teachers use strategies listed on the handout. Why, why not?If time permits, offer examples of how these strategies are built into their course on child development.Assignment Read The Pendulum Task in the Student Reader. Try out the task with a friend.Lecture (20-25 min.) See “Piaget” in course planning guide.Week 10, session 28: Cognitive/linguistic development Option 1:Mini-Lecture (15 min.)Talk about Vygotsky’s theory of linguistic learning. Include the concept of scaffolding. Point out how Vygotsky and Brunner both use the concept.Small group design activity (25-30 min.) Form small groups of 3 or 4Imagine you are a secondary school science, literature or physical education instructor. With Vygotsky’s theory in mind, design an age-appropriate “scaffolding” task for students, with the idea that the students should work collaboratively but the teacher will be looked to extensively for guidance.Be prepared to share your design.Ambassadors (15 min.)Combine with another group of 3 or 4. Take turns sharing what you designed.Option 2:Guest Speaker Invite another faculty member or someone you know who is expert in language development. Ask that person to give a 30 minute presentation on language development in adolescence and challenges of adolescent second language learners. Ask the Expert Activity (15 min -20 min., time will vary)Arrange 2 chairs facing another chair at the front of the room. Give everyone an opportunity to write down a question that they have for the “expert” on a strip of recycle paper or a note card or piece of paper. Ask two volunteers to take turn writing answers to the questions as they are asked. Provide these volunteers with a stack of recycle papers and markers to use.Choose two people with questions to come and sit in the two chairs facing the speaker, who is invited to sit in the chair opposite them. The person in chair 1 reads his/her question and hands it to the speaker to look at.As the speaker answers it, one of the volunteers writes the answer and hands it to the person in chair 1 who asked the question. The person in chair 1 takes the question back from the speaker and posts it along with the answer on the wall or on a display board.The person in chair 2 moves to chair 1 and the Instructor chooses someone to sit in chair 2 and be ready to ask his/her question.Continue as long as there are questions.After the questions have been answered, give the speaker a minute to make any additional comment. Week 10, session 29: Cognitive, Individual DifferencesOption 1:Brainstorming and Gallery Walk(15 min.)Have students work in small groups of 4-5.Use chart paper to make a list of all the ways members of their group are different that they can think of in 5 minutes. Post lists and let other people look at the lists posted as time permits.Small Groups, Reading (30 min.)Raise the question: Do the ways we measure intelligence allow for differences?Hand out Measuring Intelligence Have students discuss reading in groups. Ask them to critique existing methods of measuring intelligence in adolescents, following the questions on the handoutClass discussion (15 min.) Groups report on their answers.Have each group report on one question before moving to the next.Point out that in the next unit we will look more closely at individual differences.Option 2:Assignment pior to class, ask each student observing in an adolescent class to get permission from the teacher to bring samples of student work for 5-10 students completing the same assignment. Explain that the purpose will be to look at them in class in order to better understand differences in student development. The work samples can be returned if the teacher wishes. Label the sample with the name of the school and class. Cover the name. Provide an explanation of what the assignment was for each set of papers. Analysing Work Samples (20 min.) Place students in small groups of 4-5 members.Ask students to share the work samples they have brought. Divide them up so that each table has a set of at least 3 or 4 papers for the same assignment to examine.Have students look at the work and answer the following questions:What differences do you see in the work?What does the work tell you about the individual differences?What does it tell you about adolescent thinking?What do the papers not tell you that you might need to know in order to assess cognitive ability?Mini-Lecture (15 min.) Talk about how we measure intelligence and problems with IQ tests.Point out that in the next unit we will look more closely at individual differences and the limits of intelligence testing.Whole Group Discussion (10-15 min.) Hand out Clues to Cognitive Development from the Student Reader. Lead class in reading through the document and discussing the questions listed on the handout.Ask: what kinds of information would you might collect in order to develop a good picture of a student’s cognitive development.Week 10, session 30: Conclusion and review of adolescent developmentOption 1:Cognitive Mapping (20-30 min.) In pairs, go through your notes and draw cognitive maps to relate the different topics discussed during this unit on adolescence. Post maps on a wall or in a display area.Gallery Walk (20 min) Have one member of the pair stay with the map and explain it to visitors. After 10 minutes switch so the second member stays with the map and the first makes the Gallery Walk.Summary (10 min.) InstructorOption 2:Pairs Write Advice to Teachers (40 min.)Based on what you have learned in this unit, write a letter to a hypothetical new teacher explaining key things about adolescents in order to be an effective teacher. Consider the whole child. Use your notes as you need.Sharing Letters (10 min.)Pairs meet with another pair to read their letters to each other.Summary (10 min.) Select one or two letters at random and have students read aloud to the class.Summarize key points about adolescent development that may not be in the letters.Difference in Classrooms: Developmental Variation and Special NeedsUnit 5Unit 5 Overview Difference in Classrooms: Developmental Variation and Special NeedsIn this unit, students will examine learning differences, both normal variation in learning styles and disabilities and disorders. Students will consider the role of the school and the instructor in managing and accommodating learning difference in classroom practice. Students will additionally consider the strategies employed in national educational policy in Pakistan on accommodating diverse developmental needs.Since Gardner has been considered earlier, you may want to focus on a thorough review of development, looking at theories again. Emphasis on:1) different theoretical views2) differences in childrenOptions for teaching Gardner in more depth follow the unit (see Alternative Options). None of the conditions/issues related to special needs children is considered in depth in this unit. The Instructor will need to decide whether to focus on one or two more common in classrooms in order to provide more depth or to treat this unit as a survey.Week 11:Differences in student learning stylesAlternative sessions:Understanding differences in light of Child development across the elementary and middle school years orGardner’s multiple intelligences theoryScaffolding different learning stylesWeek 12:Recognizing disability and learning disorders I - emotional and behaviouralRecognizing disability and learning disorders II - language, physical and sensoryCognitive differences: Delays and giftednessWeek 13:Addressing special needs in the classroomThe perspective of national policyUnit reflection and reviewLearning Goals: Students will be able to:Demonstrate an understanding of student differences in learning styles and capacities.Recognize and categorize signs of developmental delays, disorders and disabilities.Demonstrate awareness of the social perceptions of difference.Consider classroom needs from various perspectives, including those of students and teachers.Recognize the strengths that each child brings to the classroom.Identify factors that influence learning differences and special needs.Essential Questions:How can schools best accommodate different learning needs?How can teachers use benchmarks for development without seeing children of difference as abnormal?What is the role of the school in accommodating children with special needs?Enduring Understandings:Students will understand that:Variation among student learning abilities and learning strengths is normal.Teachers can work to accommodate different learning abilities and disabilities in the classroom in variety of ways.Resources:Asherson, P. (2010). ADHD and genetics. In Tremblay R.E., Barr, R.G. & Peters, R.DeV. (Eds.), Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development (1-8). Montreal: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development. Retrieved from . Accessed April 2011.Beitchman, J. & Brownlie, E. (2010) Language development and its impact on children’s psychosocial and emotional development. In Tremblay R.E., Barr, R.G. & Peters, R.DeV. (Eds.), Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development (1-8). Montreal: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development. Retrieved from . Accessed April 2011. Dale, P.S. & Patterson, J.L. (2009). Early identification of language delay. In Tremblay R.E., Barr, R.G. & Peters, R.DeV. (Eds.), Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development (1-6). Montreal: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development. Retrieved from . Accessed April 2011.Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development. (2008). Autism (collection of articles). Retrieved from Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development. (2009). Learning disabilities (collection of articles). Retrieved from Gardner, H. & Hatch, T. (1989). Educational implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4-10. Retrieved from . Japan International Cooperation Agency. (2002). Country profile on disability: Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Retrieved from Ministry of Education. (2004). The development of education: National report of Pakistan. Islamabad: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from Rommelse, N. (2010). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and cognition. In Tremblay R.E., Barr, R.G. & Peters, R.DeV. (Eds.), Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development (1-7). Montreal: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development. Retrieved from . Accessed April 2011.Tannock, R. (2005). Language development and literacy: Comments on Beitchman and Cohen. . In Tremblay R.E., Barr, R.G. & Peters, R.DeV. (Eds.), Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development (1-5). Montreal: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development. Retrieved from . Accessed April 2011. Tomlinson, C. (1999). The differentiated classroom: responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (Available as an e-book from TC at )UNICEF. (2003). Pakistan: Examples of inclusive education. Kathmandu: UNICEF. Retrieved from Reader:Understanding the Nature of Learning Disorders in Pakistani ClassroomsClues to Cognitive DevelopmentWhat a Child CAN Do: Special Needs Issues Inclusive Education in Pakistan?Looking at Social Issues Holistically: The Rejected ChildClassrooms for All LearnersDeveloping Multiple Intelligences in ChildrenModels of DisabilityAutismADHD Children and Classroom ManagementGeneral Categories of Learning DisabilityMeeting The Needs of Students With Cognitive DelayWhat Do Gifted Children Need?Characteristics/Signs of Gifted ChildrenDifferentiated Instruction in the Inclusive ClassroomCase Studies of Working Models of Inclusive Education in PakistanKathmandu: UNICEF. Retrieved from 5 Detailed Planning GuideDifference in Classrooms: Developmental Variation and Special NeedsWeek 11, Session 31: Differences in student learning and performance strengthsOption 1:Assignment prior to class have students read Understanding the Nature of Learning Disorders in Pakistani Classrooms (This article will also be used later in the unit.)Introduction to the new unit (10 min.)Instructor comments on the following:The course up until this point has been describing typical child development. A range of behaviours and aspects of cognitive, social, emotional and physical development have been presented characterizing what many people think of as normal development. We need to challenge what is actually normal as everyone has differences. Real classrooms are full of very different students – students who have varied strengths in and out of the classroom and some who have special needs. This unit will cover ways in which learners differ and ways schools can accommodate these differences.Student reflection (5 min.)Students reflect on their classroom observations: Have they seen evidence for the idea that students approach learning differently?What are some of the strengths and weaknesses of particular students they have observed in the classroom?Pair work (10 min.)"Special needs" are commonly defined by what a child can't do -- by milestones unmet, foods banned, activities avoided, experiences denied. These minuses hit families hard, and may make "special needs" seem like a tragic designation. Some parents will always mourn their child's lost potential, and many conditions become more troubling with time. Other families may find that their child's challenges make triumphs sweeter, and that weaknesses are often accompanied by amazing strengths.Students share their reflections with each other. Then they brainstorm categories of differences that they have witnessed in the classroom. Active Lecture (40 min.) Begin by asking students to name some of the differences students have noticed. Take a few ofthese before beginning the lecture.You might want or use the quotation that introduces the reading What a Child CAN Do to begin the lecture(see text box) and give students a minute to consider it.Note the history of special education in Pakistan.Set out some of the learning differences and disabilities that are encountered in classrooms in Pakistan (issues of diversity will be covered in Unit 6).Pause after every 10 or 15 minutes to give students an Opportunity to compare notes or ask questions.Minute Paper (5 min.)Have students write a reaction to the lecture for one minute.At the end of one minute, ask thought questions:Do you think teachers in the classrooms where you have observed are comfortable working with students with different learning needs?How comfortable do you think you will feel in working with students with different learning needs?What would it take to make you feel comfortable?Option 2:Introduction to the new unit (5 min.)The course up until this point has been describing typical child development. A range of behaviours and aspects of cognitive, social, emotional and physical development have been presented characterizing normal development. However, real classrooms are full of very different students – students who have varied strengths in and out of the classroom and some who could be labelled as special needs. This unit will cover ways in which learners differ and ways schools can accommodate these differences.Text Set (45 min.)Students form groups of six.Hand out a text set with What a Child CAN Do and Inclusive Education in Pakistan? from the Student Reader or two other short articles of your choice that deal with special needs issues.Ask 3 members (half of the group) to read one article and half the other article. Be available to assist with English or difficult concepts. Answer the following questions about your article:What is the main purpose or the article?What is the point of view of the author/s point of view is?Do the ideas in the article address any issues you have experienced as a student or in observing in classrooms?Who should read this article?Each half of the group reports on its article to the next group. Ask the group to think of the two articles together. What might the author of What a Child CAN Do say to the author of Inclusive Education in Pakistan? (and the reverse)Look at the list of kinds of special needs in What a Child CAN Do. How feasible would it be to mainstream students with the differences mentioned?What kinds of strengths do you think the author had in mind in the first paragraph of What a Child CAN Do? What strengths might a student with special needs bring to the classroom.Reflection: (10 min.-15 min.)What insights have people gained from comparing the readings? What are their lingering questions? (These may not have answers.) Personal reflection (5 min.)Students reflect on the ways that they have seen schools manage differences in student learning. Week 11, Session 32: Thinking About Child Development and DiversityThe next two sessions should involve students in going deeper into child development, looking at the span from pre-school through middle school. Focus on helping students understand how this knowledge will help them as teachers of children at any age and help them in identifying children who may have special needs.Option 1:Assignment prior to class ask students to read Looking at Social Issues Holistically and think about the questions. Discussion of Article (15 min.) Lead the class in discussing the assigned article. Ask them to leave aside the case of Shakeel and think about the argument that the article makes. What questions does the article raise?Have you observed instances in classrooms where you are observing where student behaviour is a problem that may be masking larger issues?Case Scenario (20 min.)Have students meet in small groups to discuss Shakeel.Follow the discussion questions with the article.Identify steps they would take as Shakeel’s teacher. Ask them to use their knowledge of child development to justify their choices.Be prepared to share your proposed steps and justification with the whole class.Group Reporting (25 min.)Each group has about 5 min. to share steps and justification. Following each group presentation, raise questions to help sharpen their thinking about development.Assignment Have students write up a one-page description of a child they know (this could be their child study subject if they are doing a child study over the semester) and bring it to class. Ask them to bring their notes from the study of child development from preschool through adolescence. Option 2:Assignment prior to class ask them to bring their notes from the study of child development from preschool through adolescence to class. Reflection (10 min.)Ask students to take 5 min. to write about the age group they most want to teach and why. They may write this in their journals or on a separate note paper. What is it about child development at this age that you find most interesting?Ask students to take 5 min. to write about the age group they want to work with least and why. They may write this in their journals or on a separate note paper. What is it about child development at this age that makes you less interested in working with children of this age?Small Groups Review Development (40 min.)Organize groups according to age group they most want to teach. Keep groups at 5-6 maximum. If there is an age group that is not represented, leave it out for the present. Go with their choices.If materials are short, ask the college/university for large cardboard cartons supplies such as toilet paper or paper towels come in. Each group can cut open a carton and spread it out to create their graphic and a stand-up display.Using their notes, have small groups meet and design a large graphic organizer on chart or poster paper, “Meet the ___[age group] child.”List developmental characteristics that have been studied in class, physical, emotional, etc. in thecentre of the chart.List developmental characteristics that precede and follow on the right hand side of the display.Encourage creativity, but not at the expenseof substance.Move about during the activity to encourage that all group members share in the work.If they are unable to finish during class time allotted, ask the group to arrange to meet during outside class time to complete the chart.Gallery Walk and Summary (10 min.)Encourage students to visit each other’s displays (including those in progress)Assignment Ask students to read Looking at Social Issues Holistically and think about the questions. Week 11, Session 33: Review of Child DevelopmentOption 1: [follow up on Option 1 in Session 31] Lecture (20 minutes)Cover key points about development that you feel students may have difficulty understanding or correct misconceptions you have observed during their group work.Small Group Work (40 min.)Group students by the age of the child they wrote about in their assignment for this session. (Groups should be no larger than 6.)Give each group large poster board or cardboard to use to create a map of an age-appropriate classroom environment. Keep in mind the following:The child they have described—would this be a good environment for her/him?The article Looking at Social Issues Holistically Your notes on child developmentQuestions to answer as you complete your design.How will your classroom allow for differences in learning, physical abilities, emotional needs?What theorists can you use to defend your choices about what is age-appropriate?At the end of 20 min. have two members from each group go to another group to observe and ask questions about choices made in setting up the environment.At the end of 30 min. have visiting members return to their groups. Send another two members out to another group to observe and question. Circulate to observe, question, critique and correct misconceptions. Option 2: [follow up on Option 1 in Session 31]Using the Displays (5 min.)Have displays of Meet the Child where students can see and refer to them.Ask for two volunteers to be a “point person” for each age group display. Put their names on the board.Small Group Work: Planning a Classroom Environment (40 min.)Organize small groups of no more than 5 students according to the age group they wrote about that they least wanted to teach or age groups that were not represented in the displays made last session.Point people will work with a group, but may be called by another group to give advice or critique from time to time.Assume that you are assigned to teach this age group that you least wanted to teach. Set up an age-appropriate classroom environment for this group.Give each group large poster board or cardboard. Ask them to keep in mind the following:The article Looking at Social Issues Holistically Your notes on child developmentThat children of all ages need environments that encourage active learning.Questions to answer as you complete your design.How will your classroom allow for differences in learning, physical abilities, emotional needs?What theorists can you use to defend your choices about what is age-appropriate?At the end of 20 min. have two members from each group go to another group to observe and ask questions about choices made in setting up the environment.At the end of 30 min. have visiting members return to their groups. Send another two members out to another group to observe and question. Circulate to observe, question, critique and correct misconceptions. Reflection (10-15 min.)Ask students to think about the task they have just completed.What did you find most challenging about this task?Why might it be important to be able to set up a classroom environment for any age group?What developmental needs do all children seem to share in common?What developmental needs seem more age-related?Week 12, Session 34: Recognizing disability and disorders I – emotional and behaviouralFaculty resource: Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development. (2008). Autism (collection of articles). Retrieved from Suggested student reading for both options: Autism: Synthesis of Experts’ Texts, Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development (in Student Reader)ADHD Children and Classroom Management, Nurture (in Student Reader)K-W-L is a strategy that provides a structure for recalling what students know about a topic, noting what students want to know, and finally listing what has already been learned and is yet to be learned.The K-W-L strategy allows students to take inventory of what they already know and what they want to know. Students can categorize information about the topic that they expect to use as they progress through a lesson or unit.Option 1:KWL (5 min.) Have students do a KWL aboutRecognizing disability. They may want to keep it in their journal or use it to takenotes during the lecture.Active Lecture (50 min.) Definition, Perceptions and Models of DisabilityPresents definitions of disability. (You might want to have short definitions and summary of more extensive definitions on a handout to guide student listening.)Following definitions, have students Pair-share on the definitions they prefer and why.Hand out two definitions offered in the Pakistan National Policy for Special Education (see Appendix, Expanded Essential Knowledge for Unit V). Explains that, while all students have unique needs, certain students have more consistent ones. These special needs students may include students with disabilities or learning disorders. Types of disabilities discussed in this class: emotional and behavioural disabilities; language, physical and sensory disabilities; and cognitive differences. Making these divisions is artificial and there is a lot of overlap among categories.Think-pair-share at a stopping place in the lecture: Students think about their perceptions of disability and share with a classmate. some of the attitudes towards disability that they have seen evidenced in the classroom.Present the two prominent models of disability: medical, social (see Models of Disability, Student Reader; you may wish to use this as a reading assignment before or following class).Present information on emotional and behavioural disorders with particular emphasis on autism and ADD/ADHD.Summary and Reflection (10 min.)Have students add to the KWL they did before class.Assignment There are several suggested readings in the Student Reader. Choose those that you think are most suitable for your students.Option 2:Assignment prior to class assign half the class the reading on ADHD/ADD and the other half the reading on Autism. Ask them to be prepared to share their reading with those who did not get a chance to read it.Reflection (5 min.)How are students with special needs perceived in Pakistani society? In classrooms? Students can draw on their own experience as students, as members of society and on their observations as student teachers.Pair-Work(10 min.)Students discuss their answers in pairs and brainstorm general attitudes held in their classrooms and social communities towards individuals with special needs. Students discuss how their school experience may have been different if they had had special needs.Mini-Lecture, Introduction (15 min.)Explain that, while all students have unique needs, certain students have more consistent ones. These special needs students may include students with disabilities or learning disorders. Point out that there are a variety of different types of disabilities and they will be discussed during this class as emotional and behavioural disabilities; language, physical and sensory disabilities; and cognitive differences. Explain that these barriers are artificial and there is a lot of overlap among categories.Present the two prominent models of disability: medical, social (see Models of Disability, Student Reader).Reading Exchange (30 min.)Place students in groups of 4-5 according to the reading they completed. Construct a list of the essential points from the reading and questions/concerns.Everyone pairs with someone responsible for the other reading and they take turns sharing the major points, their own insights and questions about autism and ADHD/ADD. Handout: Prepare a handout for students to think about:What similar challenges for teachers do the two disorders present? What are some of the differences? What strengths might children with each disorder bring to the classroom?Do you think the readings reflect a more medical or social perspective on disability?Week 12, Session 35: Recognizing disability and disorders II - language, physical, sensoryOption 1:Assignment prior to class, have students read (or review, if it has already been assigned ) Understanding the Nature of Learning Disorders in Pakistani Classrooms.Review (5 min.)Reviews material on ADD/ADHD and autism. Introduce today’s topic and asks what characteristics of ADD/ADHD align with this session’s topic on language, physical and sensory disabilities.Lecture (20 min.)Presents information on language, physical and sensory disabilities.Note how these disabilities may be seen in classrooms.Reflections on classroom practice (15-20 min.)Students reflect on the classroom they have been observing. What could the teacher do to accommodate students with language, physical or sensory disabilities? Specially, what adaptations could be made to one activity, lesson or the environment? 3-2-1 is similar to KWL. It is another way to get students to think about their own learning.Students write a brief description the adaptation they suggest. Think aboutHow can the adaptation can build on student strengths while supporting special needs?How does your adaptation include students so that they feel successful rather than “singled out”?Pair critiques (10 min.)Students shared their modified lessons in pairs and provide feedback. This feedback is incorporated into the revised activity description. Summary and review (10 min.)3-2-1 (5 min.)Students write three things they have learned, two that they would like to know more about and one idea/skill they have mastered from the unit so far.NOTE for both Options General Categories of Learning Disability in the Student Reader may be useful for students as a follow-up to the Lecture. A list with technical labels, for the Instructor, is found under Additional Information, at the end of Unit V.Summarize key points.Modified classrooms readingOption 2:Assignment prior to class, have students read Understanding the Nature of Learning Disorders in Pakistani Classrooms and bring this along with handouts or readings on ADD/ADHD to use in class.Text Against Text (40 min.)Students form small groups.Ask students to imagine themselves as children in a classroom. If they had ADD/ADHD what challenges would they face in the classroom? How would their experience be different from other students? Highlight key points in the handouts that inform your imaginative thinking.After about 10 min. ask students to examine the article on Understanding the Nature of Learning Disorders, asking the same questions as above.Active Lecture (20 min.)Present information on language, physical and sensory disabilities.Pair-Share (4-5 min.) Pause about half way through and ask what classroom modifications students think the teacher would need to make for children with these disabilities. Talk with another student about their ideas. At the end of the lecture, challenge students to continue thinking about how they would plan for students with so many different learning needs who might be in their classrooms.Week 12, Session 36: Cognitive differences: Delays and GiftednessFaculty resource: Collection of articles on learning disabilities from the Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development () Option 1:Reader’s Theatre (20 min.)Give one of the paragraphs about 4 characteristics of gifted/talented students listed at the end of Characteristics/Signs of Gifted Children in the Student Reader.Introduce the topics of students with cognitive difference.Have students stand at the front of the room or in their places at desks/tables to read each aloud in turn. Have them pause for a moment after each reading to let their peers reflect. Ask: What is the cognitive difference described by our readers?Give the list of Characteristics from Meeting the Needs of Students With Cognitive Delay to the 4 readers. Have them take turns reading characteristics, pausing after each to let their peers reflect. Ask: What is the cognitive difference described by our readers?Point out that in this session we will briefly look at needs of these contrasting groups.Active Lecture (20 min.)Talk about cognitive delays and giftedness. Pause half-way through to give students time to compare notes. Or try another type of Active Lecture.Give out 3 colors of cards or slips of paper. When people are listening to your comments, have them hold up a color for:I understand. I don’t understand.I disagree. Then either stop and allow questions or adjust what you are saying so there are more “understand” colors showing. Jigsaw (20 min.)Ask students to consider the ways in which students with cognitive difference are alike as they complete their part of the jigsaw. Divide into small groups of 4-5 students.Give half of the class the article Characteristics/Signs of Gifted Children and the other half Meeting the Needs of Students With Cognitive Delay.Ask them to go over the article together and be prepared to share it with another group. Summarize key information.Describe ways the article can be useful to teachers.Anticipation Guide is a strategy for reading and analysing what you think you already know. Students are presented with short, attention grabbing statements. Students decide whether or not they agree with the statements, pair up, and share their responses. Volunteers are asked to share whether or not they agreed. Students are asked to determine if their opinions matched the information in the text as they read. Share amended responses after the reading. For more reading strategies see 15 min, have half of each group go to a group who read the other article and trade places. Allow about 5 min. to share.Option 2:Pair Discussion (5 min.)Ask pairs to think about the range of cognitive or intellectual development they have seen in the classrooms where they are observing?Whole Class Anticipation Guide (15 min.)Create a Handout using the Characteristics list in two articles from the Student Reader, Characteristics/Signs of Gifted Children and Meeting the Needs of Students With Cognitive Delay.Mix up the characteristics, e.g. These students are often are often perfectionist and idealistic. These students may have weak problem-solving ability related to academics.Can have low self-esteem due to repeated failure both socially and academically.Read each statement aloud and ask them to decide if it is a characteristic of students with cognitive delay, gifted students or both. Jigsaw (40 min.)Divide into small groups of 5-6 students. Give them no more than 5 min. to compare their answers with other group members.Give half of the class the article Characteristics/Signs of Gifted Children and the other half Meeting the Needs of Students With Cognitive Delay.Ask them to go over the article together and be prepared to share it with another group. Correct misconceptions on their lists.Summarize key information.Describe ways the article can be useful to teachers.After 30 min, have half of each group go to a group who read the other article and trade places. Allow about 10 min. to share.Summary (If time permits).Review any key points that you think may have been omitted in the readings or students seem to be missing in their text work.Assitnment Reflection Essay: Ask students to take about half an hour to write on each of 2 questions they will bring to class. To what extent is it the school’s responsibility to accommodate students with unique abilities? Where should a teacher’s priority be in supporting students with different cognitive abilities?Week 13, Session 37 : Addressing special needs in the classroom: Differentiated Instruction Assignment for both options of this session: Read Differentiated Instruction in the Inclusive Classroom, from the Student Reader.Option 1:Case Studies (50 min.)Groups are assigned one of four case studies of Pakistan schools described in Case Studies of Working Models of Inclusive Education in Pakistan in the Student Reader. (International School of Studies, Karachi; Collegiate School System, Lahore; Parvarish School, Lahore; and Hassan Academy, Rawalpindi/Islamabad from UNICEF (2003) “Examples of Working Models” from the article in student reader) attempting to build inclusive education programmes. Students take notes on the elements of inclusive education visible in the case studies what elements draw on other models. Groups share a few points with the class.Assignment: Self-reflection in journal (or as a short paper).Consider the case you worked on in your group. Would that model work in the classroom you are working in? Why or why not?Option 2:Presentation of case study (10 min.)The instructor presents one of the case studies to the class.Pair Share (15 min.)Based on their reading of Differentiated Instruction in the Inclusive Classroom, what approaches to classroom instruction do students notice in the case study?Would that model work in the classroom you are working or observing in? Why or why not?Burning Questions (5 min.)Give the class note cards or slips of paper. Ask them to think about one burning question (very important, persistent question) about differentiated instruction/ inclusive classrooms that they would like discussed in your lecture.Lecture (25 min.)Collect all the questions. Take a minute to organize them (if you do this, ask students to write on a separate paper that they do not give you, two guesses about the answer to the question) or address them in the order they appear without repeating.Ask students to take turns writing down the answers to post on the Graffiti Wall.Presents information about different models of instruction that target diversity of needs as you answer questions. Review key concepts.Discussion (5 min.)Ask: How feasible do you think differentiated instruction/inclusive education is in Pakistan outside private schools with multiple resources?Week 13, Session 38: School resources and support services for special needs studentsClass resource: Pages 29-30 in Ministry of Education. (2004). The development of education: National report of Pakistan. Islamabad: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from Option 1:If you have access to a computer lab, arrange to have the class meet there so that students may use the computer to access and read the section of the MoE report on Education and Social Inclusion. Or, print copies of this section of the report so that there are enough for students to share in groups of 2 or 3 for this session. Small Group Report Analysis (40 min.)Form groups of 4-6, there should be at least 2 copies of the report available.Students examine Pakistani education policies for dealing with students with disabilities.They brainstorm the major points. What are the implications of this report forColleges and universities educating Teachers CollegeProvincial governmentsSchoolsTeachersIf you meet in a computer lab and small groups of students can share computers, ask them to search the report for information to aid in answering the implications as well as use their own judgment.Group Sharing and Discussion (20 min.)Take ideas students have about implications, looking at each in the order you prefer.As you have opportunity, discusses shifts in disability policy and its effects on education.Ask: Are any of the policies described visible in the classroom you work in? Ask for an example. Take several if students have seen examples.If you could recommend one change in policy in the school where you are observing, what would it be? Why?Option 2:Mini-Lecture (15 min.)Discusses shifts in disability policy and its effects on education. Highlight the section on Education and Social Inclusion from the MoE 2004 report (see above).Include major goals of the new policies on education in regards to disability. Pair work (20 min.)If the Education and Social Inclusion section of the 2004 report can be made available to students, give a copy to pairs to analyse together. If you are using a Graffiti Wall, be sure to have students do a Gallery Walk after class and again before class to review postings.A Gallery Walk may be used following a class activity and it may also be used before an activity to invite interest. The Instructor posts pictures, key phrases or quotationsfor students to view before the activity.If it isn’t possible to get the report, brainstorm with the class following the mini-lecture to list major elements of the education policy for students with special needs. List these on the board. What are the implications of this report forColleges and universities educating Teachers CollegeProvincial governmentsSchools TeachersGroup Discussion (20 min.)Form pairs into small groups.Ask them to discuss and take notes in order to post on the Graffiti Wall:Implications Do the new policies imply any form of instruction? If so, what?Are any of the policies described visible in the classroom you work in? If so, what are some examples?Based on their study of differences in learning and new government policy, have groups to come up with one recommendations for:Changes in schoolsChanges in classroomsHave recorders post recommendations on the Graffiti Wall for others to see following class or before the next session.Week 13, Session 39: Reflection and reviewOption 1:Assignment prior to class ask students to review their notes and come prepared to explain the new policy and implications for how teachers will set up classrooms. They will use this in class.Small Group Presentations (30 min.)Organize into small groups of 4-6 students. Ask each group to prepare a 15-min. presentation for parents at the beginning of the school year, based on the following scenario.Your school has decided to implement new government policies regarding Education and Social Inclusion. You are a committee of teachers who have agreed to lead the way in setting up your classrooms for differentiated instruction. You know that students assigned to your classroom include students with cognitive delay, physical disability, learning disability and who are gifted and talented as well as other students. You want parents to understand the new policy and why it should achieve a better education for all. Decide on what level of education your class will be: preschool, primary, middle or adolescent.Include a map of what your classroom will look like and other visuals.Be prepared to present your information to another group. Everyone must be involved in preparation and presentation.Presentations (30 min.)Pair groups so that each group will be able to present to another group. Move about the classroom during the presentations.Option 2:Assignment Have students review their notes from the unit prior to class and bring to class along with handouts and readings.Forced choice (10 min.)Instructor puts up signs around the room for different instructional models for dealing with developmental difference in education. Students must quickly stand near the model that best represents the classroom they are in. They explain their decision to someone standing nearby. Ask for 2-3 students to explain their decision to the class.This time have them move to the sign that is most like their ideal classroom. They explain their decision to someone standing nearby.Ask for several students to explain their decision to the class.Designing a Quiz (20 min.)Using their notes and materials from the unit, have students prepare a short quiz over the unit.Ask them to use True/False, Multiple Choice and short answer items. Cover as much of the unit as you can. Focus on key concepts.The test should not take more than 10 minutes.The writing should be legible to others.Give a warning at the end of 10 and of 15 minutes.Quiz Exchange (10 min.) Have each student exchange his/her quiz with another plete as many of the quiz items as time permits.Pair Review (10 min.) Pairs go over the quiz with each other, making corrections. Talk with each other about how they were able to remember, what was confusing.Summary (10 min.)Ask students what they learned from this experience. Be prepared for learning related to test construction and the limits of tests.This is a time to correct any misconceptions and find out what is missing from their conceptions of special needs students. ADDITIONAL OPTIONSWeek 11, Session 32: Gardner’s multiple intelligences theorySuggested reading: Mays, E. (n.d.). Developing multiple intelligences in children (in student reader)Option 1:Reflection (10 min.)Students reflect on an ideal learning situation they have experienced – one in which they learned the information or skill at hand well. What sort of activity was it? What skills or approaches did they draw on? Are they typically strong in this area of learning?10 + 2 Lecture (25 min.)The instructor presents the background information on the development of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, including Gardner’s reaction to Piaget (10 min.). Students share the differences between Piaget’s and Gardner’s approaches (2 min.). The instructor presents the seven intelligences outlined by Gardner (10 min.). Students reflect on which intelligences they perceive to be their strengths (2 min.).Group work (25 min.)Students select one intelligence they feel to be their strongest (recognizing that usually people have multiple strengths) and form groups with students who favour the same intelligence. Students review the list of “end-results” associated with that intelligence. They can add additional end-results to the list. They then generate a list of the activities for which that profession is normally that relate to that intelligence. Students then select one activity from their list that could be adapted as a classroom activity. Option 2:Reflection (5 min.)The instructor writes a list of different activities on the board (These might include writing an essay, solving a math problem, performing a skit, drawing, and singing). Students reflect on which types of activities they prefer. Handout (20 min.)Students are given handouts on multiple intelligences (Dickinson, D. (n.d.) Learning through Many Kinds of Intelligence – in student reader). They review the handout, reflect on which intelligences are their strengths and which are their weaknesses, and then partner with someone to share strengths and weaknesses.Lecture (20 min.)The instructor presents background information on the Theory of Multiple Intelligences and goes over Gardner’s seven intelligences. Debate (15 min.) Additional intelligences have been proposed, an example of which is naturalist intelligence. This type of intelligence stresses sensitivity to the natural world and patterns/connections in nature. People with this type of intelligence like to be outside, enjoy observing nature and listening to nature sounds. Question for debate: Is this an important addition to the list of intelligences? Half of the class is responsible for creating a list of reasons why it is an important addition; the other half argues against it. Both sides are shared at the end of class.Week 11, Session 33: Supporting multiple intelligences in classroom practiceFaculty resource: Gardner, H. & Hatch, T. (1989). Educational implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences (in faculty resources)Option 1:Lecture (20 minutes)Instructor briefly reviews Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, soliciting some of this material from students. The instructor then discusses the strategies that can be applied in classrooms to help accommodate learns with strengths across diverse intelligences. Emphasis is given to differentiated instruction and assessment. Personal reflection (5 min.)Consider a classroom lesson you recently observed. To what extent did the lesson accommodate multiple intelligences during assessment activities? Which intelligences were accommodated?Group discussion (10 min.)In small groups, students share their reflections on the visibility of multiple intelligences in their classrooms. Lesson design activity (20 min.)Students choose one lesson that was shared and discuss ways that instruction and/or activities could be adapted to address intelligences beyond the ones already listed. They write up a classroom plan for that activity. 3-2-1 (5 min.)Students write three things they have learned, two that they would like to know more about and one idea/skill they have mastered from the unit so far.Homework: Students must bring in one lesson plan they have used as student teachers or encountered in their studies.Option 2:Assignment due for class: Students must bring in one lesson plan they have used as student teachers or encountered in their studies. Brief essay (10 min.)Students consider what approaches for accommodating different learning styles are visible in the lesson plan they have brought to class.Lecture (30 min.)The instructor presents different strategies for accommodating different learning needs with emphasis on differentiated learning strategies.Pair work (15 min.)Students revisit the lesson plans they have brought in. Choosing one student’s lesson, students adapt it to include activities or assessment that favour a type of intelligence not previously addressed. Reflection (5 min.)Students reflect on the following question: How appropriate is differentiated instruction for the school that you observe at (whether it is or is not used)?ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONWEEK 11, SESSIONS 32-33 Critiques of GardnerIf you choose to go into Gardner in greater detail, following the above session options or your own plans, it will be important to offer a thoughtful critique of his work. Gardner has been valuable for teachers as support for their use of multiple ways of learning and activity-based learning. Whether or not one agrees with the validity of his research—and many experimental researchers do--Gardner has much to contribute to thinking about learning. Many of the criticisms of Gardner have to do with whether his categories should be considered separate forms of intelligence or categories of a general intelligence.An article giving an overview of reactions of other psychologists and theorists to Gardner’s work may be found in Appendix C. Additional information for Week 12, Session 35Common Types of Learning DisabilitiesDyslexiaDifficulty processing languageProblems reading, writing, spelling, speakingDyscalculiaDifficulty with mathProblems doing math problems, understanding time, using moneyDysgraphiaDifficulty with writingProblems with handwriting, spelling, organizing ideasDyspraxia (Sensory Integration Disorder)Difficulty with fine motor skillsProblems with hand–eye coordination, balance, manual dexterityAuditory Processing Disorder Difficulty hearing differences between soundsProblems with reading, comprehension, languageVisual Processing DisorderDifficulty interpreting visual informationProblems with reading, math, maps, charts, symbols, picturesA child with a learning disability cannot try harder, pay closer attention, or improve motivation on their own; they need help to learn how to do those things. A learning disability, or learning disorder, is not a problem with intelligence. Learning disorders are caused by a difference in the brain that affects how information is received, processed, or communicated. Children and adults with learning disabilities have trouble processing sensory information because they see, hear, and understand things differently.??? UNIT V, Week 12, Session 3: Cognitive differences: Delays and GiftednessThis article relates to cognitive delay, but it is also useful in thinking about the role of media in society, the topic of Unit VI. You may be able to draw on it in preparation for both units. Below is a copy of the first paragraph. The whole article is found in Appendix C.Applying Vygotsky: Cognitive Development Turned Cognitive DelayBy Rainy28Cognitive development has defined as the “construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision making from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.”[i] Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development has already been discussed briefly, particularly his primary assertion that children's development is furthered by their observation of interactions among people in their world, interactions with others and use of these interactions.[ii] This theory has been termed the sociocultural theory and, essentially, states that a child's development occurs in the direction of outward to inward. As part of this, Vygotsky devised three primary thoughts about cognitive development—internalization, the zone of proximal development and scaffolding. Most directly applicable to this paper is his concept of internalization, defined as the "process of taking in knowledge or skills from the social contexts in which they are observed."[iii] There is a dynamic relationship between what a child observes, how they observe and how they apply their interpretation of what they observed. Because children are dependent upon their parents or guardians in most non-school contexts, what they observe within this environment becomes a key factor in their development. Here, I am asserting that, in line with Vygotsky's concept of internalization, a child’s internalization of these observations within their immediate environment can serve as a barrier to their intake of knowledge, state of mind and cognitive progression which, in turn, inhibits the entire learning process. With media becoming such a considerable part of children's environment today, we must look carefully at what children are observing. In particular, Vygotsky would warn that the interactions children observe are of utmost importance because they internalize the knowledge and skills they observe in these interactions. . .Vygotsky stated that "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). Teachers, Family, Schools and SocietyUnit 6Unit 6 Overview Teachers, Family, Schools and Society in Child DevelopmentIn this unit, students will examine how families, society, schools, and teachers influence child development. ?Students will reflect on major concepts of child development and the implications for teaching and learning and especially focus on the role of the teacher.Week 14:Role of the nuclear and extended family in child socializationRole of community, society and culture Role of Culture: gender balance Week 15:Role of Culture: Influence of mediaRole of school, peers and teachers in child developmentInfluence of teachers and peersWeek 16:Involving Parents Review of Unit VICourse reflection and reviewLearning Goals: Identify factors from the community and society that influence the learning process of the child.Demonstrate an understanding of how culture, society, family and school influence child development.Identify differences in student development that pose a challenge for teachers.Plan environments for learning based on including diverse children. Essential Questions:How do home, community, culture and society interact in child development?How do teachers influence students’ intellectual, social, and emotional growth? How should teachers manage inclusive classrooms to promote age appropriate development of all learners? Assessments:Class discussions Class assignments Observation journal entriesEach week, students will write a one page reflection of their field observations. Some guiding questions for the weekly journal entry are listed in each sub-topic. Journal reflections, consider the following reflection questions:Is there diversity in the classroom? How are different students treated differently? Do different students participate differently?What does the teacher do to encourage girls’ engagement and participation? Resources:Berk, Laura E. (1991). Child Development, 2nd edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Lee, Alison (2008). Childminder’s Guide to Child Development. New York, NY: Continuum.Santrock, J & Yussen, S. (1987). Child Development, an introduction, 3rd edition. Dubuque, IO: WM.C. Brown Publishers.RCC; ECD Programme (2010). Nurture: Pakistan’s Pioneer Publication on Early Childhood Development. Childhood Development (ECD) Pakistan Website: on Early Childhood Development: . 40 Developmental Assets for Early Childhood, K-3, Middle Childhood, & Adolescents. (2004). Embracing Diversity: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive Learning-Friendly Environments. from: UNESCO (2006). Positive Discipline in the Inclusive, Learning-Friendly Classroom. Reader:Parenting StylesText Set:Gender and TeachingGender in Education Policy Project, from The Executive SummaryRepresentation of Women in the Advertisments of Contemporary Pakistani MagazinesIs There Gender Equity in Your ClassroomText Set:Media Influence on SocietyRole of the Media Television Effects on ChildrenActivating Media to Combat Worst Forms of Child Labour in PakistanParenting the Digital GenerationThe Classroom Environment as Another TeacherRole of the Elementary School TeacherThe Influence of Teachers: An Undergraduate Student’s PerspectivePeer InfluenceDiscipline Is Better Than Punishment: So What’s the Difference?Ensuring Desired Behaviour in Young ChildrenMotivating Children to LearnUnit 6 Detailed Planning GuideInfluence of Society and Culture on Child DevelopmentWeek 14, Session 40: Role of Nuclear and Extended FamilyParenting Styles, in the Student Reader, may be useful as an assigned reading before or after either of the two optios.Option 1:Introduction to the new unit (5 min.) Last 3 weeks will focus on how families, parents, teachers, school, and society affect child development. Explain terms nuclear and extended family.Self-reflection (5 min.) Students reflect on their own experiences and write about one or more of the following questions:What role do children play in your family? What roles do nuclear and extended families play in your family?Think of some ways your family influenced the person you are today?Pair work (10.) Students each take 5 min. to share ideas from their reflection with a partnerLecture (30 min.) Instructor reviews major roles and functions of the family in Pakistani society and child socialization through the family.Points to emphasize:Diversity in family system in PakistanTraditions, customs, societal setup in different parts of the country: e.g. urban, ruralDifferences in society and within families living in same regionsVariety of child rearing practicesGroup brainstorming (10 min.) Participants work in small groups to create a list of functions that the family has in society and in rearing children. Groups share their list with the class or write their list on the chalkboard. Option 2:Introduction to the new unit (5 min.) Last 3 weeks will focus on how family, parents, teachers, school, and society affect child development. Explain terms nuclear and extended family.Small Groups Create Graphic Organizer (30 min.) Organize students into groups of 4-5Have students create a visual or graphic organizer using poster or chart paper to show relationships:how families are influenced by and influence societyhow nuclear families are influenced by and influence the extended familyhow children are influenced by and influence the familyInclude ways families help children learn and develop positivelyInclude ways families hinder children’s learningHave students post their visual where others can see it.Gallery Walk/Lecture (20 min.) Give students a few minutes to look at the graphic organizers others have done.Lead them around the room looking at different ways relationships have been depicted. Bring out key points you want them to focus on, including:Diversity in family system in PakistanTraditions, customs, societal setup in different parts of the country: e.g. urban, rural Differences in society and within families living in same regionsVariety of child rearing practicesSummary (5 min.) Have students share insights or questions they have had during the session. Take as many as time permits.Week 14, Session 41: Role of Community, Culture and SocietyOption 1:Reflection (5 min)If students are keeping a journal, this should be written in the journal.Think about past experiences from childhood in your community and that have shaped your life. Write a 2 minute paper describing one of these experiences. Write as much as you can recall in the 2 minutes. Tell why you think it was so important. Pair-Share (10 min)Exchange journals (or papers) and read what your peer has written.Talk about positive and negative ways that communities shape who we are. Anticipation Guide (10 min)Give students a handout with the following statements (or others you choose from the lecture you prepare), arranged in the order in which you intend to address them in the Active Lecture to follow. Leave room following each for students to take notes:Development occurs in the same pattern and rate for everyone throughout the world.Family parenting patterns are shaped by community, culture and society.Socioeconomic role and status of the family influence a child’s development.Gender differences do not have an impact on munity values do not influence how girls develop.Gender roles are largely determined by biology and not by culture. Read each of the statements on the handout aloud. Ask students to mark whether they agree or disagree after you read each statement.Point out that you will address each of the statements in the lecture. They will have an opportunity to see if their opinions match the information you share and whether or not they change their minds.Active Lecture (30 min.) Draws on Vygotsky and other theorists’ models to highlight the role that society and culture play in child development. ?Include different aspects of community, culture and society that you have listed on the handout.Pause for 2 min. after each 8-10 minutes and let students to review their notes and check with peers next to them and compare. At the end of the lecture, ask:How many people changed their mind on one or more opinions??If there are different experiences of development based on these aspects, then do we develop unequally? ?Do differences lead to inequalities? ?Accept as many responses to each question as time permits.One minute paper (5 min.) Students may write in a journal if they are keeping one.Write for 1 minute on the question:How does society and culture affect child development differently for different people in Pakistan?Share. Notice similarities and differences in their reflections on the role of society and culture in communities in Pakistan.Option 2:Assignment prior to class ask students to collect newspaper articles or pictures from magazines (these can be advertisements) about families (local or national) or family issues/life in the region. Before class set out tape or paste for placing the articles/pictures on cardboard or poster board displays around the room. Gallery Walk (10 min.)As students arrive for class, have them place their pictures on one of display boards and look at what other students are bringing. (Some may have the same articles, but don’t worry about duplicates.)As students continue adding materials, have them make note of the different topics/issues they notice that are affecting families regionally and nationally.Active Lecture (30 min.) Instructor draws on Vygotsky and other theorists models to highlight the role that community society and culture play in child development. ?Lecture should include community, socioeconomic, and gender aspects and different impacts on development and highlight the issue of universal v. context specific development. Pause after 10 min. Ask students to write a one minute reaction.After another 10 min. have them write another one minute reaction.Summarize and conclude.Pair Share (10 min.) Ask students to share their two reactions with each other.Have them to talk about two questions:How does society and culture affect child development differently for different people in Pakistan?How does the surrounding community influence children’s growth and development in Pakistan?Discussion (10 min.)Lead whole class in discussing questions as time permits:How does society and culture affect child development differently for different people in Pakistan??If there are different experiences of development based on these family, community, culture and society, then do we develop unequally? ?Do differences lead to inequalities? ?Assignment: Individual reflection Participants are encouraged to write and reflect on their personal experiences and observation. When did you observe children treated differently, either in your school observation or previous experience in schools, due to a difference in their class, culture, learning ability, or gender? Do you think the difference lead to inequality? Why or why not?Week 14, session 42: Role of culture and society: gender balance Option 1:Assignment prior to class have all students read Gender Equity: Is There Gender Equity in Your Classroom? from the Student Reader. Assign one of the short articles, Gender and Teaching, Gender in Education Policy Support Project, Representation of Women in Advertisements to each student. Their job will be to summarize it for other students. A text set is available in the Student Reader.While readings in the set offer different perspectives, all support gender balance in keeping with government policy. Faculty who teach in areas where this is a difficult political issue should examine their own views and be prepared to help students confront their own misconceptions. The abstract from Gender in Education Policy Support Project, points out that even among educated professionals attending the training workshop, “Manyhave preconceived ideas of equating ‘gender mainstreaming with women’s development leading to the destruction of social norms and value system’.Undoubtedly many students will share this misconception.Review (5-10 min.) Instructor guides participants to review concepts from the previous class: How does the surrounding community influence children’s growth and development? How do different cultures, societies, or families shape child development? While the previous session covered how society and culture can lead to different developmental outcomes and inequalities for children, this class session will cover how schools and teachers can promote positive development for all.Individual reflection (5 min.)Have students write in their journals about two of the questions listed in the introduction to the text set on Gender Balance in the Student Reader:How do I feel about the issue being discussed?What are the stereotypes and misconceptions I bring to thinking about gender balance?Small Groups Share (15 min)Have students form small groups of 6-7 students based on the article they read. Each group should have at least two members who have read each article.Ask students to think about the classrooms they have observed/worked in. Are teachers aware of gender balance as an issue? In what ways do they show their awareness or lack of awareness?Use the list Causes of Inequity from the assigned article and think about whether they have seen instances of any of the items mentioned.Jigsaw (20 min.) Ask students to summarize the article to share with peers who did not read it.Have students discuss the following question:Do the articles reflect needs/issues related to all or a part of Pakistani society?Move about during group work. Notice students who have strong opinions or are inflexible in their thinking about this issue.Summary (10 min.)Summarize key issues related to gender inequalities in child development, the role of inclusive education and the roles that schools and teachers can play in promoting equitable development.Option 2Assignment prior to class have all students read Gender Equity: Is There Gender Equity in Your Classroom? from the Student Reader. Assign one of the short articles, Dealing With Diversity, Gender in Education Policy Support Project, Representation of Women in Advertisements to each student. Individual reflection (10 min.)Students reflect on their past elementary school experiences and identify whether they were subjected to gender stereotyping either by the peers or teachers.How did it influence their motivation, and learning process.Textbook and Curriculum Analysis (30 min.)Students analyze the elementary curriculum and textbooks to identify instances of gender stereotyping and the context in which it influenced or altered gender conceptions. Class discussion (30min.):The participants engage in a dialogue on ways to eliminate gender stereotyping conceptions among classroom children. Give special emphasis to student motivation and learningEmphasize ways to utilize teaching strategies to promote inclusiveness.Alternative to Textbook and Curriculum Analysis: Text Against Text (40 min.) Have students form small groups of 6-7 students based on the article they read. Each group should have at least two members who have read each article.Give each group a complete text set from the Student Reader. Ask students to summarize the article to share with peers who did not read it.Analyse and compare the articles, referring to the following questions: How does the article portray the issue of gender balance?How realistic do you think it is to address the issue of gender balance in all schools in Pakistan?What barriers do schools face in trying to achieve gender balance?Which articles appeal to you most? Why?Move about during group work. Notice students who have strong opinions or are inflexible in their thinking about this issue.Summary (10 min.)Summarize key issues related to gender inequalities in child development, the role of inclusive education and the roles that schools and teachers can play in promoting equitable development.Week 15, session 43: Role of culture and society: influence of media Option 1:Assignment prior to class,1) have students collect a newspaper or magazine article or information from an internet website or article on children, diversity, and difference in Pakistan. 2) Keep a log in which they write down things they notice about how media surrounds children (e.g. children seeing posters or signs advertising things, children watching television). Media review (10 min) Participants bring a Participants share their newspaper/magazine article and log with a partner:. What do their logs tell them about the ways children and adolescents are exposed to media?What does the article or website say about children and diversity? How does the source show the role of media in the community/society/or culture and its effects on childrenSmall Group Analysis (50 min)Form groups into at least 5 groups of 5-6 members each. Have pairs go to separate groups. Make sure that you have at least one student in each group who has sufficient English proficiency to help with reading.Give each group one of the articles from the media text set:Media Influence on SocietyRole of the MediaTelevision Effects on ChildrenActivating Media to Combat Worst Forms of Child Labour in PakistanParenting the Digital GenerationAsk groups to use their discussion in the Media review as they analyse the text and consider the following questions:How does the writer support his/her opinion?What examples are most effective?Does the article reflect needs/issues related to all or a part of Pakistani society?Ambassadors After about 30 min. or when students have completed the reading part of group work, send 1 group member to each of the other groups so that all groups have at least one new member who has read the other articles. These members contribute to the discussion, referring to the article they read. Discuss:What challenges do teachers of children and adolescents face in dealing with media influence?Is there a “digital divide” in your community/region? (i.e. a division between families who have and do not have access to media, television, computers, mobile phones, i-pod and the like)What challenges does a “digital divide” present for teachers?Reflection Assignment Have students write in their journals and reflect on their reaction to the session. Option 2:Assignment Assign one of the short articles from the text set in the Student Reader to each student. Text Against Text (40 min.) Have students form small groups of 6-7 students based on the article they read. Each group should have at least one member who have read each article.Give each group a complete text set from the Student Reader. Ask students to use information from their article to contribute to analysis and discussion of questions.Analyse and compare the articles, referring to the following questions: How do the articles portray the issue of media influence?What challenges do teachers of children and adolescents face in dealing with media influence?Is there a “digital divide” in your community/region? (i.e. a division between families who have and do not have access to media, television, computers, mobile phones, i-pod and the like)What challenges does a “digital divide” present for teachers?Move about during group work. Notice students who struggle with the reading and assist as needed.Small Groups Design a Brochure (20-25 min.) Organize students into mixed groups according to the age they think they will want to teach. (Or have students remain in the groups they were in for the previous activity.)Assign them to make an informational brochure about children and the media, using ideas from the readings and class discussions.Have the group choose the target audience:guide for teachers guide for community members highlighting their role in understanding the effects of media and being advocates for responsible mediaEach brochure should includeEffects of different kinds of mediaSuggestions for different age groupsGroups post their brochure on the Graffiti WallWeek 15, session 44: Role of school, peers, and teachersAssignment for both Options prior to class: The Classroom Environment as “Another Teacher”Option 1:Lecture (20 min.) Talk about the impact that schools have on child development and gives examples of how both physical environment and teaching styles the learning process.Include the main points from the reading on creating the right environment.Brainstorming and Illustrating Key Ideas (20 min)Students form small groups and give each a piece of chart paper and markers/crayons.Using ideas from the class reading and their classroom observations,Illustrate ways to develop environments of the schools and classrooms that are conducive to learning, on the charts. Use graphic organizers, pictures or phrases.Gallery Walk and Class Discussion (20 min.)Take a Gallery Walk with students to look at their posters.Use the opportunity to summarize the key elements that constitute a conducive school and classroom environment for effective learning.Option 2:Class discussion and Brainstorming (10 min.) Appoint two students to write down ideas that are given on the board or chart paper.Ask: In what ways does the school influence child development?How does the classroom influence child development?What are some ideas for creating a positive environment for child development that were mentioned in the assigned reading? Instead of writing in their journals, you might have each student draw a classroom map with call-outs or balloons giving specific details such as teaching style, how they will promote diversity and the like.Elaborate and add to the list as necessary.Dream classroom (15-20 min.) Participants write a journal entrydescribing what the environment and teaching style would be like in their dream classroom to promote positive cognitive, emotional, and social growth for children (choose either preprimary, primary, or adolescent class).Share with partners (10 min.) Participants share their journal (or map) with a partner and discuss how their narratives are similar or different and why.Summary (10-15 min.) Review key points about the connection between classroom environment and child development.Point out that the government commitment to promoting active learning reflects understanding of the vital connection between how and what children learn.Week 15, session 45: Influence of teachers and peersOption 1Individual Reflection (10 min.)Students write about their memories of teachers. Take 5 min. to write about 1) a favorite teacher and 5 min to with about 2) a teacher they dislikedDescribe the teacher. What were the attributes of that teacher? Relate characteristics with their style of teaching, especially their styles of communication and social interaction with students.How did the teacher contribute in your learning and intellectual growth?Triads Share (10 min.)Students meet in groups of 3 to compare teachers.What generalizations can they make, based on their own descriptions, about things that teachers do to promote child development and that hinder child development?Lecture(20min)Invite students to compare their generalizations to your comments in the lecture.Describe Erickson’s characteristics of a good teacher (See Expanded Essential Knowledge for Unit VI, Appendix A.) Instructor then introduces idea of self-fulfilling prophesies in students based on teachers expectation. (See Expanded Essential Knowledge for Unit VI, Appendix A.)Class Brainstorming and Discussion (20 min)Ask: What influence do peers have on student learning?Appoint two or three recorders to list ideas that come up.Invite students to brainstorm based on their own experience.After students have offered a list of suggestions, ask: what place has peer influence had on your learning in this course? Accept all responsesAsk: what is the teacher’s role in mediating peer influence?Option 2:Assignment prior to the session ask students to 1) Collect small objects from the environment (e.g. scraps of cloth, magazine pictures, words or phrases clipped from magazines or newspapers, leaves, small sticks) that they can use in creating a symbol for their experiences with teachers and other students. They will be given more detail in class. 2) Read the student paper, The Influence of Teachers from the Student Reader.Individual Reflection (15-20 min.)Give students a variety of craft and “junk” materials to supplement what they have brought (e.g. packing material from boxes, soda straws, toothpicks, glue).Ask each student to create some kind of symbol that represents the influence that teachers and other students had on their elementary school experience. Remind them that this is not an artistic competition, but an activity of representing their experience.Ask them to include both positive and negative experiences.Provide note cards or paper strips and have each student write a brief explanation of their symbol so that other students can understand it during the Gallery Walk to follow.Gallery Walk (10 min.)Have students visit as many displays as time permits and look for:Common features in the experiences people have hadBalance of good/bad experiencesMini-Lecture (15 min.)Ask: What are some general statements we might make about the influence of peers, based on our own experiences? Take 2-3 responses.What are some general statements we might make about the influence of teachers?Take 2-3 responses.Describe Erickson’s characteristics of a good teacher. Instructor then introduces idea of self-fulfilling prophesies in students based on teachers expectation. Small Group Discussion (10-15 min.)Give groups a copy of the student paper, The Influence of Teachers from the Student Reader.Ask them to reflect on the paper. Given what you know about child development, what other theorists would you suggest that the student include in her discussion about the role of the teacher in child development?If you were going to write a short paper on the influence of peers, what would be your key points? What theorists would you draw on.Week 16, session 46: Involving ParentsAssignment for both Options: prior to class, read Involving Parents in the Student Reader. Ask students to bring their copy to class.Option 1:Concept Formation Groups (30 min.) Form small groups of 4-6 membersGive each group a set of the following labels from the article Involving Parents.Nurturing the Child’s Learning NeedsReviewing the Child’s Performance at SchoolDeveloping the Child’s Language SkillsIntroducing Learning at HomeParticipation in School EventsThe lack of planning and mutual understanding between teachers and family members.School’s failure to value the contribution of families.Family’s misunderstanding of the school and classroom program.Family’s lack of interest in what is happening at school.Ask groups to look at the labels and group them into at least 2 categories and to be able to explain their grouping.After about 10 min. ask the groups to report on their categories. Accept all decisions. There is no one way to categorize them, but all categories should be reasonable.After all groups have reported, and if no group has already mentioned it, explain that some of them are headings in the article they read for class. Others represent barriers to family participation. Ask: What connection is there between family parenting practices and family participation in a child’s schooling? Take as many opinions as time permits.Reading (15 min.) Instructor reviews the four types of child raising practices and how they affect child development. Not only do caregivers affect how children learn and grow, but their involvement in school is also important (transition to next activity). Poster session (20 min.) Participants work in small groups of 4-5 to design an informational poster for family members describing how they can become involved in their child’s education. Gallery walk (20 min.) Groups will hang their posters around the room and view other posters made by the other groups. The instructor will debrief the activity, highlighting why caregivers should be involved in their children’s education and reviewing the ways families can be active. Class discussion (5 min.)Instructor will ask participants and review what teachers and schools can do to encourage family involvement.Option 2:Lecture (10 min.)Instructor reviews the four types of child raising practices and how they affect child development. Caregivers affect how children learn and grow and their involvement in school is important (transition to next activity).Group role play preparation (20 min.) Participants work in groups of 2-3 to prepare a short role play of less than 5 min. The roles are a teacher and student caregiver (parent or other family member). In the role play, the teacher discusses with the family member(s) how he or she can be more involved in the child’s education.Role play presentation (20 min.) Instructor randomly chooses around 4-5 groups to share their role play with the class. Although all groups will not present their role play, instructor will ask class for other ideas that could be included at the end of the presentations.Think, pair, share (10 min.) Instructor asks participant to think and discuss with a neighbour of how teachers can make sure families take part in their children’s education. Participants share their ideas with the group and instructor summarizes key strategies for partnering with families.Week 16, session 47: Unit ReviewIf students are to be examined in English they will need experience taking exams in English. You may want them to do this review essay in Urdu or the language most comfortable for them, then take it home and practice writing it in English.Option 1:Essay Exam (20 min.) Have students to write an essay in which they discuss the question: How do community, culture and society interact in child development? Encourage them to time their responses to each item, taking no more than 3 min. per topic so there will be a few minutes to review the final paper.Include a brief discussion of:Role of nuclear and extended familyGender BalanceInfluence of MediaRole of school and the school environmentRole of peers and Teachers CollegeRole of parents as partners with Teachers CollegePeer Review (40 min.)Have students meet in groups of 3-4, putting a mixture of strong and weaker students together. Groups discuss their responses to each question and note places where they are not clear or need more information.Question/Answer and Summary (10 min.)As time permits, take questions from groups.Provide tips on how to take an essay exam.Encourage students to take their exams home and check them against their readings and class notes. Option 2:Small Group Review (20 min.)Organize students into at least 6 small groups. Include a mix of stronger and weaker students in each group, to the extent possible. Give each group one of the following topics discussed in the unit:Role of nuclear and extended familyGender BalanceInfluence of MediaRole of school and the school environmentRole of peers and Teachers CollegeRole of parents as partners with Teachers CollegeAsk the group to prepare a summary of important ideas and issues learned in studying the topic.Group Presentation and Critique (30 min.)Each group has 4-5 min. to present its summary.Take about 2 min. for student questions/critique. Deal with misconceptions or refer the class back to readings or classnotes. Week 16, session 3: Course reflection and reviewIf students have completed a child study or portfolios, you may want to reserve this session for student presentations. You can help them to review the course as they respond to presentations of the child study or portfolios. You may also want to prepare a summary sheet listing the major topics covered in each unit and key points for them to review.Option 1:Review Game (20-30 min.) Instructor prepares a question and answer game for students. Students work in teams and score points for each correct question. Questions can require students to name a theorist, describe a development issue, give examples relating development to practice, etc. Question/Answer (20-25 min.)Have students write down questions about concepts, theorists, or issues they are unclear about following the review game.Collect the questions. Read each in turn (set aside duplicate questions) and invite any student to answer/or provide an answer or resource for finding the answer. Reflection and Feedback (10 min.) Instructor asks students to reflect on the course of the semester and provide feedback on the following questions: What did you learn that changed the way you think about child development?What ideas will you take from this course and use in your classroom practice? What suggestions do you have for the instructor in teaching this course for students in the next year?Option 2:Class Discussion (15 min.) Instructor guides the class to think and reflect on the course, using the following guiding questions: What did you learn that changed the way you think about child development?What ideas will you take from this course and use in your classroom practice?What questions do you still have about child development in general or as it relates to teaching? Instruction should encourage everyone to share a few of their ideas with the class. Quiz (15 min.)Prepare a short answer/multiple choice quiz going over key concepts in the course.Give students 15 min. to complete the quiz. (Note the above comment on exams in English vs. Urdu and determine which will most benefit your students in terms of learning the key concepts. Quiz Review (20 min)Go over the quiz with students, discussing correct answers and readings/resources they will need to review for their examinations.Feedback (10 min.) Students write a short, anonymous letter addressed to the instructor addressing what they liked most about the course, one central understanding they have learned, and suggestions for how they would improve the course. OPTIONS FOR ADDITIONAL LESSONS IN UNIT VITeacher’s influence on student motivationSuggested reading: Motivating Children to LearnOption 1:3-2-1 (15 min.) Participants write 3 things that they have learned from the reading on motivation, 2 things that they found especially interesting, and 1 question that they have for the class or instructor. Participants share what they wrote with a partner, and then review concepts and ask their questions to the class.Group work (15 min.) Participants work in small groups and review the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Participants should give an explanation each, the benefits of each kind of motivation, and several examples for each type. Groups should organize their ideas on a poster or large sheet of paper to hang up and share with the class.Class discussion (15 min.) What can teachers do to engage students and encourage motivation for learning? What are things teachers can say or do to praise a learner? What are things?teachers should not say or do in the classroom because they will make students not want to participate? Participants should share ideas and write them on the blackboard.Unit Review (15 min.) Instructor reviews the major concepts, understandings, and themes of the unit.Option 2:Think, pair, share (10 min.) Participants reflect on the reading and write a paragraph for how to best motivate a child in the class (choose preprimary, primary, or adolescent students). Participants share their ideas with a partner and then the class. Lecture (20 min.) Instructor explains the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and age appropriate strategies of motivation for the classroom.Observation journal reflection (15 min.) Students work in groups to share reflections from their classroom observation journal and specifically highlight strategies and practices of teachers for discipline, classroom management, and motivation used. Unit review (15 min.) Instructor reviews the major concepts, understandings, and themes of the unit.Discipline versus PunishmentSuggested reading:Discipline is better than PunishmentEnsuring Desired Behaviour in Young Children from the Student ReaderOption 1:Group Brainstorming (15 min.) Drawing from the readings, instructor guides participants to list characteristics of discipline v. punishment. Brainstorming should also include pros and cons for each. Instructor or participants can list different characteristics in a table on the blackboard.Instructor uses the opportunity to correct misconceptions and/or provide additional information.Case Studies (20 min.) Prepare one or two case descriptions of children who misbehave in the classroom and the teacher’s response to use as case studies. (Alternatively, you can ask students to bring a description of a child who is misbehaving to use in class. Provide guidelines for writing up their description.)Form small groups to read and discuss the classroom management strategy of a teacher described in the case. Participants should discuss and prepare to present: How does the teacher use discipline or punishment in the scenario? What discipline practices are appropriate for the child development phase? Which practices are potentially harmful?Groups Exchange and Sharing (15 min.) Divide each group in half and exchange members with another group.Members from each group have about 7 min. to present their case study and helpful or harmful practices for discipline and classroom management from the case. Summary (10-15 min.)Have students take 1 min to write a Know/Want to Know list.Lead a discussion on reactions to the class, remaining questions.Option 2:Active Lecture (15 min.) Talk about difference between punishment and discipline, why it is important to child development, and age appropriate strategies for disciplining children.Chunk your comments into two min. segments with time for students to compare notes or ask questions between the two.Group work (20 min.)–Participants review the readings and compile a list of ideas for positive discipline in the classroom and classroom management. Give students a case study (see Option 1) and ask them to think about positive disciplinary measures that would help the teacher deal with the situation. OrAsk students to prepare a presentation (poster session, power point) for teachers that will help them to understand and use positive discipline rather than punishment with children.Groups exchange (15 min.) Each group shares presentation another group.Summary (5-10 min.)Ask students to identify key concepts in the sessionSummarize as needed.Appendix AExpanded Outline of Essential KnowledgeAppendix BUsing Tests as Assessment Activities Appendices APPENDIX AExpanded Outline of Essential Knowledge for the CourseThe Instructor may use to wish excerpts from the outline below to create additional readings or handouts for students. The language may need to be modified for readers who are unaccustomed to reading in English, as will be many entering pre-service students. The outline is organized by unit.Unit I Summary of Essential Knowledge Introduction to Child DevelopmentThe first unit will provide students with an overview of the course and the key models, theorists, and debates in child development. The summary below is background for the Instructor. If time does not permit study of all theories listed in the Guide, the Instructor should select representative theories to illustrate a range of views on child development.Learning a number of theories is less important than learning that theories inform thoughtful practice. Therefore, this unit should not be extended at the expense of other units.Understanding Growth and Development as a Holistic ProcessTheories of child development represent different perspectives on the growing personChild development theories are an organized set of principles, designed to explain and predict somethingOver the years a variety of theories have been offered by psychologists and researchersTheories usually explain different aspects of child development (ex - social or cognitive)No one theory explains all aspects of child growth and developmentA good theory permits educated guesses - or hypotheses - about aspects of development that are not yet clearly understood and provides the basis for future researchComparing and contrasting theories allow us to identify their strengths and limitationsTeachers have their own ideas or theories about development and these influence how they interpret children’s needs and behaviourMost people are influenced by a variety of theories rather than one specific theory.There are several primary child development perspectives that will be explored in the introduction and throughout the course: psychoanalytic models, behaviourism, social learning, and cognitive models. (Instructors interested in moral development may want to add a unit on Kohlberg with the caution that his theory has been criticized for being too western and too male-biased. Information on Kohlberg and critiques is readily available on line.)Prospective teachers will benefit from an introduction to developmental theory, but the emphasis throughout the course is not on theories, but on implications for classroom mon misconceptions prospective teachers have about child developmentTeachers in training are likely to enter their training with some or all of these common misconceptions about child development and how it interacts with human learning. The Instructor needs to be aware of them and constantly search for ways to help prospective teachers confront and critique them.Human learning:The child is an empty vessel/blank slate into which the teacher pours knowledgeCoverage of a broad set of key concepts in a discipline is essential (breadth v depth)Memorization of key concepts/facts demonstrates learning (v. deep understanding and ability to apply information in new situations)Teachers should teach to the average student and try to help students who are faster and aren’t getting it to the extent that they can (v. differentiation of instruction)Developmental theory:Development is fixed and invariant across cultures (v culturally situated)Theory tells us what children can and should do at different ages and stages (v a description of possibilities)Intelligence is fixedPsycho-Social Development ModelsErikson’s Psycho-Social TheoryErik Erikson is an example of a psycho-social theorist. He followed Freud’s theory, but altered it. He is best known for his theories on the stages of human development, from infancy to old age. Erikson says that humans, in particular, children, experience a series of life stages that correspond with a crisis. The way that an individual resolves (or fails to resolve) the crisis affects their overall social, psychological, and cognitive development. Each crisis involves a goal or ‘virtue’ that acts as the intended goal of that stage.Erikson’s stages of play also provides teachers with a way of thinking about continuing needs of pre-school and elementary school children for rich learning environments.Autocosmic (birth -18 months) This is self-play, infant plays with hands, feet, makes and plays with ways of making sounds, gaining mastery over one’s own body and discovering one is separate from othersMicrocosmic (18 months – 3-4 years) - Engagement with the world of small toys; including noses, hair, glasses of caregivers as a toy; play is used act out emotions, explore limits of rules, and gain mastery over the worldMacrocosmic (4 onward) Engagement world of large toys and tools shared with others, one is part of a social world.Erikson theorized that infant moves from autocosmic to macrocosmic, but throughout life, individuals have the need for engaging in each form of play. At times we need to be alone with ourselves, to meditate, to reflect—a drama is occurring within the player. At other times we need to engage in play, alone with things—to cook, to play ball, to move things around—a drama is occurring with small objects. At other times we want to engage in activities with others, share a meal, play ball with friends, sing together or work together around some activity—a social drama is occurring.Developmental Stages from Birth to Adolescence:Trust vs. MistrustKey virtue: HopeAge group: Infants (0-1 years old)Major developmental task: learn if they can depend on people to satisfy their basic needsIf exposed to constant and dependable warmth, affection, sustenance, infant will become trusting; if parents are neglectful, infant will develop mistrust early on.Autonomy vs. Shame/DoubtCrisis: “Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?”Key virtue: WillAge group: Toddlers (2-4 years old)As the child gains better motor abilities and physical and social functions, they begin to explore their surroundings with less help from caregiversCaregivers who encourage self-sufficient behaviour and let children venture out and perform tasks on their own will allow children to develop a sense of autonomy. Child is self-possessed, has initiative, and displays independence; caregivers who are highly restrictive, overly demanding, or prevent children from performing tasks they are capable of will instil the child with doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges. Child may develop shame and doubt; be unable to handle some problems. Children who form a strong security base from previous stage may be more likely to exhibit independenceBehaviour during this stage include tantrums, wilfulness, stubbornnessLearning initiative vs. GuiltCrisis: “Am I good or bad?”?Key virtue: PurposeAge group: “Play-age”/later pre-school (4-6 years old)Builds on previous stage- being autonomous and actively pursuing and completing tasksParents and teachers should encourage and support children’s efforts; help them start to make realistic and appropriate choicesHealthy development involves learning: 1. Imagination, broadening skills through active play and fantasy; 2. Cooperation with peers; 3. How to lead and how to followPoor development immobilizes child from guilt. Child exhibits: 1. Fearfulness; 2. Hanging on to the social fringes; 3. Continuing to depend unduly on adults; 4. Restriction in development of play skills and in imaginationDuring this stage, child may exhibit risk taking behaviours (ex. crossing a street alone); negative behaviours related to frustration about not achieving goals, aggression, ruthlessness, over-assertion toward parents, throwing, hitting, and yelling.Industry vs. inferiorityCrisis: “How can I be good?”Key virtue: CompetenceAge group: Primary/Elementary school (Ages 6-12)Children are mastering formal life skills: Relating with peers according to rules, progressing from free play to structured play (ex. sports); developing self-discipline through homework; beginning to recognize moral values and cultural and individual differenceCritical stage for developing self-confidenceWant to work hard and be responsible; want to ‘be good’ and do good things; start to independently share and cooperateHealthy development depends on parents and teachers to encourage industrious associations and recognize and praise accomplishments through creative production (drawing pictures, solving math problems)Results in better sense of diligence, perseverance, putting aside pleasure for workUnhealthy development from being ridiculed or excessively punished or put down; results in child doubting their capabilities and what they can accomplish in the future; feelings of isolation. Residual feelings of shame and guilt from previous stages now leading to feelings of defeat and inferiority (“I’ll never be good enough for their expectations”)Learning Identity vs. Identity DiffusionCrisis: “Who am I?” “Where am I going?”Key virtue: FidelityAge group: Adolescence (ages 13-19)“Identity crisis” (coined by Erikson):Until this point, child formed many identifications but now is finding out who they are, what their place is in this world; highly influenced by peersReconciling how a person has turned out to be, and how society expects them to be“Psycho-social moratorium”: a period of experimentation and exploration; “finding yourself”Implications for EducationChildren need support for resolving developmental tasks. For example, a child who has not been able to develop trusting relationships with adults at home may have difficulty trusting his or her teachers. They will need to experience the teacher as trustworthy. Children also need classroom environments that provide opportunity for private thinking, interaction with materials, and social interaction.Behaviourism and Socio-cultural ModelsBehaviourismBehaviourism, also known as the learning perspective, proposes that all things that people do, from acting to thinking and feeling, can be regarded as behaviours. Learning becomes a key element and biological factors are only important as a basic foundation. This perspective is separate from the psychoanalysis perspective and studies behaviour instead of constructs of the mind. Two main theorists who hold this perspective are Watson and Skinner.Watson believed that directly observable events - stimuli and responses - should be the focus of study, not the internal constructs of the mind. Watson thought that children could be taught to develop in any way adults wanted if they controlled the stimulus-response associations.Watson’s historic experiment - classical conditioning in children’s behaviourWatson conducted an experiment on Albert, a 9 month old baby, and taught him to fear a neutral stimulus, a white rat, by playing a loud, frightening sound whenever the rat appeared. At first, Albert was curious and wanted to play with the rat, afterwards a result of the conditioning with the noise, he cried whenever he saw the rat.Skinner also proposed conditioning theory that reinforcement and punishment forms children’s behaviour. A child’s behaviour can be encouraged by following it with a wide variety of reinforcers, such as praise, a friendly smile, or a new toy. Other behaviours can be discouraged by punishments such as withdrawal of privileges or disapproval. CriticismsMaking something happen by conditioning children does not mean that these principles provide a complete account of development in natural contextsSome believe that behaviourism offers too narrow a conception of important environmental influences.Behaviourism underestimates the extent to which children actively contribute to their own development.Social Learning TheoryThis theory accepted principles of conditioning and reinforcement of earlier behaviourists and built upon these principals. They also considered inner motivational factors and challenged the assumption that learning represents a change in behavior. Bandura is associated with social learning theory. Alfred Bandura thought that observational learning and modelling is the basis for a wide variety of children’s behaviour, such as aggression, helping, sharing, or gender responses. Children acquire skills in the absence of direct rewards and punishment by watching and listening to others around them. Social learning theory outlines three requirements for people to learn and model behaviour which include: retention (remembering what one observed), reproduction (ability to reproduce the behaviour), and motivation (good reason) to want to adopt the behaviour. Bandura later introduced more cognitive elements to his theory by of his focus on motivational factors, rather than just environmental factors. His idea that families and teachers should promote the social-efficacy of the child is very important in education. Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation and is a powerful influence in how people think, behave, and feel.Implication for EducationBehaviour modification is often used with children who have behavioural problem. It refers to a set of practical procedures that combines reinforcement, modelling, and manipulation of situational cues to eliminate children’s undesirable behaviours and increase their adoption of socially acceptable responses. Teachers who promote the child’s feeling of self-efficacy will help the child to take risks and try out new ideas. Teachers can promote self-efficacy through setting up environments that are age appropriate and welcoming to children, accepting that every child has something important to offer and every child can learn, using methods of teaching that allow children to experience success and gain confidence.Socio-Cultural theory, Leo VygotskyCentral to his theory was that all human development is responsive to and influenced by social context and is the result of the interactions between children and their social environment. For Vygotsky, social interaction preceeds development. Consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior. Social context and environment can include interactions with parents, teacher, friends, and sibling and with objects such as books and toys. Children are active in making in these interactions, constructing knowledge, skills, and attitudes and not just copying the world around them. Language is critical; people use social/cultural tools such as speech and writing to mediate their environment. The zone of proximal developmentVygotsky developed this idea to address a child’s development in relation to certain concepts or abilities, specifically those a child had begun to develop but had not mastered. He refers here to an understanding or skill that was a “bud” or “flower” rather than a fully developed “fruit” in his metaphor. It is this stage of development that the teacher should seek to nurture and develop, helping a child to realize understandings and abilities.Implications for EducationVygotsky’s theory is considered one of the foundations of constructivist theory in education. Support of language development and helping to build bridges from the known to the unknown through a rich, interactive learning environment will support children’s learning. Cognitive ModelsCognitive models of child development focus on growth of mind. The emphasis is on children’s logical thinking processes and how they change over time. Children play an active role in their own developmentPiaget’s Cognitive ModelJean Piaget is the most known cognitive development theorist. His research is known around the world and is very broad, touching on emotional development, peer relationships, moral reasoning, and cognitive development. Piaget was most interested in how knowledge develops in people as a biological process, studying the brain and how it processes information. In his theory, development takes place in distinct stages of cognitive development. Piaget believed that intellectual development proceeds in an orderly sequence that is characterized by specific growth stages. The role of the environment is to provide information Some information can be assimilated into the child’s existing way of thinking about the world (mental structure). Other information forces changes in the child’s mental structure in order for new experiences to be added. In this way, the child’s thinking processes develop. All children are said to progress through all stages regardless of environmental influences. Key concepts and principles for Piaget’s theory of child development:Children are active and motivated learners. They are naturally curious about the world around them.Children organize what they learn from their experiences and construct a view of how the world operates by observations. These things that children learn are organized in schema – or groups of similar thoughts. Later, these schemes become part of larger mental processes, or operations. Children adapt to their environment through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when people deal with a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme. When new events or objects are unfamiliar, people use accommodation or modify or create a new scheme. Interaction with the physical environment and with other people is critical for cognitive developmentChildren think in qualitatively different ways at different age levels or in stagesPiaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive-Development: Sensorimotor development (0-2 years). The infant exercises rudimentary sensory and motor awareness and functions almost exclusively by means of reflexive responses. Preoperational thought (2-7 years). The child demonstrates an increase in language abilities and concepts become more elaborate. However, the child can only view the world from its own perspective (egocentrism). Concrete operations (7-11 years). The ability to consider the viewpoints of others and understand relational concepts is evident. However, the child cannot solve problems of an abstract nature. Formal operations (11-15). Abstract thinking is now possible and scientific problem-solving strategies emerge. Bruner’s Cognitive TheoryBruner talks about how human beings are constantly forming categories. Categories are how we organize what we learn. He describes three modes of representation: enactive representation (physical activity-based) or concrete thinking, iconic representation (image-based) or semi-concrete thinking, and symbolic representation (language-based) or abstract thinking. Bruner does not propose ages and stages in the way Piaget describes growth. Ability to engage in modes of representation is only loosely associated with age. Bruner suggested that even young children can learn complex material if the instruction is organized in a way that allows progression from concrete to abstract. He is often thought of as the father of constructivist education. Scaffolding A scaffold is a temporary framework that is put up for support as a structure is being built. Bruner first suggested that scaffolding occurs in early language learning. Parents seem to know intuitively how to scaffold their children’s attempts in communicating. A child may not be able to articulate or explore learning independently and the teacher provides ways of handling the task that support greater independence, for example: materials, a problem to work out, key questions, an outline, an interesting task. Implications for EducationFollowing Piaget’s theory, teachers should:Give students opportunities to experiment with physical objects such as water, sand, balls, going on nature walks, colour paints. Adolescent students can experiment with science lab equipment, cameras, food and cooking tools.Help students reason through giving problem solving tasks and deep questions. Remember the four stages when developing lesson plans to help guide thinkingPresent new situations that challenge students to rethink their current understandingsPlan group activities so that students can share their beliefs and perspectives with one another. Bruner’s theory suggests:When facing new material a student can follow a progression from concrete to abstract and achieve success.Teachers should provide scaffolding for students to differentiate instruction by using concrete, semi-concrete and abstract examples and materials in their teaching.Children benefit from experiences that allow them to categorize information through use of materials as well as ideas.Key Issues and Controversies (3 debates)Nature vs. Nurture - Nature refers to genetic influences on growth and functioning. Some of these influences appear in almost all members of the species; for instance, almost all children have natural talents for upright mobility (walking, running), language, and the use of simple tools. Other genetic characteristics differ from one person to another; for example, people’s physical appearance and athletic ability vary widely. Such psychological traits as temperament (for example, being shy or outgoing), aggression, and intelligence may also be partly influenced by genes. Such types of characteristics are not always perceived at birth. Many come about slowly by maturation. Although certain basic kinds of environmental support, such as food, are necessary for maturation, a person’s genes provide powerful instructions for certain changes to occur despite a wide range of environmental factors.Nature’s equal partner is nurture, the influence of factors in children’s environments. Nurture includes the effects of family, peers, schools, neighbourhoods, culture, the media, and the society in which people live. It affects children’s development by many ways- physically through nutrition and opportunities for activity, knowledge-wise through experience and instruction, socially through adult role models and friendships, etc. Historically, the relative influences of nature versus nurture have caused much debate among developmental theorists; you will find many instances during this course. But increasingly, those who study development are beginning to realize that nature and nurture are connected in ways that we can probably never separate apart. The relative effects of heredity and environment vary for different categories of development. For example, many traits related to seeing and hearing appear to be genetic. On the other hand, development in school subjects and strong ability in athletics or artistic ability appear to be brought about by environment.Inherited characteristics may cause children to be more strongly impacted by environmental influences. For example, children who are by nature quite why may stay this way if they live in a situation with few social contacts.Some environmental experiences play a greater role at some ages than others. For example, children seem to master the grammar of a language better if they are exposed before age 4.Universality vs. context-specific - Some changes occur in just about everyone, this reflects a degree of universality in development. For example, unless disabilities are present, all young children learn to sit, crawl, walk and run in that order. Other changes are highly individualistic, reflecting a context-specific nature. For example, children differ in strength and the ability to keep running fast as they engage in physical activity. Some theorists propose that genetics lead to universality. Others say that children acquire similar ways of thinking about the world because, despite their unique interactions with objects and people, they are all likely to see similar things occur (objects always fall down rather than up, people often get angry when something is grabbed away from them, etc.). Continuity vs. discontinuity - Sometimes development comes in sudden, dramatic changes in behaviour or thinking; reflecting discontinuity, or discontinuous change. For example, when children learn to run, they move their bodies forward in a way that is very different from walking. When they begin to talk in two-word sentences rather than with single words, they are, for the first time, using beginner forms of grammar that restricts the ways in which they combine words. More often, however, development occurs as a gradual process, with many small additions to behaviours and thought processes, reflecting continuity, or continuous change. Theorists’ fascination with discontinuous change is reflected in their tendencies to identify development in “stages” or fixed periods of time during childhood and adolescence when changes occur. Often however, research doesn’t support theories of stages, at least not that they progress in a fixed, distinct way. Many children display traits of two or more different stages at the same time. At the same time, many researchers are hesitant to abandon the idea of stages because it is clear that children of different ages tend to think and act in extremely different ways. Approaches to Classroom Development – Differentiated InstructionAlthough this course will present stages of development that define what is considered ‘normal’ development, it is important to keep in mind that no child develops in exactly the same way. Some “difference” is normal. Children usually grow cognitively, socially, emotionally and physically at different rates. Of course, some children develop outside of normal limits and education works to accommodate those children as well. Given the varied strengths (and weaknesses) of children and young adults in the realities of classroom practice, schools must be prepared to consider student differences.There are several models that can help teachers work with differences in the classroom. For example, a school might decide to provide the same instruction to all children. This usually involves teaching to the whole class at once. It might be particularly useful in very large classrooms with a single teacher, but it doesn’t really address the different development and abilities that students bring to the classroom. Many active learning models are suitable for large as well as small classrooms. Another model is the tracking model. Here students are grouped by ability, and often by ability within different subjects. Each group then follows a different “track” or path depending on their level. The inclusive education model is emphasized in the course. This model aims to include students of different abilities in the same classroom. Often, students with disabilities are also included, which leads to a large range of abilities in the classroom. The teacher works to shape the classroom into a cohesive, integrated social whole, but one in which the different needs of students are addressed.How can teachers help meet the needs of diverse learners in an inclusive setting? One strategy for doing this is differentiated instruction. Differentiated instruction aims to build classrooms that target different learning needs effectively. It does this by adapting content, varying the types of activities used and using diverse instructional methods that support a variety of different learning needs and abilities.Differentiated instruction can be defined as a set of practices that teachers adopt to address different learning levels, diverse backgrounds, and the varied academic strengths that individual students bring to the classroom.By differentiating instruction, teachers help all students to grow maximally.[1]Characteristics of differentiated classroomsThis model is meant to accommodate learner differences.It requires the teacher to be flexible in approaching the learning needs of different students.The class might include instances of whole class instruction as well as group or individual instruction.This approach assumes that it is important to vary instructional methods and that the choice of methods should be based on the needs of a diverse student population, for example, by thinking about student abilities, interests and prior knowledge.Figure 1 below expresses some of the considerations that teachers must make when planning differentiated instruction. It is intended for Instructor Information and is not included in the Student Reader.2[1] Adapted from Tomlinson, C. (1999). The differentiated classroom: responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.[2] Taken from Hall, T. (2009). Differentiated instruction and implications for UDL. Wakefield: National Center on Accessible Instructional Materials. Retrieved from 1, Figure 1Learning Cycle and Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated InstructionImage description:This graphic organizer is entitled "Learning Cycle and Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated Instruction" and is made up of a series of seven labeled boxes connected by arrows. Two boxes, one on top of the other, are joined together at the center of the graphic organizer within a blue background. The box at the top is labeled "Content: what teacher plans to teach." The box at the bottom is labeled "Process: How teacher: Plans instruction; Whole class; Groups/Pairs; Individually."To the left of these two boxes are two smaller boxes, also one on top of the other. The box at the top is labeled "Curriculum: State and Local Standards and Benchmarks." The box at the bottom is labeled "Student: Readiness/Ability; Interests/Talents; Learning profile; Prior knowledge." A black line connects these two boxes to each other and a black arrow points from the center of this line to the two boxes in the center of the graphic organizer. A small box at the bottom left is labeled "Pre-Assessment" and a black arrow points from it to the box labeled "Student."To the right of the two center boxes with the blue background is a box labeled "Assessment of content: Product." A black, double-sided arrow points to it and to the two center boxes. On the far right, a box labeled "Summative evaluation" is connected to the box labeled "Product" with a black line. Black arrows point from the bottom of the boxes labeled "Product" and "Summative evaluation" to the bottom of the graphic organizer. A horizontal black line goes across the bottom of the graphic organizer. Two arrows point from it to the two center boxes and to the two boxes on the left. Retrieved from: II Summary of Essential Knowledge for the Instructor Early Childhood DevelopmentThis unit will discuss three early stages of child development: infant, toddler, and preschool age. Students will explore these stages of development through a variety of teaching and learning pedagogies and theories. Reading materials will be used to discuss and analyse growth for the pre-primary age child. There may be more material in this unit that the Instructor can reasonably expect to cover. Understanding of early development is important for teachers of elementary school age children and adolescents. They need to recognize precursors to later development and continuing needs of the growing person. However, if time does not permit full development of the unit, focus on pre-school development and skip infant and toddler development. While understanding infant development is useful, it is not as crucial for the teacher as an understanding of pre-schoolers, whose needs, skills and interests may not be unlike those of many younger elementary children and, in many cases, older children.Unit Introduction and Infant DevelopmentInfants (Birth to 12 months)Infancy is the beginning of a human life outside the mother’s womb and this is the time of significant “first” developments: a child’s first breath, first cry, first smile, and by the end of infancy most children have their first walking steps. Infant development influences the later stages of development and being able to understand infant growth and development prepares us to give the best care to the infant and to the upbringing of the child.While this material represents stages chronologically with age ranges, it is important to note that infant development is rapid and may be different with each unique child. Developmental “ages and stages” are descriptive of what children tend to do, not prescriptive of what every child should do.Birth to 4 monthsPhysical developmentAverage Weight: 10-18 pounds, Length: 23-27 inchesSleeps about 6 hours before waking during the night and sleeps 14-17 hours daily.Lifts its head and chest when lying on stomach, and holds both eyes in a fixed position; follows a moving object or person with eyes, grasps rattle or finger, wiggles and kicks with arms and legsCan roll over (stomach to back), and sits with support.Cognitive developmentExplores objects with mouthPlays with fingers, hands, and toesReacts to sound of a voice, rattle, bell, Turns head toward bright colours and lightsRecognizes bottle or breastShows distress if toy is taken awaySqueals, laughs, babbles, smiles in response, likes to be tickled and touched, and smiles at own reflection in mirrorSocial and emotional developmentBaby cries to communicate pain, fear, discomfort, or loneliness; babbles or coosLoves to be touched and held close, responds to a shaking rattle or bell, returns a smileResponds to peek-a-boo games5 to 8 monthsPhysical developmentAverage Weight: 14-23 pounds, Length: 25-30 inches.First teeth begin to appear.Infant drools, mouths, and chews on objectsReaches for cup or spoon when being fed, drinks from a cup with helpEnjoys some finely chopped, solid foods, closes mouth firmly or turns head when no longer hungry.Child may sleep 11-13 hours at night although this varies greatly and needs 2-3 naps during the day.Child develops a rhythm for feeding, eliminating, sleeping, and being awakeOther physical developments include: true eye colour is established, rolls from back to stomach and stomach to back, sits alone without support and holds head erect, raises up on arms and knees into crawling position, rocks back and forth, but may not move forward, uses finger and thumb to pick up an object, transfers objects from one hand to the other, and hair growth begins to cover head.Cognitive developmentChild cries in different ways to say he or she is hurt, wet, hungry, or lonelyRaises arms as a sign to be heldMakes noises to voice displeasure or satisfaction, recognizes and looks for familiar voices and soundsLearns by using senses like smell, taste, touch, sight, hearingFocuses eyes on small objects and reaches for themLooks for ball rolled out of sight, searches for toys hidden under a blanket, basket, or containerExplores objects by touching, shaking, banging, and mouthing, babbles expressively as if talking, enjoys dropping objects over edge of chair or cribSocial and emotional developmentYoung child responds to own name, shows fear of falling off high places such as table or stairsSpends a great deal of time watching and observingResponds differently to strangers and family membersImitates sounds, actions, and facial expressions made by othersRecognizes family member namesResponds to distress of others by showing distress or cryingShows mild to severe stress at separation from parent9 to 12 monthsPhysical developmentAverage Weight: 17-27 pounds, Length: 27-32 inchesChild Sleeps 11-13 hours at night but may still wake up during the night, take many naps at different hours of the day and nightBegins to refuse bottle or wean self from breast during dayNeeds at least 3 meals a day with 2 snacks in-between, enjoys drinking from a cup, begins to eat finger foodsContinues to explore every- thing by mouth, enjoys opening and closing cabinet doors, crawls wellPulls self to a standing position, stands alone holding onto furniture for support, and walks holding onto furniture or with adult helpCognitive developmentChild says first word, says da-da and ma-ma or equivalent“Dances” or bounces to musicInterested in picture booksPays attention to conversationsSlaps hands, waves bye, if prompted, and likes to place objects inside one anotherSocial and emotional developmentInfants learn largely by experiencing the environment through their senses (seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and feeling)?Copies adult actions such as drinking from a cup, talking on phoneResponds to nameLikes to watch self in mirrorExpresses fear or anxiety toward strangersWants caregiver or parent to be in constant sightOffers toys or objects to others, but expects them to be returnedMay become attached to a favourite toy or blanketPushes away something he or she does not wantTips for infant care:Provide interesting objects for the baby to mouth and explore (avoid easy to swallow toys and objects).Allow the baby to follow its own natural routine of eating, eliminating/soiling their diapers and sleep.Talk to your baby face to face, so that he or she can see you observe your facial expressions.Show bright coloured picture books and read to your baby.Encourage older infants to feed themselves.Allow the baby to move around and ensure safety.Respond consistently to your baby’s cries so that he or she develops trust and confidence.Toys for your baby:Toys boost learning skills and stimulate thinking and positive mental growthHands-on toys like puzzles and blocks stimulate promote hand-eye coordination and encourage problem-solving skillsBooks can be useful toys even if children cannot read yet. Pictures appeal to senses, and reading aloud to a child allows them to learn new words and meanings, and helps them learn how to express verbally.Blocks may be used to build mathematical and geometric skillsDolls and animals may be helpful for pretend play, where children can create their own stories and assign roles to charactersToddler Development The first year of a child’s development often ends with his or her first step. It is around this time that the child enters their “toddler” years (origin: Toddle (verb) – to walk with short and wobbly steps). Toddlerhood is characterized by a child transitioning from their first development stage to repetition of the development aspects to perfect it. “Toddlerhood has a dual orientation: toward maintaining attachment and toward exploring the world and self.” In this section the students will be exposed to the developmental stages of a toddler, and will get a bigger picture of a dynamic child development.Physical developmentWeight is now approximately 3 times the child's birth weightRespiration rate varies with emotional state and activityRate of growth slowsHead size increases slowly; grows approximately 1.3 cm every six months Chest circumference is larger than head circumferenceLegs may still appear bowedToddler will begin to lose the "Baby Fat" once he/she begins walkingBody shape changes; takes on more adult-like appearance; still appears top-heavy; abdomen protrudes, back is swayedSocial developmentA toddler’s egocentric view of the world, combined with their need to feel autonomous and in control, limits their ability to share or acknowledge others’ different intentions (16 to 3 years)Beginning understanding of reciprocity develops through play with peers (2- 3 years)Imitation of parental behaviour implicitly incorporates a beginning understanding of social expectations (2-3 years)Cognitive developmentIntense interest in understanding and learning about the world (1 – 3 years)Development of conscious expectations, based on memory of prior experiences; awareness of violations of expectations (18 months to 3 years)Ability to observe and imitate others facilitates learning (1 to 3 years)Conscious goals and plans: toddlers can formulate plans, consciously remember them, and persist in trying to realize them (18 months+)Suitable activities for the toddlers:A warm and supportive interaction with child builds trust and security.Scribbling activities with crayons.Preschool Child DevelopmentPreschooler (3 to 5 years)Preschool is a period of consolidation. Basics like walking gradually begin to become more automatic. They do not require so much conscious attention to task. Performing multiple tasks is still a challenge. Sometimes a child who is focusing on how to use scissors, for example, will fall out of his chair because the attention needed to stay seated has been directed to another task. Or after working and playing cooperatively all day, the pre-schooler becomes stubborn or explodes into fits of anger. All of the control mechanisms seem to be occupied with being tired! Parents and teachers need to be patient with the challenges that pre-schoolers face and celebrate their enormous accomplishments. Preschool Physical DevelopmentRuns, jumps, climbs, balances with assuranceBy the age of 5, gross motor skills are well developedLikes risks, tests of physical strength and skill Increasing finger control - can pick up small objects, cut on a line with scissors, hold pencil in adult grasp, string small beads (Most children in this age group can begin using toys with smaller components. If child is still mouthing objects, select toys without small parts)Expert builder - loves small construction materials and also vigorous activity with big blocks, large construction materials.Rudimentary interest in ball games with simple rules and scoring.Preschool Cognitive DevelopmentChildren become familiar with common shapes, primary colours and gain interest in simple number activities, alphabet play, copying letters, matching/sorting Child also sorts and matches using more than one quality at a time ?Around the age of 4, begins to be purposeful and goal directed, to make use of a planPreschool children increase interest in producing designs, including puzzles, and in constructing play worldsDraws first representational pictures, prefers realism, interest in nature, science, animals, time, how things work, and peak interest in dramatic play –Recreates adult occupations, uses costumes and props.Preschool Social DevelopmentBeginning to share and take turns, learning concept of fair play.Play is cooperative, practical, conforming.Interested in-group pretend play.Not ready for competitive play because hates to lose.Enjoys simple board games based on chance, not strategy.More sex differentiation in play roles, interests.Enjoys looking at books and listening to stories from books.Unit III Summary of Essential Knowledge for the Instructor Primary Child DevelopmentIn this unit, students will explore the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development of primary school-age children (6-12 years old). Using key reading materials, major concepts, and reflections detailing observations and ideas, student will analyse stages of development during this critical period of growth. While aspects of development are presented separately, they are considered as part of a holistic process.Introduction to Primary Child DevelopmentWhat developmental changes take place during children’s primary years?Primary childhood (also called “elementary childhood” or “middle childhood”) typically takes place between the ages of 6-12Children are in primary/elementary school are spend their days away from their parentsChildren are exposed to new environments and new people. New opportunities arise to adopt new skills, knowledge, and perspectives. Children also begin to form unique personalities, and use reasoning to make decisions and judgments. Primary Child Physical DevelopmentChanges in Physical DevelopmentDuring primary years, children exhibit:Slow and constant physical growthHeight and weight increase at a consistent rateMuscle mass increases as baby fat decreasesChild able to exhibit signs of strength and speed through running and playingGirls tend to be 2 years ahead of boys in physical maturityGreater control over their bodiesMotor skills become smoother and more coordinatedCan engage in activities like running, playing, bicycle riding, and dancingAble to keep attention for longerCan also sit still for a longer period of timeExhibit less distracting body movementsImportance of Physical ActivityChildren are more fatigued by long periods of inactivity than by being very physically activePhysical activity is essential for children to refine different types of developmental skillsExpressing new physical strength and abilities enhances self-esteemAs children are faced with more abstract concepts, they need to use physical actions to more easily grasp and express ideas Health and SafetyAs children grow and increase dexterity and strength, it is important to establish safety precautions to prevent physical harmAs children have more autonomy in making decisions and no longer require constant supervision from parents, it is important to establish healthy practicesProviding a balanced and nutritious diet is critical for healthy physical development as children continue to growChildren not only understand the experience of illness, but also the links between unhygienic behaviour and transmission of diseaseOral hygiene is a very important but often disregarded aspect of physical health that affects all people- clear example of how good practices have a direct effect on one’s lifelong healthEncouraging Healthy Physical DevelopmentPrimary age children learn best from firsthand experiences, therefore it is important that they be engaged in active rather than passive activitiesChildren should manipulate real objects and learn through hands-on, direct experiences rather than be expected to sit and listen for extended periods of timePrimary Child Cognitive DevelopmentChanges in cognitive developmentDuring primary years, children begin these processes:Acquire the mental ability to think about and solve problems mentallyLearn to manipulate objects symbolically or mentallyBegin to develop problem solving skillsConstruct their knowledge from experienceGrasping concepts of space and time in logical and practical waysHave more structured learning in schoolsCommunicationBegin to see another person’s point of viewCan interact with adults as well as other childrenCan communicate in more sophisticated ways, such as expressing their feelings, reasoning, making jokes, and teasingDeveloping self-discipline through projects and homeworkLike in other fields of child development, children’s cognitive development vary, and different children learn at different rates (Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory)Piaget’s Concrete Operational StageChildren begin to think more logically and demonstrate deductive reasoningLogical reasoning is adult-like, but limited to concrete (non-abstract) realityCharacterized by appropriate use of logic involving a series of processes:Seriation: the ability to organize objects in a certain order according to characteristics like size, shape, colour, etc.Transivity: the ability to recognize and infer logical relationships among elements in a serial order (ex. if A is bigger than B and B is bigger than C, then A is bigger than C)Classification: the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to certain characteristic like appearance or sizeDecentring: the ability to recognize multiple aspects of a problem to solve itReversibility: the ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be change and can return to their original stateConservation: understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or itemsElimination of Egocentrism: the ability to view things from other perspectivesChildren can solve problems that apply to concrete objects or events, but may not be able to do so with abstract concepts or hypothetical tasksLinguistic developmentDuring early primary years children’s language skills are typically almost completely adult-likeChildren have developed phonological awareness and pronunciationChildren can master syllable stress patternsChildren begin to learn semantics; play with word combinationsBy later primary years, students begin to define new vocabulary in their own wordsBeing bilingual at an early age may enhance language learning in both languages and increase general cognitive abilitiesEncouraging healthy cognitive developmentErikson: For healthy development at this period of life, children need to develop “Competency”Encourage industrious associations through projects, activities, and hobbiesRecognize and praise accomplishments made through creative production such as drawing pictures or solving math problemsResults in a better sense of diligence, perseverance, and self-disciplineBeing ridiculed, isolated, excessively disciplined, or put down will result in feelings of shame and guilt that may result in feelings of inferiority at later stagesProvide opportunities to pursue creative and expressive projectsProvide plenty of opportunities to interact with other children of the same ages in and out of school Projects that provide rich content for conversation and solicit children’s opinions and ideasEncourage children to make discoveries for themselves to take ownership over their learningPiaget’s constructionist approach- for children to develop their cognitive abilities, they should be active investigators, finding answers and solutions through mental and physical actions instead of mere replicationExpectations for children’s learning should be developmentally appropriateChildren should be challenged, but projects that are too difficult may result in loss of self-esteem or feelings of inadequacyPrimary Child Social DevelopmentChanges in social developmentChildren are learning to be independentIdentify less with parents and more with peersMay want more personal space and spend more time in a bedroom, a special place May exhibit behaviours like boasting, lying, or back-talking as ways to cope with situations where they feel worried or scaredParental relationships and rolesAs children become more autonomous and spend more time away from home, parents must establish their roles Children begin to question the authority of their parentsIn later primary years, children begin to realize that their parents and adult authority figures make mistakesMay begin to defy the authority of their parents and form their own viewsImportant for parents to be supportive and affectionatePeer RelationshipsChildren increasingly interested in forming friendships and friend groupsConcern about being acceptedMore conscious about others’ perceptionsFriends are also advisors and inform the way that children behaveTendency to play with peers of the same sexParticipation in friend groups can include forming and practicing social rituals, rules, secret codes, and made-up languagesChildren who fail to develop minimal social competence and are rejected or neglected by their peers are at significant risk to drop out of school or become delinquent, or experience mental health problems in adulthoodAs children become more aware of physical and social differences, some children may suffer from bullying or isolation; feeling like an outsiderSupporting healthy social developmentImportant to establish productive, positive social and working relationships with other children close to their ageProvides foundation for developing a sense of social competencePromote prosocial behaviour that develops key social skills such as helping, sharing, cooperating, negotiating, and intrapersonal problem solvingEncourage outdoor and indoor playParents should show plenty of love, affection, and attention Primary Child Emotional DevelopmentChanges in emotional developmentChild is beginning to develop a sense of self, finding their place in the worldSelf-esteem issues begin to emerge during early stages of primary yearsIncreased awareness of others’ perceptions results in self-consciousnessBeginning to internalize moral rules of behaviour and acquire a conscienceStronger sense of morality and values largely based on the values of their family and peersChildren begin to self-monitor and develop a sense of self-discipline and self-controlChildren form a rigid understanding of rulesNew changes and environments create new stressors in different shapes and formsIn earlier primary years, children cope with longer periods of separation from parentsGrappling with issues of what is good and bad behaviourAdopt coping mechanisms to deal with stress and new situations that are often temporary, such as boasting, showing-off, or back-talkingSupporting healthy emotional developmentSupport children’s development of self-esteem through:Encouragement and emphasizing strengths and accomplishmentsFocusing on prevention rather than punishment for negative behaviourWhen significant change takes place in the life of a child, show sensitivity and understandingDiscourage put-downs and bullying Create a structured living and learning environments to reduce or minimize stressProvide positive guidance through involving children in establishing rulesTake a problem-solving approach to behavioural issuesLimit or contain overexposure to stimulation such as exciting, violent, or disturbing real or fantasy events that may frighten or upset childrenThe Role of Play for Healthy Child DevelopmentPlay as a critical activity for childrenThrough play, children develop an understanding about themselves, their world, and their experiencesPlay promotes concept formation, associations and classifications, and encourages exploration and creativityPlay as a process and a productProcess- play facilitates individual understanding of skills concepts and dispositionsProduct- provides a vehicle for children to demonstrate understanding, skills, and dispositionsPlay and Physical DevelopmentOutdoor play enhances coordination and physical competenceWorking with small tools, toys, and safe and accessible materials like clay, sand, and wood blocks builds motor skills and precisionIndoor games (word games, puzzles, computer games) can build hand-eye coordination and problem-solving and deduction skillsPlay and Cognitive DevelopmentBy exploring and creating their own games, making riddles, number games, and secret codes, also practice and demonstrate their growing understanding of word meanings and numbersPlay can enhance attributes that foster good learning such as attention, planning, attitudes, creativity and divergent thinking, understanding different perspectives, memory, language developmentPlay can be educationally focused to reach specific education goals—language skills, vocabulary, problem solving, etc. Children express and represent ideas, thoughts, and feelings through symbolic playPlay and Social DevelopmentTool for refining social skills; critical for positive social adaptationHelps form friendships Children play formal and informal games with their peers like jumping rope, cars, computer gamesIn later primary years children have more organized and structured playPractice teamwork and cooperation with other peers; fulfils their desire to be accepted in a social groupGives children to adopt positive behaviours and to learn from one otherPlay and Emotional DevelopmentFacilitates personality integration and inner growthPlaying with other children enables children to understand and accept individual differences while accepting one’s own differences and dealing with insecuritiesConstructive and positive play can also teach children to learn to accept, express, and cope with emotional pain and stressEnables children to feel comfortable and in control of their feelings by allowing the expression of unacceptable or complex feelings in acceptable ways and providing the opportunity to work through internal strugglesObstacles to Using Play as a Learning ToolMisunderstandings and flawed assumptions about play as a learning toolConditional and outcome-based formal activities are often considered more important or valid than innate and free learning experiencesPlay is considered a distraction rather than a tool for natural learningHigh academic and achievement pressureParents and teachers often have high expectations and explicit academic demands that do not involve time for gamesChildren have less freedom or autonomy to do what they are interested in; play is sacrificed for preparation for academic successLack of parental time to supervise or facilitate playChildren’s lives are increasingly structured, controlled and supervisedThere are limited play spaces and less time available to parentsSocietal insensitivity towards child nurturingToo little time is invested in creating places for children to play freely, particularly in urban areasFacilitating learning-rich play opportunities is crucial to Whole Child DevelopmentEnsure the provision of play materials, adequate time, equal opportunity, ongoing support and freedom for children to independently explore and make choicesCombination of free and structured playFree play: child leading the play experienceChild sets out her/his own rules and boundariesOften holds child’s interest longer and can become engrossed in the activityEnhances opportunities for creative exploration and expressionStructured play: adult led, guided and plannedTends to be more limiting and reduces opportunities to be inventiveIs an important tool for fulfilling specific learning goals in schools or for small projects with friends or familyUnit IV Summary of Essential Knowledge for the Instructor Adolescence and developmentIn this unit, students will learn about complex and interrelated changes that children and young adults go through on their way to adulthood. Physical changes are discussed in their relation to adolescent cognitive, social and behavioural development.Physical DevelopmentWhat is the importance of physical development to other kinds of development in adolescence?Physical changes during adolescence are interrelated with other social and emotional changes that take place during this time.Although certain biological factors impact almost all adolescents, there are many differences in the outcomes and severity of such factors on behaviour and emotion.There are large inter-cultural differences in terms of how puberty and other changes during adolescence are dealt with.Physical changes during adolescence are interrelated with other social and emotional changes that take place during this time.Although certain biological factors impact almost all adolescents, there are many differences in the outcomes and severity of such factors on behaviour and emotion.There are large inter-cultural differences in terms of how puberty and other changes during adolescence are dealt with.Puberty and Physical DevelopmentPuberty –Includes the many changes that occur as children and young adults mature into adulthood. Physical changes include:Rapid increase in growth, resulting in dramatic increases in both height and weightChanges in the makeup of the body, and the amount of fat vs. muscle.Changes in circulatory/respiratory systems (heart and lungs), which can lead to increased strength.In girls, puberty can begin as early as 7, and boys as early as 9 ? Hormones - Substances in the body that increase during puberty, and impact upon both the physical appearance and mental/emotional tendencies of children.There are many theories of how puberty can impact upon children’s behaviour:Hormonal changes ----------------------------------------------------- Changes in behaviourHormonal changes - changes in appearance - changes in self-esteem behaviourHormonal changes -> changes in appearance -> reactions of others -> behaviourPuberty can impact an individual’s self-esteem (the positive or negative feelings one has about oneself), and mood as well. For example, one study asked adolescents throughout the day to report their mood, as well as the activity they were doing. Mood varied wildly from positive (ex. A girl practicing violin alone in her room) to negative (a boy at work, cleaning shelves).Individual and Group Differences in PubertyAs mentioned, girls and boys differ in the age at which puberty begins for them. Genes play the most important role in determining puberty differences, but environmental factors also seem to play a role: Nutrition and health throughout childhood appear to effect puberty. For example, girls who are taller and heavier go through puberty earlier (St. George et al, 1994), and children who experience a lot of illness tend to go through puberty later.Studies show that adolescents who grew up in families with a lot of conflict tend to go through puberty earlier (Ellis, 1991), and that girls who grow up in homes where the father is absent go through puberty earlier than girls whose father is present (Surbey, 1990).It also appears that adolescent girls from different countries go through puberty at different ages. For example, in the USA it is between 12-13 and in Africa between 14-17. Looking within specific countries, it appears that girls from poorer households and regions may actually go through puberty later than girls from wealthier ones.Studies have shown a big difference in the traits and characteristics of adolescents who experience puberty earlier than their peers.Boys who go through puberty earlier tend to play sports and become stronger than their peers, and those who go through puberty late have shown to be more curious and like to explore more.In girls, those who mature early tend to be less popular and more willing to let others tell them what to do, and also develop poor self-esteem.Social/Emotional Development How do adolescents come to identify themselves and what is the role of motivation in shaping identity?Adolescents come to identify themselves primarily in relation to their peers and other social contacts.Adolescent behaviour is often characterized by an increase in the tendency to seek out the approval of peers rather than adults.In addition to the increased need for social approval, a large proportion of adolescents are motivated by intrinsic factors.Erikson and Identity DevelopmentErikson: The developing person moves through a series of eight crises over the course of their life. A person’s development depends on their resolving each crisis during a certain stage of life. Identity vs. identity diffusion (5th stage, to be resolved in adolescence): The adolescent must choose from a number of identities, based on his/her relation with important people and the larger society, to develop into. For example, a teen girl whose mother is a doctor may also decide to go into medical school. If this crisis is not resolved, role confusion/identity diffusion can result, which is mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which the adolescent will fit into society. Another possibility is that adolescents prematurely commit only to one identity, for example if the girl who decides to become a doctor doesn’t consider alternative professions at all. Also, adolescents may adapt a negative identity, or one that goes against what their family wants for them. For example, if the girl mentioned before turned to crime instead of going to medical school. There is some criticism of Erikson’s stages, namely that the crises don’t necessarily resolve themselves in a specific order. However, research tends to support his theoretical perspective. In adolescents however, identity development seems to occur in later years and even into young adulthood, earlier than Erikson suggested.The Adolescent Peer GroupThe kinds of relationships adolescents have as children are both influenced by and influence how they behave toward others.Prosocial behaviour: An action taken to benefit another person, such as helping, sharing, or comforting. Aggressive behaviour – An action taken to hurt another person physically or psychologically.Both types of behaviour can be the result of genes or environment. The presence of a positive, pro-social role model or a negative, aggressive one can greatly impact the behaviour an adolescent shows. Reinforcement, or rewards or punishment, can also have a strong influence on the kind of behaviour the adolescent shows. Finally, the culture a child grows up in can have a profound influence on what kind of behaviour develops in an adolescent. Motivation in AdolescenceAdolescents differ in the way they seek out relationships with others, the way they seek praise from others and whether or not they want to do well in school. They may act based on:Need for affiliation – This is when adolescents always seem to seek out friendly relationships with others.Need for approval – The strong desire to gain acceptance and positive judgments of other people. As children, this may show itself in how they relate to adults, but as they move into adolescence, they may seek this more from peers.Achievement motivation/Intrinsic motivation - When people seek excellence for its own sake, and not because it will bring them some kind of external reward.Achievement or intrinsic motivation may in turn be motivated by five factors:CuriosityNeed for cognitive consistency, or the idea that when adolescents learn something that conflicts with something they already knew, they want to find which is true.InterestValueCompetence, or the desire to be able to effectively deal with all situations that arise.Fostering Motivation in the ClassroomMotivational tactics in the classroom:Focus on strategies that promote intrinsic motivation – research shows that focusing too much on extrinsic rewards (praise, good grades, etc.) may make students think that schooling is too much of a chore. Focus instead on the enjoyment students can get from doing well.Use extrinsic reinforcement when necessary.Expose students to positive role models, with backgrounds similar to their own – If a student wants to become a footballer, they will look up to footballers.Minimize competition between students, instead have students focus on their own improvement.Encourage students to attempt specific goals.Help students focus on how to achieve mastery, or how school skills will benefit them in the future.Downplay the seriousness of failures.Help students realize that success will only come with maximum effort.Provide clear and easy to understand directions and rules.Especially focus on students who are more “at risk”.Cognitive/Linguistic DevelopmentHow does cognitive development come about during adolescence, and is it natural or formed through social interaction?Formal operational thought is qualitatively, or fundamentally different from that during childhood.Cognitive development during adolescence is both learned and innate.Tests may not accurately or fully measure student intelligence.PiagetAccording to Piaget, cognitive development proceeds through a fixed sequence of different stages, and adolescent thinking is quite different from children’s thinking. There are four stages, with the last one called the formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and continues through adulthood. For Piaget, formal operational thought is noted for its use of logic, or ability to reason; adolescents begin to be comfortable applying this kind of logic to hypothetical events, abstract concepts and alternatives to reality. Critiques of Piaget:Research generally supports order in which different cognitive abilities emerge, but formal operational thought is believed to emerge much more slowly than Piaget believed. For example, children as young as elementary school are able to figure out ways to perform an experiment (such as the pendulum) if they receive proper training. Also cognitive development may be culture-specific. For example in Mexico in families where children make pottery for a living, one study found that children showed elements of formal operational thought because of certain skills they learned by making the pottery. Most recent research indicates that cognitive development isn’t as “stage-like” as Piaget believed, but stages may overlap with each other in some cases.Recently researchers have begun to support information-processing theory, or focusing on specific ways people think about the information they receive. For example, adolescence is marked by the ability to engage in selective attention, or ability to focus on one thing while tuning out all others, and ability to engage in divided attention, where attention can be focused on two things at the same time. Improvements in working memory (ability to remember something for a short period of time, like 30 seconds) and long-term memory also characterize adolescence. Piaget’s contributions:Cognitive development is mostly the result of intrinsic motivation.The nature of thinking and reasoning changes with age.Piaget’s stages provide a general idea of when new abilities are likely to emerge.Through their interactions with their environment, adolescents construct their own view of the world.Adolescents benefit only from experiences they can relate to what they already know.VygotskyIn contrast to Piaget’s belief that cognitive growth comes about naturally, Vygotsky emphasized the importance of society and culture for promoting cognitive growth. In particular, adults promote children’s cognitive development by teaching them challenging activities, helping them perform those activities, and talking over their experiences. For Vygotsky:Complex mental processes begin as social activities and as children develop, particularly as they speak and develop their language abilities, these complex processes become internalized.Adults help children and adolescents make sense of how their culture understands and responds to the world. Children and adolescents can perform more challenging tasks when they’re assisted by more advanced individuals, and challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth.Particular attention should be paid to Vygotsky’s views on scaffolding. When adults show adolescents how to perform a new task, they provide some clues and suggestions (scaffolding) for how to approach this. Adolescents may even engage in apprenticeships which is a more long-term form of scaffolding, where the adult forms a relationship with the adolescent and teaches them how to do a more complex activity, such as weaving, farming or fishing. Similarities/differences between Piaget and VygotskySimilarities:Both theorists point to the importance of challenging activities in helping adolescents learn new tasks.Despite the importance of engaging in challenging activities, both theorists emphasize that adolescents must also be cognitively “ready” for such challenges.Both theorists also place importance on cognitive development through social interactions.Differences:For Piaget, most cognitive development occurs independently of the use of language. For Vygotsky, language is integral to cognitive development.Piaget maintained that much cognitive development occurs when children naturally “explore” their world, but Vygotsky said that more experienced adults play a much stronger role in helping them explore.Piaget maintained that peer relationships were much more important for development, while for Vygotsky it was relationships with adults.Vygotsky also placed more importance on the role of culture in cognitive development. Strategies for the Classroom“Educational implications of metacognitive and strategic development”Teach, model, and encourage effective learning and problem-solving strategies. What strategies can you use to help students learn a particular subject matter?Give students frequent feedback about their learning progress. This does not mean scolding or praising necessarily, but thoughtfully explaining to students how they have been doing and what they can do to improve.Provide opportunities for students to evaluate their own learning, and help them develop strategies for doing so effectively. (Teach students to ask themselves, then answer questions about the material they’re reading; have students set specific goals for each study session; provide students with specific criteria to judge their performance; encourage students to develop portfolios of their work and reflect on the importance of each sample in the portfolio)Expect and encourage independent learning as time goes on.Teach students that learning is not always just repeating facts or formulas, but learning how to ask new questions. Unit 5 Summary of Essential Knowledge for the Instructor Difference in Classrooms: Developmental Variation and Special NeedsIn this unit, students will examine the different strengths that children, even those with disabilities, bring to the classroom. The unit presents common special needs with emphasis on learning differences and disabilities. These needs are common among children, and school systems that aim to be inclusive must work to accommodate diverse students in the classroom. Future teachers need to learn how to support the strengths and needs of students and to equip these future teachers with knowledge of the strategies the Pakistan Ministry of Education has identified to meet student needs and support growth. Learning DifferencesDifferences in student learning stylesDifferent students, based on how they develop, have different learning styles.The main learning styles are:VisualVisual learners are helped by visual examples and explanations.Examples of visual teaching methods include teacher modelling, diagrams, charters and illustrations.AuditoryAuditory learners learn well through listening.Classroom strategies to support this include lectures, discussions, and conversation.TactileTactile learners learn through movement and touch.In the classroom, approaches that help support tactile learners include explorative activities and hands-on work (for example, science experiments).These children may have trouble sitting still for long periods of time.Gardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesOverview: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences proposes seven ways in which individuals approach and learn information. Each individual has varying strengths and capabilities in the different intelligences. The development of intelligences is ongoing and students are able to strengthen their faculty with different types of intelligences. Background:Gardner was critical of Piaget’s understanding of intellect as a single function that helps individuals make sense of the semiotic (signs and symbols for meaning-making) information they encounter.Gardner became interested in research studies that suggested there were different psychological processes that managed different types of symbol systems (such as linguistic, numerical, pictorial and gestural).Different parts of the brain (specifically, the cerebral cortex) are responsible for these different functions.Individuals may be comparatively stronger with certain symbol systems and weaker with others.In situations of brain damage, facility with certain types of symbol systems may be lost.Gardner recognized that schools emphasized only two symbol systems: linguistic and logical-mathematical. He also saw that assessments tended to test only for these two symbol systems.In response, Gardner developed a new concept of intellect that recognized these often ignored forms of intelligence. In doing so, he expanded the use of the word intelligence (usually singular) to include multiple intelligences. Specifically, his definition involved the ability to solve problems or produce work valued in at least one cultural setting. This significantly expanded the existing definition beyond one focused on factors that determine success in schools.Gardner and others began to develop a list of intelligences. To do so, they studied the abilities evidenced in certain “special populations” that include gifted students, individuals with autism and those with learning disabilities. Gardner finally arrived at a list of seven intelligences that were thought to have evolved over the course of human history.Implications of Gardner’s Theory: Although most professions require the application of multiple intelligences, certain strengths might lend themselves well to specific professions. These can be thought of as “end-states.”The Seven IntelligencesIntelligenceEnd-StatesCore ComponentsLogical-mathematicalScientistAccountantSensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patters; ability to handle long chain of reasoningLinguisticLawyerJournalistSensitivity to sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language.MusicalComposerMusic teacherAbilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness. SpatialArchitectSculptorCapacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one’s initial perceptions.Bodily-kinestheticDancerAthleteAbilities to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skilfully.InterpersonalTeacherSalespersonCapacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people.IntrapersonalPsychologistTherapistAccess to one’s own feelings and the ability to discriminate among them and draw upon them to guide behaviour; knowledge of one’s own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences.Supporting multiple intelligences in classroom practice: Differentiated instruction and assessmentOne strategy for supporting diverse learning needs is differentiated instruction.Differentiated instruction can be defined as a set of practices that teachers adopt to address different learning levels, diverse backgrounds, and the varied academic strengths that individual students bring to the classroom. By differentiating instruction, teachers help all students to grow maximally.Characteristics of differentiated classroomsThis model is meant to accommodate learner differences.It requires the teacher to be flexible in approaching the learning needs of different students.The class might include instances of whole class instruction as well as group or individual instruction.This approach assumes that it is important to vary instructional methods and that the choice of methods is based on the needs of a diverse student population, for example, by thinking about student abilities, interests and prior knowledge.The figure below expresses some of the considerations that teachers must make when planning differentiated instruction.Classroom practices that support multiple intelligencesIntelligenceExamples of learning stationsVerbal-linguisticLibrary or book cornerStory timeWriting centreLogical-mathematicalMath centrePuzzle tableScience centreMusicalInstrument centreSinging circleListening centreVisual/spatialArt centre (painting, drawing, sculpture, etc.)Block centreMedia centreKinestheticDance circleImaginative play centrePlayground/outdoor playInterpersonalSharing/social areaDrama stationTheatresAssessment practices should account for differences in student intelligences. Tests that only examine linguistic and logical-mathematical skills are insufficient for measuring student true student performance.“MI Theory requires a fresh approach to assessment, an approach consistent with the view that there are a number of intelligences that are developed—and can best be detected—in culturally meaningful activities.” Assessment must consider the culturally-relevant activities to which particular intelligences can be applied. For this, it is useful to think about the end-states of intelligences. This helps to make assessment geared to a performance activity that is socially relevant. It also means that skills are not tested in isolation but rather are situated contextually.These can be thought of as authentic assessment techniques.Authentic assessment techniques can help to engage students because they draw on real-world problems.Assessments can be both formal and informal.Disabilities and Learning DisordersIntroductionMuch in the same way that all students have different classroom and cognitive strengths, some students are perceived as being developmentally behind or having certain disabilities that challenge them in the classroom.These children can be thought of as having special needs. Teachers can help to support these needs in the classroom.The teacher must be prepared to see the strengths that these children bring to the classroom in addition to their needs. The Pakistan National Policy for Special Education offers the following two definitions of disability:Disability means the lack of ability to perform an activity in a manner that is considered to be normal.A person with disabilities is one who, on account of injury, disease, or congenital deformity, is handicapped in undertaking any gainful profession or employment, and includes persons who are visually impaired, hearing impaired, and physically and mentally disabled.Writing for UNESCO, Dr. Carol Crealock and Doreen Kronick offer the following definition:"Learning disabilities are formally defined in many ways in many countries. However, they usually contain three essential elements: a discrepancy clause, an exclusion clause, and an etiology clause. The discrepancy clause states there is a significant disparity between aspects of specific functioning and general ability; the exclusion clause states the disparity is not primarily due to intellectual, physical, emotional, or environmental problems; and the etiology clause speaks to causation involving genetic, biochemical, or neurological factors. This last clause is often stated in definitions, but it is not focused upon since it is difficult to determine etiology and usually is not part of the educational assessment or remedial programme recommended for the students” (1993, p. 5)There are a variety student disabilities and needs that teachers encounter in the classroom. These include and behavioural challenges; language, physical and sensory disabilities; and cognitive disabilities.The 1998 National Census in Pakistan reports that 2.49 % of the population suffers from different types of disabilities. Of these:19 % have physical handicaps14 % have mental handicaps8 % have multiple disabilities8 % are visually impaired7% are hearing impaired43 % had unclassified disabilitiesFor the purposes of this course, it is useful to review disabilities according to the above categories. But in reality the divisions are artificial and there is much overlap.A child with autism is challenged in areas of language and sensory development, but there is a social and behavioural implication of these issues in the classroom.A child with emotional and attachment troubles may struggle in building the relationships that are necessary to school success.It is important to understand social perceptions of disability and difference in Pakistan.Disability as deserving inclusion?Disability as a curse?Disability as a burden on society?Recognizing disability and learning disorders I (emotional and behavioural challenges)ADD and ADHDAttention deficit disorder (ADD) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are medical terms for what is generally seen as hyperactivity and trouble concentrating.Students with ADD or ADHD may demonstrate high levels of activity, impulsive behaviours and trouble giving full attention to a task.This is a very common disorder in children. Since the characteristics of ADD and ADHD are demonstrated by most children at some point, one key to recognizing the disorder for the behaviour to be persistent.Approaches to helping children with ADD and ADHD include behaviour modification, behaviour therapy and medication. AutismSymptoms of children with autismEmotionally removed; little attention given to others, children or adultsThe child doesn’t normally make eye contactThe child has trouble or even becomes upset when switching activitiesThe child’s speech may be limitedStrong interest in things that spin (such as a bicycle wheel) and engagement with this object for long periods of timeStrong displays of anxietyWhen multiple symptoms are present, this might be a sign of autism.Autism is considered a “spectrum order” because the extent to which it affects a child can vary widely. For this reason, it is useful to think about certain symptoms occurring along a continuum.Support from a child psychologist (if available) is helpful in working with autistic children.Strategies for working with autistic children can include combinations of behaviour modification and medications (for example, to help the child sleep at night or reduce anxiety)Recent research has been inconclusive on the causes of autism but it is often attributed to a disturbance in brain development. This might be cause by certain viruses or illnesses during pregnancy or early. This is one reason that a teacher should be especially observant of a child in the period after they have recovered. It is important to maintain a focus as a teacher on a child’s abilities and strengths while providing support for children’s special needs.Recognizing disability and learning disorders II (language, physical and sensory disabilities)Visual impairmentsWarning signs of vision problems may include crossed eyes, poor engagement with reading, writing or visual objects, poor hand-eye coordination, and holding objects very close to the face in order to see them better.One specific condition to consider is amblyopia (lazy eye) in which one eye is stronger than the other.If the teacher suspects that vision may be an issue for a child, he can suggest he or she visit medical staff out of the school or in the community.For some students, glasses may help correct their vision.Speech and hearing problemsThese sorts of issues can be the result of an infection so it is important to be vigilant about issues such as these.Speech and hearing problems can lead to misbehaviour or poor attention to lessons which sometimes means they go unnoticed. It is important to maintain a focus as a teacher on a child’s abilities and strengths while providing support for children’s special needs.Recognizing cognitive differencesHow can a teacher determine whether the behaviours and abilities of a child are normal? Behind? Advanced? There is no perfect model of cognitive development that can be fitted to every child.The typical stages of cognitive development discussed in Units 2, 3 and 4 provide guidelines for typical abilities of children a certain stages of development. When children display abilities outside of that range of ‘developmentally appropriate’ cognitive behaviours, they may have developmental delays or, if performing well above normal ranges of abilities, they may be ‘gifted’ students.It is important to recognize differences so that teacher expectations can be aligned with a child’s abilities. For example, to target activities and academic support to the zone of proximal development, a teacher must be aware of the developmental stage of a child.Developmental delaysIt is hard to define whether a child is ‘developmentally delayed.’ What range of cognitive abilities should be considered normal? There is no best answer to this question. Often it will help teachers to think of whether a child is more than a year behind typical physical, social and intellectual areas. Underdeveloped speech may be an important indicator.Also think about the domains that the child is struggling in. If the child struggles in two or more of the following domains, the explanation for the child’s needs is more likely to be a developmental delay (rather than some other reason): home life, social interactions, community functions, academic work, personal health and safety, communication abilities, and the ability to be self-directing.Also consider a child’s educational background. Can the child’s cognitive performance be explained by limited previous educational experience? It is important to distinguish a child who is cognitively delayed from one who needs remedial academic attention.There are many causes of delays that range from environmental causes to malnutrition to poor stimulation during infancy and childhood to biological disorders.Children who have minor or moderate delays may do well in classrooms where there are a range of children of different ages and abilities. The teacher can support these children by:Guiding them toward independent behaviours such as helping themselves as well as helping others.Helping children develop appropriate language and skills to interact with other children.Giving clear examples and rules and having those rules applied consistently in the classroom. These children have more trouble with subtleties of meaning and exceptions to rules.It is important for the teacher to determine where a child is cognitively, so he or she can help lead the child to growth step-by-step. Teacher Strategies for Helping Students with Developmental DelaysTreat the child the same as others but be careful that your expectations are neither too high nor too low.Be familiar with stages of development so you know what a child should learn as he progresses.Remember that children with cognitive delays learn best when they repeat things frequently. Be prepared to go over a simple rule or task many times until a child has a firm understanding of it and expectations of him or her. Patience is key!Give short directions, one point at a time.Allow enough time for the child to acquire a selected task. Complex things take longer. Simple things take less time.Encourage a child to be persistent. This will help him or her learn to finish what is started.Remember to help a child become independent. Be careful not to be too overprotective.Teach only one thing at a time. Move step-by-step through a process.Provide lots of concrete examples that use as many of the senses as possible.Rather than simply telling a child what should be done, show what you mean by modelling. Show the child that you are pleased with him or her and that you like him or her.After a fair try at something new, if the child cannot seem to learn it, drop the activity without punishing the child. Try it again in a few months when the child may be better prepared to learn it.Gifted studentsThese children demonstrate advanced skills. These skills may appear inconsistently or as a pattern of behaviour.Some characteristics gifted children may display are:They pick up new academic material with easeThey have a command of language that is above that of their peersLarge vocabulariesAttention spans that are longer when they are engaged with something that interests themThey have a good store of general and specific informationStrong memoryThey are interested in explanations for things, causes and effects and building relationships among ideas.They prefer to be with adults and older children.They are very interested in certain subjects.They are very aware of the social values and actions of their peers and others around them.Gifted children may struggle and be bored if they are not challenged academically and lose interest in the subject at hand. Teachers can support these children by:Modifying activities to better challenge these students and keep them engaged.Providing additional materials and the chance to work with the subjects that interest them in depth.It is important to maintain a focus as a teacher on a child’s abilities and strengths while providing support for children’s special needs.The teacher should make efforts to include all children in classroom activities and routines. By treating children as normal members of the class, the teacher can help them to build independence and support their growth step-by-step.Difference and disabilities in schools: Micro and macro perspectivesAddressing special needs in the classroomThere are multiple models that describe educational approaches to working with students with disabilitiesStudents with special needs are instructed separately from other children, either in separated classes or in special schools. In Pakistan, there are some special education centres that serve students with disabilities.Inclusive classroomsIn this model, students with disabilities are involved in the classroom as much as possible.This works best with students with minor disabilities.Methods for supporting inclusion [This session emphasizes an inclusive model under the assumption that information is most relevant to general educations. This curriculum assumes that students being prepared to work exclusively with special needs populations will receive additional training on this material.]Teachers can help to support students’ social and academic involvement in a classroom.Differentiated instructional approaches can help in this process.Daily Reflection Guide for Teachers on Creating Inclusive ClassroomsAt the end of the school day, teachers can review the successes and challenges of the day. As the school year progresses, the insights gained from consistent reflection and adaptation of practice will guide improvements in curriculum. These questions are useful both How did the day go? Did any challenges arise?How could I adapt plans and activities so that they move more smoothly for students?What did students learn today?How are children with special needs doing?How can I help support each child tomorrow?Daily reflections on classroom experience can help teachers consider how inclusive their classrooms are and strategies for improvements.Addressing disability and disorders II: The perspective of national policyGovernment initiatives on disability in Pakistan are focusing on:The use of early intervention to prevent and identify disabilityEducation and trainingThe inclusion of those with disability in school and societyVocational training as one means to employment and development.To achieve goals relevant to the education system, the government is working to:Adapt curriculumDevelop special aids and equipment to support those with disabilitiesTo include students with disabilities in some classroomImprove special education centres. This will include the use of computers for training.Train teachers to work with students with disabilitiesThese children demonstrate advanced skills. These skills may appear inconsistently or as a pattern of behaviour.Summary and ReviewAll children learn differently and have different strengths and needs.Within the range of characteristics of ‘normal’ development, students have different learning strengths and are better with certain types of performance tasks.Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences helps to explain different types of strengths that students might have. These can be connected in classroom practice to real life tasks.One of several ways to address student learning differences is through differentiated instruction.Some students have more constant needs, such as those with disabilities.There are a range of disabilities that include physical, language, behavioural, cognitive and emotional disabilities.These students can be accommodated outside of the normal classroom, either in special education classes or schools.Embracing students with disabilities in the classroom is one form of inclusive education. Differentiated instruction may be helpful in planning for inclusive education programmes.Pakistan’s educational policy has shifted in the past decade and is working towards including more students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms as well as working to develop separate facilities that work with students with special needs. Regardless of the approaches towards accommodating learning differences, it is important to recognize and build off of student strengths. Unit 6 Summary of Essential Knowledge for the Instructor Teachers, Family, Schools and Society in Child DevelopmentIn this unit, students will examine how families, society, schools, and teachers influence child development. ?Students will reflect on major concepts of child development and the implications for teaching and learning and especially focus on the role of the teacher.Role of the Nuclear and Extended FamilyWhy is the family important to child development?The family is the primary socializing agent of society and has the greatest impact on child developmentThe socialization established within the family is essential for the children’s social integration. Failures of this socialization within the family have negative consequences at the community and society level. Attachments formed in the family last a lifetime and serve as model for future social relationshipsChildren experience first social conflicts in the family.Key ideas and debates about family:Families and children influence each other, it is a two way relationshipNature v. Nurture debate - human development is biological and socialThe family is a major contributor to both biological and social components in child developmentParenting practices reflect society’s norms and may vary even within cultural or ethnic groupsRoles, characteristics, and functions of families:The family unit evolved slowly through history as a means of survival and adaptationFunctions of the family (for society and for child rearing): reproduction (replace dying members)economical services - spending unitsocietal order (reduce conflict and maintain orderly relationships)socialization (train young to be participants in society), religious training, exposure to political values and norms, educationemotional supportFamilies have certain characteristics and roles:social system with bidirectional relationships, the family is a complex system of multiple, interacting relationshipsroles are ascribed to each family memberinteractions that change with age and needs of individual over timepreschool and school years older family member reason more and listen to the childrenchild raising practices effect child behaviourchild gender and sex are strong determinants of child raising and disciplineThere exists diversity in the family system in Pakistan. Traditions, customs and societal makeup vary significantly across various provinces. There are two parallel familial trends exists the nuclear and extended family. Rearing up practices of children is consequently different in the society and even in the families. Parenting styles are dependent on the parents’ social profiles. The families have direct influence on the child development. Social systems perspective: Families are complex networks of relationships that influence each other and are affected by the larger social context. ?Children, parents, siblings, cousins, aunts and uncles all influence each other. ?Families are part of larger formal (school, work, day care) or non-formal (friends, neighbours) networks. They are dynamic, change through time, and are influenced by outside people or third parties. Some connections between families and society include:Strong, close families generally praise and stimulate their children more and scold them less In contrast, families that have more problems and tensions tend to use increased force and punishment, which often leads children to be aggressive or not follow rules in return.Psychological disturbance in children is sometimes greater in bigger cities where there are weaker communication networks – high population mobility, weak community leadership, lack of organized leisure time activities, and few telephones and visits among friends and neighboursChild abuse and neglect are higher in urban neighbourhoods where there is increased unemployment and community dissatisfactionChildren are less likely to develop adjustment or development problems when they have strong family and community tiesOther factors to consider:Family size – families with many or few children, extended family members present and involvedBrothers and sisters – birth order (older children serve as models and leaders for younger children), competition between brothers and sisters, only child vulnerable children – child abuse by family membersThe chance of child abuse increase when family members experience unmanageable stress, isolation from community or supportTypes of Child RearingThere are four general styles or types of child rearing depending on two broad dimensions - control (rules) and responsiveness (attention given to children).Authoritative caregivers are both controlling and responsive. They provide children with a reasonable set of rules and are characterized by a rational, democratic style that promotes independent, socially active and responsible children. Authoritarian caregivers are high in control but low in responsiveness. ?The caregiver has lots of rules and high expectations for children. Often children fail to reach the caregiver’s expectations, causing them to feel undervalued and less confident. These children tend to be anxious, withdrawn, and dependent and react angrily when frustrated. Permissive caregivers are responsive but lack in control. ?Caregivers give their children a lot of freedom and few rules. Their children are dependent, demanding, impulsive, and sometimes difficult to manage.Uninvolved caregivers are low in both response and control. ?This indifferent, rejecting behaviour is harmful to most aspects of psychological development.Working in partnership with families:Teachers need to talk to student’s caregivers (parents, aunts, uncles, grandparents, etc.) about strategies for caring for their children to ensure consistent careFamily members are the most knowledgeable people when it comes to their childrenCaregivers have different family setups and parenting styles, teachers need to accept differencesSometimes family members feel separated by child’s school lifeCaregivers differ in their ability and desire to help children with homework after schoolTo work effectively with families, try:ask caregivers for opinions on a regular basistry to involve family members in planned activitiescreate a system of communication – like letters or a notice board - to distribute important information to students’ familiesavoid conflict with students families, children will notice this tensionRole of Society In addition to the family, the community, social environment, and culture all play an important role in the development and socialization of children. Theorists such as Vygotsky argue that human development is responsive and influenced by social context. By this perspective, both society and culture influence child development. We exist in a community that is embedded in a larger supra society. The traditions and the norms of the local community and the society at large have a direct bearing on the child development; media also plays an indirect role in the child development.-Role of community and society -role of culture and society -role of media in child development -Gender balance and child development Children learn directly and indirectly from their surrounding community:Direct learning occurs through interaction with parents, family members, neighbours, or friends through:reinforcement – when others encourage a specific behaviour in children. For example, family and neighbours smile at a child when he or she does something rightobservation – children watch other people’s behaviour and copy it. The theorist Bandura argues that learning occurs by being around someone else.Indirect learning occurs when experiences in another social setting influence what is being experienced in an immediate context. For example, a child’s experience with his or her parents can affect the child’s behaviour at schoolCulture - The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group. Every child develops in the context of cultureThrough culture, children acquire content knowledge and process (what to think and how to think). Vygotsky calls this tools of intellectual adaptation Cross-cultural comparisons - child-rearing practices change across cultures. Within a culture there is also variation and congruence in beliefs and practices on raising children.Minority groups (ethnic, cultural, linguistic)Socioeconomic status – inequalities in wealth and economic level can affect child development. Different economic levels have occupations of different prestige, different levels of power and influence, different amounts of resources, and different educational opportunities. Poor families and children are more likely to feel powerless, vulnerable to disaster, and have a limited range of alternatives. Gender – in all societies, children learn expectations of being a girl or a boy in the community. Theses gender roles that society determines for children will affect their future in how children form relationships, access to education, and physical and psychological health.Draw attention to key course debate: Universal v. Context-specific developmentTo what extent does development occur the same to everyone throughout the world and to what extent is it specific to cultural context?What is inclusive education? Schools and teachers can play a big role in counteracting the sometimes negative impacts of society on child development by including all children in learning.An inclusive, learning-friendly environment welcomes, encourages, and educates all children regardless of their gender, physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, or other characteristics. They may be disabled children, street or working children, children of remote or nomadic peoples, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities, or children from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or groups.Inclusive education or inclusive learning refers to the inclusion and teaching of ALL children in formal or non-formal learning environments without regard to gender, physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, cultural, religious, or other characteristics. In an inclusive classroom, all students regardless of differences study in the same classroom and receive the same quality education. Some challenges to inclusive education are people’s perceptions and attitudes of other people in society that sometimes take the form of deep rooted discriminations. Gender – Girls’ education and inclusionGender – social and cultural aspects beyond the biological differences between men and women. These are learned traits, not biological, that children learn early in life through socialization by family, education, culture, or community.Gender roles affect physical and psychological development of boys and girls in many ways:Access to food – in many countries girls have less access to food than boys and lower nutritional healthHealth care – sometimes child mortality rates are higher among girls due to differences in nutrition or parents wait longer to take a girl to the doctorEducation – girls are less likely to go to school and more likely to stay home to help with houseworkLabour – girls are more likely to do informal work not recognized by the economy. Also, their physical and cognitive development can be hurt by doing hard jobs at home instead of going to schoolSelf-esteem – sometimes boys are more valued in society than girls which can lead to negative psychological effects in girlsEquitable DevelopmentEducation for girls can lead to better health, nutrition, and quality of life for familiesSometimes schools and teacher show gender-biases in education through attitudes, practices, and classroom interactionsTeachers can either continue gender discrimination or change roles to be inclusive to girls of Schools, Teachers and PeersSchools – creating positive learning environmentsDoes schooling influence the child’s development? What is the relationship between school context and development? Children spend a significant part of their day in school and experiences with teachers provide children with adult social encounters beyond their family. Such experiences provide children with feedback about their cognitive and social abilities. Schools are small societies with tasks to be accomplished and social experiences that are different from those children experience at home.School as a formal institution plays an equally important role in developing different facets of a child’s personality. Since the schools lie embedded within the society, consequently its various influences penetrate the school boundaries and are reflected in the classroom environment, the teaching, school relationships and even in the school system.- The school and Learning environment -Teachers and their influence on child development- Behavior management practices in classroom-Gender stereotyping and student motivation and learningThe impact of schoolsSchools have a large degree of influence on children’s lives. Children spend many years in schools as members of a small society in which there are tasks to be accomplished, people to be socialized and to be socialized by, and rules that define and limit behaviour, feelings, and attitudes. ?School will influence identity development, belief in one’s own competence, career possibilities, social relationships, and standards of right and wrong. School is a formal institution designed to transmit knowledge and skills required of children to become productive members of society. Children’s experiences in school affect many aspects of their development.Social context at schoolpreschool setting – school is a protected environment usually with smaller groups of childrenelementary school setting – the classroom is social unit, teachers and peers have great influence and peer learning communities form, and children have increased interest in friendship and belonging secondary school – Children become influences by the school as a whole and interact with many different teachers and peersThe physical environmentThe physical environment of the school makes a difference in how children learn and grow. Some factors that influence learning include:How many children are enrolled? – Children in smaller sized classes tend to have better academic achievement and receive more attention from the teacher. How much space and resources are there for work and play? – Students in large, crowded classes with little space and few resources sometimes lead to conflict among children.How are the classrooms arranged? - Teachers seating plans, physical setting, and pupil location affect student learning. Children in the front and centre interact with the teacher the most. Sometimes if shy children are in the front and centre of attention it can cause them discomfort and distract them from learning. Students sitting in a circle is the most effective setup for encouraging participation in discussion, followed by students sitting in groups, then students sitting in rows facing the front. School philosophy: traditional versus open classroomsTeacher’s educational ideology plays a role in the structure and organization of children’s school experiences:Traditional classrooms - passive learning process, students acquire information presented by the teacher, teacher-centred, teacher does most of the talking and students listen and respond to tasks designed by the teacher. ?Student progress is determined by how they keep up with common set of expectationsOpen classrooms - children are active in their own development, the teacher is a facilitator of learning, small group discussion, students are more independent, increased self-esteem, social and attitudinal advantagesRole of Peers in Child DevelopmentWe tend to think of peer influence as becoming important in the adolescent years. But even young children seek and enjoy friendships. Recent research shows that even infants spend time with peers, and that some three- and four-year-olds are already having trouble being accepted by their peers. Early problems with peers have negative consequences for the child’s later social and emotional development.Peers play important roles in children’s lives at much earlier points in development than we might have thought. (Smith, P.J. 2010)Acceptance and rejection relate to factors such as family practices, but children are usually accepted or rejected on the basis of their own behaviour in social situations.There are clear links between very early peer relations and those that occur later in childhood. For example, toddlers who were able to engage in complex play with peers were more competent in dealing with other children in the preschool years and in middle childhood. Peer acceptance in early childhood is a predictor of later peer relations. Peer relations pose special challenges to children with disorders and others who lack the emotional, cognitive and behavioural skills that underlie harmonious interaction. The risk for children with early behavioural and emotional problems is exacerbated by the peer rejection they experience. Conversely, early friendships and positive relations with peer groups appear to protect children against later psychological problems.Even young children can be capable as peer tutors.Teachers need to provide environments where children can work alongside their peers and support each other’s learning.School is very much a social place.For many students, interacting with and gaining the acceptance of peers are more important than classroom learning and achievement.Academics and peer relationships do not have to be “either/or”.Students with good peer relationships at school are more likely to have high academic success.As students enter childhood and middle school, friends become more than someone to play with.Friends provide emotional support and encouragement.Friends that help to mould children’s behaviours and beliefs. Peer pressure can be positive in helping students make wise choices.Peer pressure is only one of many influences on older children and adolescents.Teachers can help children and youth develop skills of friendship and good peer relations.Teachers can assign group projects that highlight every student’s skills and talents.Teachers can find ways to help students deal with ridicule and peer pressure that is negative.The role of teachers in child developmentHow much influence do teachers have on children’s development?Some teacher traits that relate positively to the student’s intellectual development are enthusiasm, the ability to plan, flexibility, adaptability, and awareness of individual differences. ?Erikson’s criteria for a good teacherA good teacher:produces a sense of industry rather than inferiority in their studentsis trusted and respected by the communitychanges between play and work, games and studyrecognizes special efforts and encourage special abilitybalances between focusing on control and conformity of students as opposed to encouraging children to make discoveries on their ownTeacher-student interactionThe classroom is a complex social system with different patterns of teacher student interactions. A classroom can be a crowded and distracting environment for students so teachers must manage and arrange conditions that make work possible for children to learn effectively. Some patterns of teacher-student interaction promote learning for all more than others.teachers who are effective classroom managers have students who learn and achieve well. Classroom management skills promote quicker transfer of learning and higher achievementteachers who focus on rote repetitive drill rather than cognitively challenging tasks reduce children’s interest and involvementteachers can effectively or ineffectively give feedback to students about whether their ideas are right or wrongteacher-student relationships are not equal and some students receive more attention, praise, and criticism than othersteachers prefer students that are high-achieving, well behaved, motivated as opposed to children who are disruptiveSometimes teachers’ attitudes are hard to change and this can create long-term consequences for children’s motivation and academic progress. Such unfair biases can be based on students’ class behaviour, racial/ethnic background, social classTeacher expectations of children’s academic performanceSometimes teachers interact differently with different students which can cause negative self-fulfilling prophecies:Educational self-fulfilling prophecy - the idea that teacher expectations for students’ academic performance may become realities, causing some children to do better and others to do worse than they otherwise would Negative teachers expectations can be based on student’s behaviour (disruptive students), low-achievement or ability tracks, racial/ethnic/linguistic minority groups, or gender Teachers who regard low-achieving pupils as limited by ability rather than effort or opportunity to learn are likely to provide them with little encouragement for mastering new and difficult tasks.Over time children in low expectation groups display a drop in self-esteem and achievement, stigmatized as not smartteachers who have a strong fear of losing control of their class more often initiate negative self-fulfilling prophecies by avoiding public communication with low-achieving pupilsTeachers’ use of positive disciplineIn schooling, expectations of behaviour and social skills need to be taught. Part of positive child development is using the right strategies to address inappropriate child behaviour (such as biting, screaming, whining, kicking, screaming, lying, etc. that can sometimes indicate developmental problems). Teachers must help children work through their emotions, self-esteem, and behavioural problems, then adopt strategies to work with them. There are two approaches to dealing with issues in child behaviour:Punishment – Adults attempt to control child behaviour. Punishment is an action imposed on a student for breaking a rule or misbehaving. Aims to control behaviour through negative means (verbal disapproval or by physical pain such as hitting the child).Punishment is not a good method for changing or controlling unacceptable behaviour, is only a temporary solution, does not help children learn self-control, and hurts their self-esteem.Can be psychologically detrimental to child growth and development and hurt their self-esteem.Makes children angry and fearful, anxious, guilty, dependent and does not change the behaviour. Can cause students to copy teachers’ behaviour and be bullies or use violence in school to dominate younger children. Discipline – Adults attempt to develop child behaviour. Practice of teaching or training students to obey rules or a code of behaviour in both short and long terms. Allows a child to understand what he or she did wrong, gives them ownership of the problem, provides solutions to address it, and leaves the child’s dignity intactChildren imitate caregivers’ and teachers’ behaviour, so teachers should model positive, desired behaviours.With very young children, distraction is one strategy where teachers redirect kids’ attention away from the behaviourFor children over 6 years old, reasoning is another strategy Don’t versus do commands to tell children how to act (don’t talk v. be quiet)Positive discipline – four stepsThe correct behaviour is describedClear reasons are givenSeek student understanding, make sure they understand the ruleReinforce good behaviourDiscipline is:Punishment is:Logical consequences that are directly related to the misbehaviourConsequences that are unrelated and illogical to the misbehaviourWhen children must make amends when their behaviour negatively affects someone elseWhen children are punished for hurting others, rather than shown how to make amendsUnderstanding individual abilities, needs, circumstances, and developmental stagesInappropriate to the child’s developmental stage of life; individual circumstances, abilities, and needs are not taken into considerationTeaching children to internalize self-disciplineTeaching children to behave well only when they risk getting caught doing otherwiseListening and modellingConstantly reprimanding children for minor infractions causing them to tune us out (ignore us; not listen to us)Using mistakes as learning opportunitiesForcing children to comply with illogical rules “just because you said so”Directed at the child’s behaviour, never the child – your behaviour was wrongCriticizing the child, rather than the behaviour – you are very stupid; you were wrongModified from: UNESCO (2006). Positive Discipline in the Inclusive, Learning-Friendly Classroom. management practices and techniquesBe warm and welcoming with students to put them at easeSet standards, expectations, and rules – model and teach behaviour (especially important in the beginning of the year to set the right tone)Explain rules, demonstrate with examples, and let students practiceStructured the classroom and set routinesCreate a calm class environment with moderate noise, even during exciting activitiesNotice when children are behaving well and praise them (called positive reinforcement), use small rewardsPractice assertive discipline – explain consequences for bad behaviourSet classroom norms – signals and cues to get students attentionTeachers’ influence on student motivation Teachers can encourage positive development and learning by effectively motivating their students. What is student motivation?A motivated student wants to participate, is happy to be in class, and wants to learnStudents do not want to participate when: they feel nervous about saying the wrong thing, they do not understand what to do, they do not understand how they will use what they are learning, and they think that the teacher will embarrass themStudents want to participate when:They want to please their family or teacher, they want to do well on a test, they want to win a competition, they have been successful in class before, they are having fun, and they find something interesting and meaningful.Extrinsic motivation – comes from outside the student such as wanting to please a family member or teacher or do well on a test or in a competition. This kind of motivation can help students but then they rely on others to make them want to learn. Some other examples include rewards or incentives for doing work.Intrinsic motivation – comes from inside the student, such as finding something fun or interesting or experiencing previous success. Intrinsic motivation is best because it means students really want to learn without someone pushing them.Teachers can do and say things to students to encourage them or discourage them. It is part of a teacher’s job to get children interested in learning so that they develop on track.APPENDIX BUsing Tests as Assessment ActivitiesThe course is designed to favor alternative forms of assessment. However, students who are to be assessed by examinations at mid- and end-of-term need experiences in test taking. Faculty may build short tests or pop-tests/quizzes into the curriculum at any point. Though some authorities on assessment argue that pop-tests put students under too much pressure and take the focus off of learning for deep understanding, a pop-test can also be a tool for promoting deep understanding.The key is in how any test is constructed and used.Most of us, as faculty, are not offered training in test construction. We have our own experience as students and faculty to draw upon. But it may not be the best teacher as most of us have been exposed to poorly constructed tests. In some cases, most of our experience with tests has been negative. Others of us learned how to manage poor tests to our own advantage.Here is some helpful information on tests as assessment that may be found on the website for University of Hawaii faculty. The website offers a “gold mine” of useful information about teaching and learning. This material is modified from the UH faculty website and focuses on tests and may be found in more detail at: Is It You Want to Know About Student Learning?To Assess*Ask These Kind of QuestionsKnowledge (Facts, Terms, Principles,Procedures)Ask students to: Define, Describe,Identify, Label, List, Match, Name,Reproduce, Outline, Select, StateComprehension (Understanding andInterpreting Material)Ask students to: Convert, Defend,Estimate, Distinguish, Explain,Generalize, Provide Examples, Predict,Application (Solving Problems,Applying Concepts or PrinciplesLearned to New Situations)Ask students to: Demonstrate, Modify,Operate, Prepare, Produce, Relate,Show, Solve, UseAnalysis (Recognize unstatedassumptions or fallacies to distinguishbetween facts and inferences)Ask students to: Diagram, Differentiate,Distinguish, Illustrate, Infer, Select,Relate, Point out, SeparateSynthesis (Integration of Learning fromDifferent Areas as well as SolvingProblems through Creative Thinking)Ask students to: Categorize, Combine,Devise, Design, Explain, Generate,Organize, Plan, Reconstruct, Revise,TellEvaluation (Judging and Assessing)Ask students to: Compare, Contrast,Appraise, Criticize, Describe, Justify,Interpret, SupportDifferent Kinds of Tests/Question Format*Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the Cognitive DomainTests and QuizzesTypeFormat Information About the TestMultiple ChoiceThese items can be designed to measure simple and complex concepts. Can be scored quickly and with a good level of reliabilityTrue FalseThese tests are less reliable than other forms. They may be testing thestudents guessing ability rather than their knowledge related to a subject.Some faculty include an EXPLAIN section to a T/F exam, thus the studentchooses an answer an then must explain their choice.Matching TestsThis type of test can effectively examine a student’s ability to recognizerelationships between concepts.Essay Tests Essays offer the instructor the ability to ascertain the student’s ability toorganize, integrate, and interpret material. Research has shown thatstudents study more for essay exams. Reliability in grading can be challengedwhen using essay exams. Create a GameAsk students to create either a board game, word game, or trivia game that covers the range of information relevant to your course. Students must include the rules, game board, game pieces, and whatever else is needed to play.Short Answer TestsStudents answer questions in one or two sentences or a paragraph. Thesetype of tests may be easier to write, but take longer to score than MC or T/Fand again reliability can be questioned in the scoring of the answers. Thesemay give you a limited insight into how students express themselves in awritten format related to a specific concept.Problem sets. In courses in mathematics and the sciences, your tests can include problem sets. As a rule of thumb, allow students ten minutes to solve a problem you can do in two minutes. Case setsSimilar to problem sets, but students are given a case description and asked to solve it, justifying their decisions in light of course readings and experiences.Text setsStudents are given one-two or more short articles related to the unit/course. They are asked to analyze and compare the articles in light of course readings and experiences. Not often used as an undergraduate assessment.Performance testsThese can be administered individually or in small groups. Allow students to demonstrate their skills in a specific area. Students should be informed ahead of time the scoring criteria, exactly what they are supposed to do and should be givenchance to perform task more than once or perform several tasks. Can be logistically difficult to set up, hard to score.Create a GameStudents are asked to work in groups to create a game related to the coursematerial. Can be a word game, board game or trivia game. They need toinclude the rules and whatever is needed to play the game.Take home tests Offer students opportunity to work at their own pace and utilize all materialsavailable to them. These offer the instructor the opportunity to ask longerquestions and save class time. Make sure to provide students with EXPLICITinstructions regarding their individual performance on the exam.Open book testsThese tests have the potential to simulate situations that professionalsencounter on a daily basis. We all use resources to answer questions. Beprepared… students who do not know the material may waste time searchingfor an answer rather than answering the questions. These tests reducestress in studentsPaired testingSimilar to group testing… see below.Group testingProvide students an opportunity to serve as resource to each other. It is more like “real-life” than other forms of testing. For detail and critique see: portfolio is not a specific test but rather a cumulative collection of a student's work. Students decide what examples to include that characterize their growth and accomplishment over the term. While most common in composition classes, portfolios are beginning to be used in other disciplines to provide a fuller picture of students' achievements. A student's portfolio might include sample papers (first drafts and revisions), journal entries, essay exams, and other work representative of the student's progress. You can assign portfolios a letter grade or a pass/not pass. If you do grade portfolios, you will need to establish clear criteriaTips for Constructing Effective Tests, Exams and Quizzes1.Write new exams each time you teach a course: Although it is timeconsuming, you may make changes in a course and the exam you created in thepast may not reflect the changes within the course. Content validity of exams ishighly important. You can make old exams available to students for study.2.Create test items as you go: Don’t wait until a short period of time before youwill administer the test to create items. It may be helpful if you take a few minutesat the end of each lecture and create several test items. The material is fresh inyour mind and you may save time in the long run using this technique. Write exam questions on note/index cards or note paper or the computer.3. Have students submit test questions: Pair students and have them submittest questions over a specific section of material within the course. Limit thenumber of questions they submit and indicate that the course instructor may editthe questions for content clarity. You could use student items for testing or forreview purposes.4. Obtain tests from faculty at other institutions: May give you ideas of howthey construct test questions. Be cautious of using tests from faculty at yourinstitution, as these tests may have already circulated.5. Consider cumulative test/exams: These exams require students to reviewand potentially integrate information students have already learned and studiedwhich can be reinforcing. Cumulative test/exams offer students opportunity tosynthesize and integrate course content.6. Make sure your instruction and test questions are clear: Have a colleagueor graduate teaching assistant review your questions for understanding andclarity. This is very helpful to individuals new to creating tests.7. Give students information about timing: Inform students how long theyhave to complete the test/quiz/exam, how much they should spend on specificsections as well as possibly providing a hint related to an essay question.8. Place some easy items on the test first: Students who are anxious withinthe testing environment will appreciate these items as they will place them atease and facilitate their confidence in continuing with more difficult items that willappear on the exam.9. Timing of questions: Use rule of thumb for length of time students will needto complete the questions. One half minute per question for true/false, oneminute per item for multiple choice, two minutes for short answer, ten to fifteenminutes for essay and make sure to allow time for students to review their workonce it is completed. Allow ten to fifteen minutes for review. Another suggestionoffered is to allow students approximately four times the time it would take you ora graduate assistant to complete the test.10.Be mindful of the test and visual layout: Make sure to allow enough spacein margin and between questions to make the test easy to read. Group similartesting items, make sure to allow enough space for short answer and essayitems.-Additional ResourcesGeneral Testing Tips from University of Kansas: for Testing and Reviewing from University of Kansas of the Motivating Professor from Western Michigan University Multiple Choice Questions that Require Critical Thinking from Universityof Michigan Evaluation of Students from University of Michigan Multiple Choice Tests from Kansas State University Essay Tests from Kansas State University Instructional Objectives to Testing Materials from Kansas StateUniversity and Links to All Teaching Centers in the US CAdditional Articles for the InstructorCritiques of Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesThe following article gives you an overview of critiques that may be helpful in formulating a reasoned critique for students that encourage students to apply Gardner (and all developmental theories) as different windows on learning, not THE window.You will notice that many of the criticisms have to do with whether Gardner’s categories of intelligence are separate from or part of a general intelligence.Critiques of Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences TheoryHere are some intelligence theorists who disagree with Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple IntelligencesBouchard, Thomas, J. Jr. Document retrieved from: 20, 1984.? Review of Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences.? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 506-508.Brody, Nathan1992.? Intelligence.? 2nd ed.? New York: Academic Press.? In his evaluation of what he simply terms a taxonomy, Brody argues, at some length, that HEG's "list of intelligences is arbitrary, and that his attempt to restructure the theory of intelligence to omit a general factor is no more successful than the attempts of psychometric theorists to dispense with g" (p. 36).? Brody fails to see how Gardner's eight (8) criteria leads to the set of intelligences that he posits.?Moreover, Brody has problems with HEG's evidence of the independence of intelligences resulting from HEG's study of 'rare' cases of prodigies and savants, to name just two.? And Brody feels that "the independent functioning of intelligences following brain damage may be of little relevance to understand the performance of intact individuals" (p. 29).Here, the reader sees two (2) well-respected theorists of intelligence (Robert Sternberg and Nathan Brody) finding Gardner's taxonomy to be without empirical foundation, and thus subject to extreme judgment.? Gardner (1993) has been the first to admit that his "intelligences are fictions -- at most, useful fictions -- for identifying processes and abilities that (like all of life) are continuous with one another" (p. 70).? In defense of Howard Earle, I must point out that the field of developmental cognitive science (DCS) is a new, young, and growing field and that all evidence should thus be taken as tentative rather than definite.? In DCS, researchers continue to hypothesize about the existence of 100 distinct areas in the cerebral cortex, still trying to shade them, to ascertain their identities, and to see how they connect with each another.Carroll, John, B.1993? Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.? Here, Carroll finds it interesting "that the kinds of 'intelligences' described by Gardner show a fairly close correspondence with the broad domains of ability" as suggested by Raymond Cattell and John Horn.? For example, Carroll believes that Gardner's linguistic intelligence corresponds closely to the concepts of Cattell and Horn's crystallized intelligence.? Carroll also views Gardner's logical-mathematical and visual-spatial intelligence suspiciously similar to the concept of fluid intelligence and visual perception, respectively (p. 641; for a similar critique, see Bouchard 1984, p. 507).Carson, Andrew2001? Updated March 16, 2008? Why Has Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences Had So Little Impact on Vocational Psychology?? This article takes a different focus, namely Gardner's potential for use in career choices and decisions, but its conclusions for the most part apply equally as well in education."I would suggest there are a number of reasons for why vocational psychologists have largely ignored Gardner's work in general and his MI theory in particular. First, he has ignored almost all research and theory contributed by vocational psychologists. ... Second, despite all the books, there have as yet been relatively few serious, empirical, theory-testing publications of MI theory. ... Third, he tends to make broad claims about how his MI theory makes sense and seems to imply that competing theories -- nd theories of g in particular -- are lacking in substance; this is despite decades of empirical research supporting the latter. Fourth, he almost never collaborates or interacts with other vocational psychologists ... Fifth, he seems romantically inclined rather than philosophically inclined, ... meaning that he identifies in his topics what in them he finds emotionally engaging, and focuses on extreme limit cases (e.g., his biographies of great achievers), rather than to promote dry, logical, traditional, and testable theories."Ceci, StevenSteven Ceci, a developmental psychologist at Cornell, praises Gardner as "a wonderful communicator" who has publicized "a much more egalitarian view of intelligence."?But he points out that Gardner's approach of constructing criteria and then running candidate intelligences through them, while suggestive, provides no hard evidence -- no test results, for example -- that his colleagues could evaluate.?Ceci adds: "The neurological data show that the brain is modular, but that does not address the issue of whether all these things are correlated or not."?Track-and-field athletes, he notes, may have special gifts in one particular event, but they will score better than the average person on every event.?Psychological tests show the same kind of correlation (p. 20)."Darius, JulianAgainst Gardner? September 20, 2008? Originally published online on 18 February 2003? An opinion critiquing HEG's MIT.? Here are two (2) quotes from his longer piece."But the most damaging element of Gardner’s taxonomies is not his particular choices -- which should not be taken all so seriously, though they often are -- but the labelling of all such elements as “intelligences.” Previous eras and generations did not ignore the awe-inspiring abilities of athletes and musicians and interpersonal schmoozers, but they called such things “abilities” or “aptitudes” instead of “intelligences.”"Howard Gardner’s popular theory has made him, in his effects if not his intentions, a traitor not only to the academy but some two and a half millennia of learning. Such is the power of a single word, calamitous in its misuse."To read the rest of what Darius has to say, go to Eysenck, M. W.1994.? Intelligence.? In M. W. Eysenck, (Ed.), The Blackwell dictionary of cognitive psychology? (pp. 192-193).? Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers.? Here, Eysenck severely criticized HEG for confounding talents and abilities with intelligence.Fodor, Jerry1983? The modularity of mind: An essay on faculty psychology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT / Bradford Press1985? Précis of the modularity of mind. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, March, 8(1), 1-42. In these two (2) writings, Fodor claims that Gardner rejects a central processor form of intelligence that cuts across his eight (8) separate modules.? In its stead, Fodor defends the now standard consensus of brain localization, the modularity of mind -- a theory holding that the different forms of human intelligence occupy separate areas of the brain.Gardner, Howard1994? Multiple intelligences theory.? In Robert Jeffrey Sternberg? (Ed.), ?Encyclopedia of human intelligence (Vol. 2, pp. 740-742).? New York: Macmillan.? Here, we read HEG being critical of his own theory, in particular, his comments that his model does not incorporate specifying underlying executive processes. Guskin, S. L. Peng, C. J., & Simon, M.Winter 1992.? Do teachers react to "multiple intelligences"?? Effects of teachers' stereotypes on judgments and expectancies for students with diverse patterns of giftedness/talent.? Gifted Child Quarterly, 36(1), 32-37.Jensen, Arthur Robert??(2008, January -- February).??[Review of Howard Gardner under Fire: The rebel psychologist faces his critics, Jeffrey A Schaler (Ed.), (2006), Chicago and La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, ISBN-13:978-08126-9604-2, pp.xxi+ 407, Hbk price $36.95].??Intelligence, 36(1), 96-97.Arthur Robert Jensen is known for his work in psychometrics and differential psychology, which is concerned with how and why individuals differ behaviourally from one another.??He is a major proponent of the hereditarian position in the nature-versus-nurture debate, his position being that genetics play a significant role in behavioural characteristics, such as intelligence and personality.??His emergence as an important figure in the history of human intelligence theory occurred, in the opinions of many, in February of 1969, with the publication of his controversial 123-paged essay in the Harvard Educational Review journal (33, 1-123).??In How much can we boost I.Q. and scholastic achievement?, Jensen, in so many words, responded with a firm Not Very Much.?? Throughout that lengthy article, he presented evidence that racial differences in intelligence test scores may have a genetic origin.Thus, and as one might expect, Jensen does not have many favorable comments regarding Gardner's above 428-paged 2006 book.??The significant criticism that Jensen (and most other intelligence scholars from a more empirical/psychometric tradition) has for Gardner's work is perhaps best captured in the following quote, lifted directly from his review:Probably many educationists with little interest in acquiring a clear understanding of scientific psychology and psychometrics have uncritically embraced Gardner's psychology out of desperation.??The persistent frustration of the educational system's dealing realistically with the wide range of scholastic aptitude in the nation's schools creates a fertile ground for seemingly attractive educational nostrums.??Gardner's invention of the term “multiple intelligences” capitalizes on the high valuation the public accords to the word “intelligence.”??The appeal of Gardner's terminology has been parodied as the Marie Antoinette theory of schooling: if the people have no bread, let them eat cake.??If some pupils have inordinate difficulty learning the 3 Rs, let them spend more time exercising those other skills constituting the several distinctive “intelligences”: music, art, dance, athletics, empathic understanding of other persons, or insightful understanding of oneself, and possibly a few other still debatable abilities that might intuitively qualify as “intelligences” in Gardner's system, such as naturalist intelligence and spiritual intelligence. (pp. 96-97, emphases are mine alone and not those of Jensen)To see Jensen's complete review, go to Klein, Perry(Autumn, 1997).? Multiplying the problems of intelligence by eight: A critique of Gardner's theory.? Canadian Journal of Education, 22(4), 377-394. Here is the abstract of Klein's article.? Howard Gardner has theorized that the mind comprises eight intelligences. Multiple intelligence theory has inspired educational innovations across North America, but has received little critical analysis. I contend that Gardner is on the horns of a dilemma. A "weak" version of multiple intelligence theory would be uninteresting, whereas a "strong" version is not adequately supported by the evidence Gardner presents. Pedagogically, multiple intelligence theory has inspired diverse practices, including balanced programming, matching instruction to learning styles, and student specialization. However, the theory shares the limitations of general intelligence theory: it is too broad to be useful for planning curriculum, and as a theory of ability, it presents a static view of student competence. Research on the knowledge and strategies that learners use in specific activities, and on how they construct this knowledge, may prove more relevant to classroom practice.Gardner, Howard.? (1998).? A Reply to Perry D. Klein's "Multiplying the problems of intelligence by eight".? Canadian Journal of Education, 23(1), 96-102.Klein, Perry, D.? (1998).? A response to Howard Gardner: Falsifibality, empirical evidence, and pedagogical usefulness in educational psychology.? Canadian Journal of Education, 23(1), 103-112.Matthews, Donna(1988, December).? Gardner's multiple intelligence theory: An evaluation of relevant research literature and a consideration of its application to gifted education. Roeper Review, 11(2), 100-104.? In this article,? Matthews comments that while Gardner's MI model is practical and theoretically appealing, this quality alone cannot validate the theory.McGuinness, Keith@ comments on Howard Gardner's ideas. Here is part of what he said:" ... Gardner himself had a specific reason for calling the qualities he identified "intelligences". He wrote: "In delineating a narrow definition of intelligence, however, one usually devalues those capacities that are not within that definition's purview: thus, dancers or chess players may be talented but they are not smart.There are three points I would like to make about this statement. First, Gardner's conclusion is, obviously, incorrect: dancers and chess players can be talented AND smart. Second, in our society, talents seem to be valued (or at least applauded) more readily than intelligence. Third, as most people know, redefining a word to have a meaning at odds with current usage is a common practice in political or social debate: it is, in my experience, rarely done to enlighten, usually to confuse (e g killing civilians becomes "collateral damage")."Miller, GeorgeGeorge Miller, the esteemed psychologist credited with discovering the mechanisms by which short-term memory operates, wrote in The New York Times Book Review that Gardner's argument boiled down to "hunch and opinion" (see p. 20).? And Gardner's subsequent work has done very little to shift the balance of opinion.Morgan, Harry(1992).? An analysis of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence.? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of The Eastern Educational Research Association.? (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.? ED 360 088).? In this paper, Morgan contended that Gardner's index of intelligences bore striking resemblance to cognitive style constructs and intelligence quotient factors identified by others in unified theories of intelligence.? Morgan stated that MI theory merely adapted factors identified as primary abilities in factor analyses of data derived from intelligence tests and re-labeled them as intelligences.? Morgan reviewed the literature on cognitive styles.? His findings suggested numerous similarities between MI framework and styles of cognition.? For example, Morgan interpreted Gardner's logical-mathematical intelligence as being applied to those who are simply sensitive to logical or numerical patterns and thus have the ability to handle long chains of reasoning and whose ideal careers are scientists or mathematicians.? That is, Morgan saw Gardner's characteristics as compatible with the cognitive styles identified as field independent and also with numerical ability, one of the factors identified by intelligence factor analysis.? To sum, Morgan agreed that single factor constructs of intelligence have certainly been invalidated by current research; however, he failed to see how the label of separate intelligences for aspects of cognition could be warranted.Peterson, K. S.(1997). ?Do new definitions of smart dilute meaning?? USA Today, pp. D1-D2 Richardson, Ken.(1991). ?Understanding Intelligence.? Philadelphia: Open University Press.? Gardner's inattentiveness to the scientific method has also been contested.? Here, Richardson feels that the MI 'theory' seems to be "more a pragmatic framework for accentuating the individual strengths that children currently have, and as a rationale for providing programs of activity within the different intellectual domains" (p. 145). And during a review of Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Action, Fred Smolucha (1993) commented that Gardner has simply coined a new term "subjective" factor analysis as his excuse for lack of statistical data supporting his "theory" (p. 368; and for a similar critique, see Kline, 1991, p. 137).Scarr, Sandra(1985).? An author's frame of mind [Review of Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences] New Ideas in Psychology, 3(1), 95-100.? Here, Scarr severely critiques HEG for confusing talents and abilities with intelligence.Seebach, Linda2004.05.21? Scoping out multiple intelligences? Scripps Howard News Service@ , JamesOctober 19, 1993.? The Pedagogical Implications Of Cognitive Science and Howard Gardner's M. I. Theory (A Critique).? This paper briefly assesses some of the pedagogical implications of Gardner's work.? Simply stated for here, Sempsey insists that Gardner’s theory is too broad and can be abused.? To cite Sempsey directly: "Since our national culture is supposed to become increasingly multi-cultural, could not any individual pick and chose between various sub-culturally valued competencies and then proclaim their own unique set of abilities as equally legitimate to any other set?,”? And “To define intelligence in terms of culturally relative values is to deny the intrinsic value (or even existence) of higher orders of organization. If intelligence can only be subjectively valued, then ultimately intelligence has no true value and perhaps never existed to begin with."Shafer, BarbaraShafer cites the following five (5) why parents often have apprehension over the implementation of HEG's MIT in public schools.Some parents view HEG's MIT as being a further "dumbing down" of academic achievement.MIT fails to allow parents to know how their child is doing in school. Multiple Intelligences are often the excuse used for abandoning letter grades and adopting "Performance Based Assessments" that further muddy the waters in academic accountability. MIT is the reason behind more posters, songs, dances, videos, and dioramas as classwork (often as group work) in lieu of written papers, book reports, and oral presentations.? MIT requires more work on the part of parents.Smerechansky-Metzger, Jean, A.(1995, May-June).? The quest for multiple intelligences.? Gifted Child Today, 18(3), 12-15. For the MI model to be successful and validated, educators, especially classroom teachers, must "begin to open their minds to the possibilities surrounding the [MI] concept" (Smerechansky-Metzger, 1995, p. 14) Sternberg, Robert Jeffrey(1983, Winter).? How much Gall is too much gall?? [Review of Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]. Contemporary Education Review, 2(3), 215-224.? (1988). ?The triarchic mind: A new theory of human intelligence.? New York: Penguin Books.? Here, Sternberg is unclear as to "exactly what each intelligence consists of, because HEG's theory, like other map-based theories, does not specify processes. In other words, it is one thing to identify a linguistic intelligence but quite another to specify the underlying processes.? How do we read, learn vocabulary, write prose or poetry, produce oral speech, summarize, and so on?? HEG's theory names the so-called intelligences without pinning down just what they are (and aren't)" (p. 42).Sternberg continues his critique of HEG by calling Gardner's MIT model "a theory of talents, not one of intelligences" (p. 42).? Sternberg sees the difference between talent and intelligence as qualitative by stating "[I]ntelligence is general: without it we cannot function independently.? Talents, however, are specialized" (p. 42).(1991). ?Death, taxes, and bad intelligence tests.? Intelligence, 15(3), 257-270.? Here, Sternberg writes that bad intelligence tests seem as inescapable as death and taxes. However, new theories of intelligence are resulting in some promising developments. Sternberg describes thirteen (13) approaches to the measurement of intelligence; he divides then into the following categories: classical psychometric; developmental; culture-sensitive; cognitive; biological; and systems. And, like others, Sternberg criticizes HEG for confounding talents and abilities with intelligence.Sternberg, R. J. and Frensch, P. A.(1990). ?Intelligence and cognition.? In M. W. Eysenck (Ed.), International review of cognitive psychology.?Chichester: Wiley.? In critiquing HEG's MIT, Sternberg and Frensch write that "it seems strange to describe someone who is tone deaf or physically uncoordinated as unintelligent" (p. 193).? But in defense, Gardner believes that if spatial or musical ability must be called a "talent", then language and logic must be called merely a talent as well.? I'm going to give HEG the final word here when he comments "I balk at the unwarranted assumption that certain human abilities can be arbitrarily singled out as intelligence while others cannot" (Peterson, 1997, p. D2).Theiler, Janine(2006).? HYPERLINK "" A Comparative Study: Ericsson's Theory of Expertise and Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences.? University of Nebraska at Lincoln.? In a recent explorative investigation, Theiler, of the University of Nebraska at Lincoln, published a comparative study matching Karl Anders Ericsson's Expertise Theory to Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences.? Throughout the comparative analysis, the Gardner model is once again somewhat sneered.Traub, James1998, October 26.? Multiple intelligence disorder, The New Republic, pp. 20-23.? James Traub's article in The New Republic notes that Gardner's system has not been accepted by most academics in intelligence or teaching.? In other words, Gardner has failed to persuade his peers.? Traub comments that the scientific establishment has never fully accepted HEG's MIT on intellectual quotient (IQ).?He writes that this has not stopped educators from using Gardner's teachings to transform American schools.? Here are two (2) quotes from that article.? To grasp Traub's complete message, the more interested reader is referred to the complete article, as referenced above.? As I do not plan to summarize Traub exactly, I here cite him directly:George Miller, the esteemed psychologist credited with discovering the mechanisms by which short term memory operates, wrote in The New York Times Book Review that Gardner's argument boiled down to "hunch and opinion" (p. 20). And Gardner's subsequent work has done very little to shift the balance of opinion. A recent issue of Psychology, Public Policy, and Law devoted to the study of intelligence contained virtually no reference to Gardner's work. Most people who study intelligence view M.I. theory as rhetoric rather than science, and they're divided on the virtues of the rhetoric."In the 15 years since the publication of Gardner's Frames of Mind, multiple intelligences has gone from being a widely disputed theory to a rallying cry for school reformers to a cultural commonplace.? And, amazingly, it has done so without ever winning over the scientific establishment.""Gardner's central claim is that what we normally think of as intelligence is merely a single aspect, or two aspects, of a much wider range of aptitudes; he has counted eight so far.? Thus, we have exalted the attribute measured by IQ tests -- the hyperlogical style Gardner half jokingly calls the "Alan Dershowitz" model of intelligence -- and have slighted our creative and interpersonal gifts.? Of course, the primary question about this theory is whether or not it's true" (p. 20).Willingham, Daniel T.Willingham, Daniel T.? (2004,Summer).? Reframing the Mind: Howard Gardner and the theory of multiple intelligences, Education Next, 4(3), 19-24.? Throughout, Willingham critiques Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences.? Here is the final part of his review:Multiple TalentsOne may wonder how educators got so confused by Gardner’s theory. Why do they believe that intelligences are interchangeable or that all intelligences should be taught? The answer is traceable to the same thing that made the theory so successful: the naming of various abilities as intelligences.Why, indeed, are we referring to musical, athletic, and interpersonal skills as intelligences? Gardner was certainly not the first psychologist to point out that humans have these abilities. Great intelligence researchers–Cyril Burt, Raymond Cattell, Louis Thurstone–discussed many human abilities, including aesthetic, athletic, musical, and so on. The difference was that they called them talents or abilities, whereas Gardner has renamed them intelligences. Gardner has pointed out on several occasions that the success of his book turned, in part, on this new label: “I am quite confident that if I had written a book called ‘Seven Talents’ it would not have received the attention that Frames of Mind received.” Educators who embraced the theory might well have been indifferent to a theory outlining different talents–who didn’t know that some kids are good musicians, some are good athletes, and they may not be the same kids?Gardner protests that there is no reason to differentiate–he would say aggrandize–linguistic and logico-mathematical intelligences by giving them a different label; either label will do, but they should be the same. He has written, “Call them all ‘talents’ if you wish; or call them all ‘intelligences.’” By this Gardner means that the mind has many processing capabilities, of which those enabling linguistic, logical, and mathematical thought are just three examples. There is no compelling reason to “honor” them with a special name, in his view.Gardner has ignored, however, the connotation of the term intelligence, which has led to confusion among his readers. The term intelligence has always connoted the kind of thinking skills that make one successful in school, perhaps because the first intelligence test was devised to predict likely success in school; if it was important in school, it was on the intelligence test. Readers made the natural assumption that Gardner’s new intelligences had roughly the same meaning and so drew the conclusion that if humans have a type of intelligence, then schools should teach it.It is also understandable that readers believed that some of the intelligences must be at least partially interchangeable. No one would think that the musically talented child would necessarily be good at math. But refer to the child as possessing “high musical intelligence,” and it’s a short step to the upbeat idea that the mathematics deficit can be circumvented by the intelligence in another area–after all, both are intelligences.In the end, Gardner’s theory is simply not all that helpful. For scientists, the theory of the mind is almost certainly incorrect. For educators, the daring applications forwarded by others in Gardner’s name (and of which he apparently disapproves) are unlikely to help students. Gardner’s applications are relatively uncontroversial, although hard data on their effects are lacking. The fact that the theory is an inaccurate description of the mind makes it likely that the more closely an application draws on the theory, the less likely the application is to be effective. All in all, educators would likely do well to turn their time and attention elsewhere.To read all of his review, go to ReferencesBouchard, T. J., Jr.? (1984, July 20).? [Review of Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences].? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 506-508. Brody, N.? (1992).? Intelligence.? (2nd ed.).? New York: Academic Press. Carroll, J. B.? (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press. Eysenck, M. W? (1994).? Intelligence.? In M. W. Eysenck, (Ed.), The Blackwell dictionary of cognitive psychology. (pp. 192-193).? Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. Fodor, J. A.? (1983). The modularity of mind: An essay on faculty psychology.? Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT / Bradford Press. Fodor, J. A.? (1985, March). Précis of the modularity of mind.? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8(1), 1-42. Gardner, H.? (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences: Tenth anniversary edition.? New York: Basic Books.? (Original work published 1983) Gardner, H.? (1994). Multiple intelligences theory.? In R. J. Sternberg? (Ed.),? Encyclopedia of human intelligence? (Vol. 2,? pp. 740-742).? New York: Macmillan. Guskin, S. L., Peng, C. J., & Simon, M.? (1992, Winter).? Do teachers react to "multiple intelligences"?? Effects of teachers' stereotypes on judgments and expectancies for students with diverse patterns of giftedness/talent.? Gifted Child Quarterly, 36(1), 32-37. Jensen, Arthur R.? (2008, January -- February).? [Review of Howard Gardner under fire: The rebel psychologist faces his critics].? Intelligence, 36(1), 96-97.Kline, Paul? (1991).? Intelligence: The psychometric view.? New York: Routledge. Matthews, D.? (1988, December).? Gardner's multiple intelligence theory: An evaluation of relevant research literature and a consideration of its application to gifted education. Roeper Review, 11(2), 100-104. Morgan, H.? (1992).? An analysis of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence.? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of The Eastern Educational Research Association.? (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.? ED 360 088) Peterson, K. S.? (1997). Do new definitions of smart dilute meaning?? USA Today, pp. D1-D2 Richardson, K.? (1991). Understanding Intelligence.? Philadelphia: Open University Press. Scarr, S.? (1985).? An author's frame of mind? [Review of Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences].? New Ideas in Psychology, 3(1), 95-100. Smerechansky-Metzger, Jean, A.? (1995, May-June).? The quest for multiple intelligences.? Gifted Child Today, 18(3), 12-15. Smolucha, F.? (1993, October).? [Review of Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice].? Choice, 31(2), 368. Sternberg, R. J.? (1983, Winter).? How much Gall is too much gall?? [Review of Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]. Contemporary Education Review, 2(3), 215-224. Sternberg, R. J.? (1988). The triarchic mind: A new theory of human intelligence.? New York: Penguin Books. Sternberg, R. J.? (1991). Death, taxes, and bad intelligence tests.? Intelligence, 15(3), 257-270.Theiler, J.? (2003).? A Comparative Study: Ericsson's Theory of Expertise and Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences. University of Nebraska at Lincoln.? Here, Theiler discusses an explorative study whereby Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences was matched with Anders Ericsson's Expertise Theory.Traub, James? (1998, October 26). ?Multiple intelligence disorder.? The New Republic.? Willingham, Daniel T.? (2004,Summer).? Reframing the Mind: Howard Gardner and the theory of multiple intelligences, Education Next, 4(3), 19-24.? Vygotsky and the MediaApplying Vygotsky: Cognitive Development Turned Cognitive DelayBy Rainy28Cognitive development has defined as the “construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision making from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.”[i] Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development has already been discussed briefly, particularly his primary assertion that children's development is furthered by their observation of interactions among people in their world, interactions with others and use of these interactions.[ii] This theory has been termed the sociocultural theory and, essentially, states that a child's development occurs in the direction of outward to inward. As part of this, Vygotsky devised three primary thoughts about cognitive development—internalization, the zone of proximal development and scaffolding. Most directly applicable to this paper is his concept of internalization, defined as the "process of taking in knowledge or skills from the social contexts in which they are observed."[iii] There is a dynamic relationship between what a child observes, how they observe and how they apply their interpretation of what they observed. Because children are dependent upon their parents or guardians in most non-school contexts, what they observe within this environment becomes a key factor in their development. Here, I am asserting that, in line with Vygotsky's concept of internalization, a child’s internalization of these observations within their immediate environment can serve as a barrier to their intake of knowledge, state of mind and cognitive progression which, in turn, inhibits the entire learning process. With media becoming such a considerable part of children's environment today, we must look carefully at what children are observing. In particular, Vygotsky would warn that the interactions children observe are of utmost importance because they internalize the knowledge and skills they observe in these interactions. What interactions are they observing on television? Review the statistics reported earlier. They are observing interactions largely based on violence, criminal acts, drugs, alcohol and sex and an ongoing slew of interactions between characters revolving around this content. What interactions are they observing on video and computer games? Again, you will find violence, criminal acts, drugs, alcohol and sex and interactions based on this content. This is what children today are internalizing, yet society remains perplexed as to why the number of children requiring intervention and social work within schools is increasing. Vygotsky stated that "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts."[iv] This suggests that what is a part of a child's environment and, therefore, his or her cultural development affects social development followed by individual development. Perhaps impacted the greatest is a child's voluntary attention, memory and ability to form concepts. However, an environment where violence, crime, drugs, alcohol and sex are observed anywhere from 28-32 hours per week does not limit is impact to attention, memory and problem solving. There are many secondary factors affecting a child’s cognitive development that result, such as anxiety, depression, stress, fear, lack of motivation, and poor work habits. It is not to be inferred that any child who suffers from anxiety, depression or poor work habits is the victim of an unhealthy environment. The intention here is not to make an absolute connection between these issues and the cause as solely children’s immediate environment. Rather, the goal is to look at the impact of inviting inappropriate media into their immediate environment and how it could affect their cognitive development, since such media can be monitored. Harmful media content does not contribute to a supportive environment to aid in children’s healthy, overall development. It appears anymore that many parents rely heavily on the schools and teachers in ensuring their child(ren) are cognitively healthy. A child’s learning and cognitive development is not the sole responsibility of schools, as many of the influential factors in cognitive progression occurs in non-school environments. Discussed below is a more detailed look into some of these factors and the possible impact on a child’s cognitive development using Vygotsky’s theory.Problem Solving Abilities: Vygotsky identifies children’s formation of concepts as an aspect in their development. This is, essentially, a part of a child’s problem solving abilities and ability to process new information. Some theorists believe that such skills develop as a result of sheer maturation, whereas Vygotsky believed that developmental progression is equally dependent upon social and environmental influences as it is sheer maturation.[v] Although Vygotsky is best known for the concept of internalization, theorists, generally, agree that internalization of a child’s problem solving abilities is an essential part of their cognitive development.[vi] The knowledge and information a child obtains, thereby, internalizes is a strong influence in how they process information in other situations whether outward actions or internal thinking. Related to problem solving is a child’s thought process and how they analyze situations and information. One study found that "visual-motor, visual-imagery and symbolic levels of performance of a problem-solving process represent a developmental progression."[vii] Discussed were the reasons for the differences in internalization of problem-solving among the children participating in the study. Interestingly, the two major explanations were founded in Piaget and Vygotsky's theories. As expected, the neo-Piagetian explanation suggested that problem-solving abilities increased as children's capacity for it increased. The explanation based on Vygotsky, however, speculated that the internalization of thinking during a child's early years is an outcome of children's use of objects and words during play. From this view, the study proposes that the differences in children's problem-solving activity could be attributed to differences in the quality of play during early childhood.[viii] Now, imagine the problem-solving abilities of children who, in their early years, were exposed to television and video games for up to 32 hours per week. Studies show that stress and constant fear, at any age, can circumvent the brain’s normal circuits.[ix] It was mentioned earlier that a child’s internalization of observations within their immediate environment can serve as a barrier to their intake of knowledge, state of mind and cognitive progression. If a child’s state of mind is distracted by anxiety due to excessive viewing of violence and crime, it should be no surprise that he or she struggles to think and analyze complex ideas. As this continues, the child becomes further behind in his or her cognitive progression which, consequently, can be a barrier to cognitive accomplishments if the child internalizes feelings of low sense of worth and self-respect. Motivation: Transitioning from above, children’s motivation to learn involves their beliefs about their skills and the results they expect from their efforts, as well as their value of learning.[x] Since Vygotsky does not believe that cognitive development is strictly a result of maturation, cognitive development to some extent comes from a student’s motivation to learn and develop cognitively. What a child sees on television can influence how they view themselves and their abilities. In fact, it is not uncommon for younger children to identify with characters on television which can influence how they form beliefs about what is normal, expected or acceptable. Unfortunately, media routinely glamorizes a life of violence, crime, drugs and alcohol so much that children begin to feel that they do not need education. Reality and fiction are blurred. They internalize what they see (e.g. big, muscled men portrayed to be “cool” and “successful” running a drug ring). The seed is planted at such a young age—“that guy on TV is cool and dropped out of high school”—and, time and time again, the students choose immersion in this fiction, rather than applying themselves to learning. They internalize the knowledge and information learned from these observations from television and video games and apply it to reality. The longer this occurs, the more behind a child becomes in his or her cognitive progression. A certain amount of failure is inevitable at some point for every child, but even the slightest failure by this child is internalized and processed as confirmation of their low self-worth which, in turn, increases their desire to return to their imaginary world found on television and in video games where they can experience success through the characters observed. Simply put, these students will find something to do that they find more valuable. Attention and Learning Ability: Learning, especially in the classroom, requires children to pay attention for extended periods of time. One thing students must understand is the concept of delayed gratification in that they need to take time now to learn so they can accomplish something later, e.g. test, diploma, etc., a concept lacking in video games and, often, television. Playing video games permits a child to experience quick success at each new level accomplished. If they do not succeed, they can simply start over. Although the idea of “trying again” can be positive, children may internalize their interaction with video games so that they do not apply themselves to learning because they think they can “hit the reset button” at any time. This is very much related to motivation. Children embracing this skewed impression will not feel it necessary to pay close attention. The less focused a child is on the learning at hand, the further behind he or she will become cognitively. Also influencing children’s attention ability is their emotional state of mind which, in turn, can impact their ability to learn and intake of knowledge. According to Israel Rosenfield (1988) emotions have an important connection to memory, help to store information and help trigger its recall.[xi] The problem lies in the types of emotions children are experiencing today as a consequence of their social observations which so prominently display violence, crime, drugs, alcohol and sex. Symptoms of being frightened or upset by content on television can include bad dreams, anxious feelings and being afraid, as seen in one study by Hancox, Milne & Poulton (2005) in which they reported that violent threats observed by children ages 8-12 can cause them to feel fright and worry.[xii] These emotions can cause anxiety which can paralyze children from normal development, especially their ability to focus and learn. Studies show that 5 to 20% of all children and adolescents are afflicted with at least one anxiety disorder.[xiii] Fear stemming from violent television or video games is not the only cause of child anxiety that can affect learning. What many may overlook is the effect of sexual content on television and in video games as it pertains to anxiety and depression. Sexualization is defined as occurring “when a person’s value comes only from his/ her sexual appeal or behavior, to the exclusion of other characteristics, and when a person is sexually objectified.”[xiv] Sexualization is widespread today in media with neither television, video games or computer games excluded. Girls begin to believe that how they look or their sexual appeal is most important and, often, become consumed by this idea. As a result, they may eventually experience anxiety because of low self-image and lack of confidence. It is not unheard of for this anxiety to turn into depression. This poor emotional health has a strong impact on cognitive health and functioning. Girls who are overly concerned about how they look often have difficulty focusing on other things.[xv] Per Vygotsky, they have internalized their self-worth to be what they see in the media and apply these interactions and social observations to their reality. The result is a poor state of mind and an inability to effectively process knowledge and complex ideas.Finally, a strong argument by opponents of excessive media usage is that it takes children away from activities that would improve cognitive functioning, such as reading, homework, hobbies and sufficient sleep. Lack of sleep, for instance, would make paying attention for extended periods of time a challenge. Focusing on learning is far more difficult when the child can hardly keep his or her eyes open. Motivation to learn is even more difficult when the child’s only goal at that point is to “get out of school that day” because they are so tired. As for reading, homework and other hobbies, all help a child progress cognitively and better prepare them for future cognitive accomplishments. Reading teaches a child to pay attention and focus. Homework teaches a child to develop good work and study habits, as well as reinforce what they have learned. There are so many valuable activities a child can do besides television, video games and computer games that can teach the skills proponents argue such media enhances, and these activities do not subject the child to violence and other harmful content which impact their development. Truth is that a discussion on this topic could go on for novels worth. Unfortunately, so many children today are soaking up an environment of misguided and unhealthy social interactions and, as a result, are gradually falling behind emotionally, socially and cognitively. It is not the sole responsibility of our schools and teachers to counter-act what we allow to permeate children's minds and thoughts. What we must remember that those most closely interacting with children hold the power to mold their immediate environment into one that is positive and healthy. Resources:[i] Cognitive Development. (n.d.). In Encyclopedia of Children's Health online. Retrieved 2/28/10 . [ii] Sternberg, R. J., & Williams, W. M. (2002). Educational psychology. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.[iii] Id. [iv] Social Development Theory (L. Vygotsky). (n.d.). Retrieved 2/28/10 from .[v] Sternberg, R. J., & Williams, W. M. (2002). Educational psychology. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.[vi] Karpov, Y.V. (2003). Internalization of children's problem solving and individual differences in learning. Cognitive Development, 18, 377-398. doi:10.1016/S0885-2014(03)00042-X.[vii] Id.[viii] Id.[ix] Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. (1997). How can research on the brain information education? Classroom Compass, 3(2). Retrieved from .[x] Center for Effective Parenting. (n.d.). Improving your child's learning and grades. Retrieved from ..[xi] Learning Point Associates. (n.d.). Affective Dimensions of Learning. Retrieved 2/28/10 from .[xii] University of Michigan Health System. (2009, November). Television and children. Retrieved from [xiii] Pine, D. & Klein, R. (1997). Anxiety in Children and Adolescents. Child StudyCenter Letter, 2(1). Retrieved from .[xiv] Gurian, A. (n.d.) The Sexualization of girls and mental health problems: Is there a connection? NYU ChildStudyCenter. Retrieved from .[xv] Id. ................
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