THE REFLECTIVE TEACHING MODEL



Running head: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Theories of Child Development

Bertranne Abrams-Menko

University College of the Cayman Islands

Introduction

A Theory is an organized set of principles that is designed to explain and predict something. Theories of child development then are an organized set of principles designed to explain and predict the way in which children develop, learn and behave.

The purpose of this paper is to define three theories of child development, namely the Maturationist, the Environmentalist or Behaviorist and the Constructivist theories. It will look at how these theories apply to the curriculum, instructional methods and assessment at the primary level; show how these theories might look in a classroom based on how the teacher views the student, the role of the teacher and the process of learning; and examine Kindermusik® as it relates specifically to the Constructivist theory of child development.

Maturationist Theory and Learning

Based primarily on Arnold Gessell’s work, the Maturationist Theory of child development views the development of the child as a biological process. The child’s development occurs automatically and naturally. The process of development is predictable and the stages are sequential. According to Crinc and Lamberty (1994), “Learning happens when the child is developmentally ready for the work. [So] development precedes learning.” The child is said to have already inherited its unique traits and abilities at birth and “behaviours and abilities simply unfold as the child matures.” (Trawick-Smith, 2006).

General educational implications of Maturationist Theories

Since each child will have unique traits, temperaments, abilities and interests and each will develop at their own pace – though in predictable sequence - the curriculum should enable each child to direct their own learning. The teacher “should adapt the classroom to meet the unique inborn traits of individual children, rather than expect children to adapt to the classroom” (Trawick-Smith, 2006). Learning can be measured by the child’s ability to do things that others at the same stage are capable of doing. However, the child’s inability to do so is not labeled but seen as a lack of developmental readiness whose remedy is simply time.

Maturationist theory in the classroom

In this classroom the teacher sees each student as unique and recognizes their individual interest and abilities. The teacher sees their role as enabling or supporting the child’s learning journey. The teacher’s roles is passive, he/she recognizes that learning will happen when the child is developmentally ready. The child who questions is seen to have greater natural abilities, the average child is average because biologically they have average natural abilities and nothing will change that. The struggling child my not be developmentally ready for the material and might benefit from being ‘held back’ a year.

Behaviorist Theory and Learning

Though they vary in the details; the child development theories of B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson and later, Albert Bandura are known generally as Behaviorist theories. The Behaviorist theory of child development views the development of the child as a response to stimuli provided by the environment. The child’s development, behavior and learning is shaped by the environment. For this reason the theories are sometimes called Environmentalist theories. According to the theory, the child is a blank slate at birth and can become anything the environment conditions it to become. Learning happens when there is an observable change in overt behaviour as a result of experience or practice (Barrett, 2003)

General educational implications of Behaviorist Theories

Since children are empty vessels to be shaped by the environment, the curriculum has specific goals and objectives that state clearly what is to be learnt or taught step-by-step in an inductive manner. Instruction is a process of communicating knowledge. According to Kagan and Kauerz (2006), the teacher uses “highly didactic models of direct instruction in which [they] typically present discrete facts to the entire class of children in whole groups.” Drill and practice are used to teach and strengthen new skill, conditioning is used to modify behavior and the teacher uses positive feedback and other rewards to influence learning – “reinforcement is the cardinal motivator” (Smith, 1999). Assessment is separated from the learning process and educational activities are evaluated as successful when the defined learning objectives are achieved.

Behaviorist theory in the classroom

In this classroom the teacher sees the student as an empty vessel to be filled or a blank slate to be written on. Children will learn if they are conditioned by the correct use of external motivators or conditioners to learn; if they are actively engaged and if there is sufficient drill and practice. The teacher neither recognizes nor acknowledges the child’s prior knowledge or experience. The teacher sees their role as the dispenser of knowledge. The teacher alone has information; the right answers and the correct steps to acquire knowledge. The end result (performance) is valued above process. The student is actively engaged in the process of learning what has been prescribed, they however have no say over what is learnt, when and how. Learning is viewed as the acquisition of a pre-prescribed body of information that can only be received from the teacher in a certain way. The child who questions is a trouble maker; the knowledgeable child is bored; the average child is a ‘good student’ and the struggling child is given more drill and practice or is labeled.

Constructivist Theory and Learning

Advanced by theorist such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, the Constructivist theory of child development holds the view that children use existing experiences and knowledge and interact with their environment and the people around them to actively construct new knowledge. According to Slavin (2006), “Constructivism is a view of cognitive development as a process in which children actively build systems of meaning and understanding of reality through their experiences and interactions. Children actively construct knowledge by continually assimilating (that is, fitting new experiences into what they already know), and accommodating (that is, reworking their understanding of the way the world works to fit new experiences) new information” (p. 33). This occurs through the child’s own mental activity and internal motivation to understand and most of the activities required for learning and development are initiated by the child. Huitt and Hummel (2003) indicate that “Learning is a process of relating new information to previously learned information. [It] involves the formation of mental associations that are not necessarily reflected in overt behaviors.” Smith (1999) puts it this way, “Learning is what you do in order to understand the world.”

General educational implications of Constructivist Theories

Since knowledge is constructed on the foundation of previous experiences and knowledge; the curriculum should start with the student’s knowledge and understandings and help the child fill in the gaps to solve a situation specific problem. Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge. The teacher uses instructional methods that are well organized and clearly structured as this makes it easier to make connections and remember what is learnt. Primary concepts, not isolated facts are presented. Hands on problem-solving; open-ended questions; dialogue among students and direct conversation with teachers characterize the constructivist classroom. The teacher tailors teaching strategy to student responses. Assessment is part of the learning process and provides students with information on the quality of their learning. Students play a large role in judging their own progress

Constructivist Theory in the classroom

Here the teacher sees the child as a vital contributor and very often the initiator of their own learning. This teacher acknowledges the prior learning experiences and natural abilities and interests of the child. They are vessels already filled, whose task is to learn to ‘connect the dots’ and integrate new information, experiences and knowledge with old. All children can learn and will learn given the right environment for them. The teacher sees their role as facilitator, assistant, model and even co-learner. Questioning and evaluating what is typically seen as the correct answer is valued and in this context, it is the process that has ultimate value over performance. So learning is viewed as the quest for knowledge – the search to discover or the act of discovery and therefore can come from a wide variety of sources including but not limited to the teacher. The child who questions is learning, the knowledgeable child thrives, the average child is (like all the others) an amazing human with unique abilities and the struggling child is helped to find the way he/she learns best.

Kindermusik®: A Constructivist Classroom

Kindermusik is an early childhood music and movement programme that caters to children ages newborn to seven years. The Kindermusik programme provides early childhood learning opportunities through innovative music and movement curricula and involves families in their child’s development. The curricula, designed to be developmentally appropriate, provides unique child-centered educational classes where each child is encouraged to learn at his or her own pace. Kindermusik’s philosophy is founded upon the fundamental beliefs that: every child is musical; every parent is the child’s most important teacher; the home is the most important learning environment; music nurtures a child’s cognitive, emotional, social, language and physical development; and every child should experience the fun and learning that music brings to life.

The seven years are divided into four broad age ranges reflecting where children are developmentally and in their style of learning or learning mode. The stages and learning modes as set out by Kindermusik are newborn to eighteen months when the child is in the receptive mode; eighteen months to three years when the child is primarily in the imitative mode and learns by observing and imitating others, three to five years when the child is expanding their knowledge base through trial and error, talking and moving and five to seven years when the child is applying their knowledge base in ways that are valued by adults.

In the first two age groups, which roughly coincide with Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, activities are primarily sensori-motor focusing on activities that stimulate the senses; develop and support language acquisition; develop gross motor skills and later fine motor skills; and supports developing independence. Scaffolding is used frequently in parent-child, teacher-child and teacher-parent interactions. Children are active participants in their own learning and are given ample opportunities when using instruments or exploring objects or deciding how to move, to initiate their own learning. The curriculum begins where the children are developmentally and the presence and active involvement of the parent (both in class and at home) ensures that it is uniquely tailored to each child’s ability, interest, prior knowledge and experience.

Within the preoperational stage, the curriculum begins to focus on the development of the child’s ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. This begins in the three to five age group primarily through imaginative or pretend play where children are encouraged to imagine real objects or use an object to represent something else (for example, colorful scarves become falling leaves or tissue becomes snow). At the five to seven age group, this is done by beginning the use of rhythm and melodic notation and other symbols used in music.

The variety of themes used in the units ensures that each child will have some prior experience, interest or knowledge on which to build new knowledge. Activities always begin where the child is and develop from there. Each child is acknowledged for being where they are and supported as they develop. Emphasis is placed on the process and not on performance. Interaction with parents, peers, teacher and the environment are provided for.

Within the five to seven age group, the learning of music is spiral and the curriculum is well organized and structured. The children are first prepared for the introduction of each new concept through songs, games and other activities. When the concept is presented it is easy for the children to grasp; assessment forms part of learning and children are able to self-assess and self-correct. Song, games and activities provide further practice and preparation for the next concept. Here again, the focus is on the child, the child is able to actively participate in their own learning and the focus is on process.

Conclusion

Theories of child development provide a broad framework for understanding how children grow, learn and behave; permit educated guesses about aspects of development that are not yet clearly understood and can guide adults in making decisions about caring for and teaching children.

It is important for educational institutions and policy makers to “make use of research and be grounded in sound educational theory. If programmes are created without an instructional model or ignore what is known about educational theory, we leave learning to chance.” (“Learnativity” 2002)

References

Barrett Cunia, E.C. (2003). Behavioral learning theory. Retrieved October 11, 2007 from

Crinc, K., & Lamberty, G. (1994). Reconsidering school readiness: Conceptual and applied perspectives. Early Education and Development, April 1994, Volume 5 (No 2). Retrieved October 11, 2007 from

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003) Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved October 11, 2007 from

Kagan, S.L., & Kauerz, K. (2006). Effective curricula. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development. Retrieved October 11, 2007 from

Learnativity (2002). A primer on educational psychology. Retrieved October 11, 2007 from

Slavin, R. E. (2006). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Smith, M. K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning, the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved October 11, 2007 from

Smith, M. K. (1999). The cognitive orientation to learning, the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved October 11, 2007 from

Trawick-Smith, J. (2006). Theories of child development: Critical concepts. Retrieved October 11, 2007 from

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