Para 1 - Cengage



CHAPTER 26

The West and the World, 1815–1914

Instructional Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, students should be able to discuss the global consequences of European industrialization. They should be able to place nineteenth century migration in the context of Western expansion. They should also be able to explain European nations’ rush to build political empires in Africa and Asia after 1875. Finally, they should be able to describe the general pattern of non-Western responses to Western expansion and to detail the Indian, Japanese, and Chinese efforts to meet the imperialist challenge.

Chapter Outline

I. Industrialization and the World Economy

A. The Rise of Global Inequality

1. In 1750, the European standard of living approximated that of the rest of the world.

2. Industrialization opened the gap between Europe and the rest of the world, with Britain leading.

3. Third World income per person stagnated before 1913.

4. Two schools of interpretation of resulting income differences:

a) The West used science, technology, and capitalism to create wealth.

b) The West used superior power to steal much of its riches from the rest of the world.

B. The World Market

1. Britain led the world in manufacturing and, after 1846, as a market for goods from other countries.

2. Railroads, steam vessels, and the Panama and Suez Canals helped expand trade.

3. From the mid-1800s France, Germany, and Britain invested massively abroad.

4. Most of this capital actually went to Europe, the United States and Canada, Australia and New Zealand, and Latin America.

C. The Opening of China and Japan

1. Prior to the nineteenth century, the Chinese government carefully regulated trade with Europe and China sent more goods to Europe than it received.

2. Chinese efforts to stamp out the opium trade led to war with Britain.

3. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) opened additional Chinese cities to trade.

4. The British and French forced the reluctant Qing Dynasty to open China to their trade (1839(1860).

5. The United States Navy forced Japan to open its ports to foreign trade (1853(1858).

D. Western Penetration of Egypt

1. Muhammad Ali modernized the Egyptian army and government, hired Europeans, and made Egypt autonomous within the Ottoman Empire (first half of 1800s).

2. Ali’s encouragement of commercial agriculture turned peasants into tenant farmers.

3. Ali’s grandson Ismail (r. 1863(1879) continued modernization.

a) Arabic replaces Turkish as official language.

b) French company built Suez Canal (1869).

c) Cairo got modern boulevards.

d) Large-scale export of cotton.

4. The Egyptian government was unable to pay off massive debts incurred during modernization.

5. The British occupied Egypt to force payment (1882) and remained in Egypt until 1956.

II. The Great Migration

A. The Pressure of Population

1. The population of Europe doubled between 1800 and 1900.

2. Between 1815 and 1932 more than 60 million people left Europe.

3. The growing number of Europeans provided further impetus for Western expansion.

4. Emigration peaked in the decade before World War I.

5. About one-third of all European emigrants came from the British Isles.

6. German emigration peaked in the 1880s and Italian emigration increased up to the eve of World War I.

7. Less than one-half of European emigrants went to the U.S. Others went to Asiatic Russia, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand.

B. European Migrants

1. Most European migrants were young, unmarried peasant farmers or village craftsmen.

2. Some ethnic groups, such as Italians, had a high rate of return to their homelands.

3. For some emigrants, such as Jews from the Russian Empire, emigration was an escape from oppression.

C. Asian Migrants

1. About three million Asians moved abroad before 1920.

2. Most Asian migrants were indentured laborers.

3. In the 1840s, Spain recruited Chinese laborers for Cuban plantations. Peruvian landlords also brought workers from China.

4. European settlers objected to Asian migration for racist reasons and because they feared competition from cheap labor. From the 1880s, Americans and Australians were developing “whites only” immigration policies.

III. Western Imperialism, 1880–1914

A. The Scramble for Africa

1. Before 1880, European penetration of Africa was limited to French control of Algiers, British and Dutch settlers in South Africa, and Portuguese coastal enclaves in western Africa.

2. By 1900, European powers ruled all of Africa except Ethiopia and Liberia.

3. The South African War (1898(1902) led to British creation and control of the Union of South Africa.

4. The Congress of Berlin (1884(1885) established that European claims on African territory had to be secured by “effective occupation.” This led to a rush into the interior.

5. The British conquest of the Sudan exemplifies the general process of empire building in Africa.

B. Imperialism in Asia

1. After 1815, the Dutch expanded their control of the Indonesian archipelago.

2. The French took Indochina.

3. The Russians expanded in Central Asia and along the north Chinese frontier.

4. The U.S. took the Philippines in the Spanish-American War of 1898.

C. Causes of the New Imperialism

1. Tariff barriers limiting imports to much of Europe and to the U.S. led major industrial powers to seek new markets.

2. In reality, most new colonies were not profitable.

3. Colonies were seen however, as important as military bases and naval coaling stations.

4. Colonies were also important for national prestige.

5. Social Darwinists predicted the demise of societies that did not compete in the colonial race.

6. Technological superiority (machine guns, quinine, telegraph, steamships) made conquest of new colonies feasible.

7. Conservative political leaders fostered pride in empire as a means of damping down social tension.

8. Shipping companies, military men, and missionaries all advocated colonial expansion.

D. A “Civilizing Mission”

1. Europeans often discussed colonial expansions in terms of a “civilizing mission.”

2. From this point of view, colonialism was justified by nonwhite people’s eventual enjoyment of the fruits of European civilization.

3. Western expansion facilitated the spread of Christianity in Africa.

4. Missionary efforts generally failed in India, China, and the Islamic world.

E. Critics of Imperialism

1. Some Europeans criticized imperialism.

2. J.A. Hobson (1858–1940) and others argued that colonies only benefited the wealthiest elites in Europe and actually cost ordinary taxpayers money.

3. Other critics, such as Joseph Conrad (1857–1924), saw European imperialism as racist, exploitative, and contrary to the West’s own liberal values.

IV. Responding to Western Imperialism

A. The Pattern of Response

1. Generally, the initial response, as in China, Japan, and Sudan, was to try to drive foreigners away with force.

2. When this failed, many Asians and Africans retreated to a defense of traditional culture.

3. Others, such as Ismail, the khedive of Egypt, sought to modernize and match the West.

4. When the power of traditionalists and modernizers was shattered by superior force, the majority of Africans and Asians accepted imperial rule.

5. Support for European rule, however, was shallow and weak.

6. Later, European liberalism provided resisters with an ideology of political self-determination and nationalism.

B. Empire in India

1. The last attempt to drive the British from India by force was the Great Rebellion (1857(1858).

2. After 1858, Britain ruled India directly through a small body of white civil servants.

3. The British offered some Indians, especially upper-caste Hindus, opportunities to serve in government.

4. The British established a modern system of secondary education, promoted economic development, and created a unified, powerful state.

5. Nonetheless, British rule rested ultimately on racism and dictatorship.

6. This provoked the development of Indian nationalism and the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

C. The Example of Japan

1. The initial appearance of Europeans and Americans in Japan provoked violence from radical samurai who wished to expel them by force.

2. In 1867, a group of patriotic samurai overthrew the shogun, restored the Emperor to

political power, and undertook an intensive modernization program. This event is known as the Meiji Restoration.

a) They abolished the feudal state and created a strong central government.

b) They created a free economy.

c) They built a modern navy and army.

d) The Japanese studied the West, and Japan hired many Western specialists.

e) Japan itself became an imperial power in Formosa, Manchuria, and Korea.

D. Toward Revolution in China

1. Between 1860 and 1894, the Qing Dynasty made a surprising comeback.

2. In 1894(1895, defeat by Japan in the Sino-Japanese War short-circuited Qing reform efforts in China.

3. From 1895 to 1898, European powers rushed to carve out zones of influence in China.

4. Radical reformers such as Sun Yatsen (1866–1925) aimed to overthrow the Qing and establish a republic.

5. Traditionalists turned toward ancient practices and sought to expel the foreigners. One aspect of this response was the Boxer Rebellion (1899(1900).

6. In 1912, the Qing Dynasty collapsed.

Lecture Suggestions

1. “The Impact of Social Darwinism.” How did the application of Darwin’s ideas to society help to stimulate the race for overseas colonies? How did Social Darwinism help to shape the attitude of the “white man’s burden”? Sources: C. Darwin, The Origin of Species (1859); R. R. Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (1955); W. Baumgart, Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion (1982).

2. “Drugs and Diplomacy: The Opening of Japan.” How did the opium trade contribute to the opening of Japan? Sources: A. Waley, The Opium War through Chinese Eyes (1958); J. W. Hall, Japan, from Prehistory to Modern Times (1970); E. Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation (1981).

classroom Activities

I. Classroom Discussion Suggestions

A. Discuss how European ventures in Africa and Asia during the nineteenth century nearly led to war.

B. Discuss U.S. imperialism from 1880 to 1914. How did it compare with that of European states?

C. Discuss British policy in the Middle East during this period.

D. Why was India so important to Britain?

II. Doing History

A. What are the many views of nineteenth-century imperialism? How have historical interpretations changed over time? How does the Marxist view differ from other interpretations? Sources: J. A. Hobson, Imperialism (1902); V. G. Kiernan, Marxism and Imperialism (1975); H. Wright, ed., The “New Imperialism” (1975).

B. What can we gain from poetry and novels that helps us to understand the motives of the imperialists and the feelings of the victims? Have students read one or more of the following novels. Ask them to make notes on the motivations of imperialists and the responses of the colonials in these works. These notes can then be used to form the basis of a longer-term project. Sources: H. R. Haggard, King Solomon’s Mines; R. Kipling, Kim and Soldiers Three; J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness; A. Gide, The Immoralist. Selections from Rudyard Kipling’s poetry can be found in The Norton Anthology of English Literature.

III. Cooperative Learning Activities

A. Charge five teams with learning about imperialism in Africa, India, Egypt, China, and Japan. Have each team make a report to the class on the nature of imperialism in each area. Launch a discussion at the end of the reports.

B. Team-teach the last six chapters. Explain to the student teams that they are responsible for covering the material in the last six chapters of the text. Enable them to use whatever materials and methods they choose.

Map Activity

1. Have students shade in the territories possessed by European states on an outline map of Africa.

2. Using Map 25.1 European Investment to 1914 as a reference, answer the following questions.

a. How would you explain the patterns of investment revealed by this map?

b. What does the relatively small share of overseas investment directed to Africa and Asia tell us about the economic priorities of nineteenth-century Europeans?

c. How might patterns of investment in the nineteenth century have shaped economic and political developments in Asia and Africa in the twentieth century?

Audiovisual Bibliography

1. The Scramble for Africa. (37 min. Color. Encyclopedia Britannica Films.)

2. China: Agonies of Nationalism 1800–1927. (29 min. B/W. Films, Inc.)

3. India’s History: British Rule to Independence. (11 min. Color. Coronet Films.)

4. Masters in the Colonies. (Videodisc. 30 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.)

5. The Dawn of Tomorrow. (Videodisc. 30 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.)

6. The Paths of Colonialism. (Videodisc. 17 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.)

7. Black American History: Slavery to Civil Rights. (CD-ROM. National School Products.)

8. Africa. (DVD, PBS, 4 Disc Set.)

9. Japanese Art and Western Influence ()

10. Art and Empire ()

internet resources

1. The Scramble for Africa ()

2. The British Empire ()

3. Ch’ing China ()

4. Anglo Boer War Museum ()

5. Primary Sources: India Under the British ( - India%20Under%20the%20British)

6. Rudyard Kipling: Biography and Works ()

Suggested Reading

General interpretations of European expansion in a broad perspective include K. Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (2000), T. Smith, The Patterns of Imperialism (1981); and A. Bagchi, Perilous Passage: Mankind and the Global Ascendancy of Capital (2005), a spirited radical critique of the “rise of the West.” Valuable documentary collections include A. Conklin, ed., European Imperialism, 1830–1930 (1999), and B. Smith, ed., Imperialism: A Collection of Documents (2000). Two important works by D. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and National Difference (2000) and Habitations of Modernity: Essays in the Wake of Subaltern Studies (2002), introduce imaginative new research on colonized peoples. D. K. Fieldhouse has written two fine surveys, Economics and Empire, 1830–1914 (1970) and Colonialism, 1870–1945 (1981). Among the cultural studies probing the minds of imperialists and non-European, E. Said, Orientalism (1978), is a very influential interpretation. T. Ballantyne, Orientalism and Race: Aryanism and the British Empire (2002), is a major work on imperial racial thinking. C. Maier, Among Empires: American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors (2006), examines imperial power in history and how well America measures up. S. Bose, A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire (2006), is an intriguing study of sea-going South Asians in the imperial age.

Britain’s leading position in European imperialism is examined in a lively way by G. Goodlad, British Foreign and Imperial Policy, 1865–1919 (2000); B. Porter, The Lion’s Share (1976); and P. Cain and A. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914 (1993). P. Marshall, ed., Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire (1996), and D. Judd, The Victorian Empire (1970), are stunning pictorial histories. G. Stocking, Victorian Anthropology (1987), is a brilliant analysis of the cultural and racial implications of Western expansion. R. Aldrich, Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (1996), and W. Baumgart, “Imperialism” The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion (1982), are well-balanced studies. A. Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The French Republican Ideal and West Africa, 1895–1930 (1997), tells the chilling story of Belgian imperialism in the Congo, and S. Cook, Colonial Encounters in the Age of High Imperialism (1996), includes a very readable account of the explorer Stanley and central Africa. R. Rotberg, The Founder: Cecil Rhodes and the Pursuit of Power (1988), examines the imperialist’s mind and times with great skill, and B. Roberts, Cecil Rhodes: Flawed Colossus (1987), is engaging and entertaining. A. Blunt, Travel, Gender, and Imperialism: Mary Kinglsy and West Africa (1994), analyzes a complicated women whose travels made her into a powerful critic of British expansion. Robert Crews, For Prophet and Tsar: Islam and Empire in Russia and Central Asia (2006), Angela Woollacott, Gender and Empire (2006), D. Lievan, The Russian Empire and Its Rivals (2001), ably consider aspects of Russian imperialism. D. Headrick looks at the diffusion of Western technology in The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850–1940 (1988), and P. Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe’s Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century (1989), ably charts the medical revolution in the tropics. R. Vecoli and S. Sinke, eds., A Century of European Migrations, 1830–1930 (1991), and L. Moch, Moving Europeans: Migration in Europe since 1650 (1993), are valuable general studies.

E. Wolf, Europe and People Without History (1982), considers, with skill and compassion, the impact of imperialism on non-Western peoples. F. Fanon, Wretched of the Earth (1965), is a famous attack on white racism by a black psychologist active in the Algerian revolution. B. Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific (1988), is an original and influential work combining art history and intellectual development. In addition to Chauduri and Strobel, cited in the Notes, J. Clancey-Smith and F. Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family in French and Dutch Colonialism (1998) and C. Midgley, ed., Gender and Imperialism (1998), examine the complex questions related to European women and imperialism. Novels also bring the psychological and human dimensions of imperialism alive. Rudyard Kipling, the most famous writer of European expansion, is at his stirring best in Kim and Soldiers Three. Joseph Conrad unforgettably probes European motives in Heart of Darkness. William Boyd, An Ice-Cream War, a good story of British and Germans fighting each other in Africa during the First World War, is a favorite with students.

P. Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (1996), is a lively and beautiful work by a leading specialist. I. Hsu, The Rise of Modern China, 5th ed. (1995), is a fine history with many suggestions for further reading. E. Reischuauer’s topical survey, Japan: The Story of a Nation (1981), is recommended, as are T. Huber, The Revolutionary Origins of Modern Japan (1981), and Y. Fukuzawa, Autobiography (1966), the account of a leading intellectual who saw the birth of modern Japan.

G. Perry, The Middle East: Fourteen Islamic Centuries (1983), concisely surveys nineteenth-century developments. P. Curtin et al., African History: From Earliest Times to Independence, 2d ed. (1995), is an excellent brief introduction to Africa in the age of imperialism. J. D. Fage, A History of Africa, 3d ed. (1995), is also recommended. A classic study of Western expansion from an Indian viewpoint is Panikkar’s volume mentioned in the Notes. S. Wolpert, A New History of India, 5th ed. (1997), incorporates recent scholarship in a wide-ranging study that is highly recommended.

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