Beowulf - MS. ZUMWALT'S ENGLISH PAGE
Beowulf
Biogram
No one is certain exactly when Beowulf was composed or transcribed. Like other early epics, the poem probably evolved out of an oral tradition and was compiled from several earlier narratives. Some researchers speculate it was written around A.D. 700 by an unknown author, perhaps an inhabitant of the modern-day West Midlands of England.
Although Beowulf stands as one of the greatest works of English literature, the story does not take place in England. Instead, it tells of events that occur in Sweden and on the Danish island of Zealand. The epic glorifies the actions of the Danes and the Geats (inhabitants of Southern Sweden). Thus Beowulf does not reflect English history and traditions so much as those of the Anglos Saxons and their Germanic ancestors.
Germanic people began to invade England in A.D. 449. This incursion was probably complete by the time Beowulf was written. Beowulf is rich in the cultural legacy of the invaders. Beowulf’s legacy is particularly important when examining two aspects of the epic: its depiction of the feudal system, and the peculiar mix of ideas about religion and fate that is voiced by the poet.
The feudal system of the Anglo-Saxons was extremely regimented. The hierarchy of the society ranged from lords to slaves. Of particular interest in Beowulf is the relationship of a King to his warriors. This relationship hinged on loyalty bred by warfare and the philosophy of revenge as a way of life. Depending on his station, each man had a “price.” When a man was killed by an enemy, his kinsmen were expected to exact that price in blood or in wergild, a gold payment.
This seemingly pagan and barbaric system rested uneasily with Christianity. Pope Gregory began the Christianization of Anglo-Saxon Britain about a century before Beowulf was written. The unknown author of Beowulf was undoubtedly a Christian with considerable familiarity with the Bible. But even in this poet’s work, it is evident that the conversion of the
Anglo-Saxons was hardly complete. Paganism and Christianity continued to alternate, clash, and merge, much as African tribal beliefs interacted with Catholicism to produce voodoo in Haiti.
Although the text of Beowulf is riddled with Judeo-Christian references, there is almost no sense of a loving, merciful Christian God in the poem. Moreover, a Christian ethic of forgiveness and altruism is hardly extolled in Beowulf. At times, the Judeo-Christian God becomes synonymous with wyrd, or the pagan idea of fate. And the poem’s celebrated “Song of Creation,” so very biblical in outlook and imagery, comes quickly after the introduction of the distinctly pagan monster, Grendel.
Critics once thought that Christian references in Beowulf were inserted by a later author in an attempt to “improve” the original poem. But centuries of study indicate that Christian references are too pervasive and integral to have been merely added on. Long thought to be a problem with the poem, this combination of Christian and pagan elements is now considered a vivid reflection of Beowulf’s position in English history. The mix produces a tension that is not the least among the poem’s wonders.
Philosophy
The tension between Judeo-Christian and pagan thought in Beowulf is central to understanding the philosophical viewpoint of the anonymous poet. A reader is confronted by the question of human destiny and freedom. Is the universe ruled by a benevolent, Judeo-Christian deity who allows humans the freedom to make their own choices and pursue their own destiny? Or is it controlled by a rigid wyrd, which humans blindly follow?
The words wyrd and God are sometimes interchangeable in the poem. But more often than not, the poet seems to offer the bleak view that humans rarely control their own destiny. And there is very little in Beowulf to suggest the comfort of Christian immortality.
Fame may be the equivalent of immortality in the male dominated, warfaring society of Beowulf. The warriors of that culture believe that each must achieve all that is possible in life and broadcast these deeds. It is only through deeds and fame that a warrior can hope to live forever.
Materialism is also a quality of the characters in Beowulf. Winning valuables is important to each warrior. In the prologue to the poem, the glory of wealth is displayed in the memorable image of great King Shild’s funeral boat. But to the warrior, the vast and splendid riches aboard that boat are more than a mere lifetime of materials accumulations. They are testimonials to the king’s existence, a monument that gives meaning to fleeting mortal life.
There is, however, more depth to the Germanic culture than just boasting and taking. Dignity is achieved in the face of impending fate by maintaining the code of society. The characters revenge the deaths of kinsmen, defend members of their community, and stand fast by those to whom they have sworn their loyalty. Abiding by these obligations adds to an individual’s fame and provides a kind of immortality in lieu of an afterlife.
But the question remains: How can humans attain fame, wealth, and dignity if they are controlled by a predeterming wyrd? The answer may lie in Beowulf’s attitude. The great warrior appears to believe that humans must constantly test their fate and always act without fear. Perhaps fate smiles upon a human who stands firm when destruction seems certain, as when Beowulf battles Grendel and the monster’s mother. Beowulf’s philosophy even suggests that human can create changes in destiny through the sheer force of heroism.
Perhaps Beowulf’s philosophy (and that of his chronicler) can be summarized very simply: In a world without hope, a brave soul has nothing to lose.
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