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AP Psychology Review Sheet #1, Chapters 1 and 2
Background terms from the book intro:
Nature vs. Nurture
Psychology vs. Psychiatry
Types of research: Basic, Applied, and Clinical
Types of correlational research: case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys
The major psychological perspectives: (to explain human behavior)
CHAPTER 1: The Scientific Method
Understand the difference between:
Correlation research methods (shows only predictability) such as the survey method
Scientific method (shows cause and effect.)
Thesis and Hypothesis
Independent variable (what is tested)
vs.
Dependent variable (what is measured).
Experimental (experimental is tested; receives the independent variable)
vs.
Control groups (control group; basis of comparison; no treatment or a placebo.)
Controls: (to reduce bias): Possibilities include:
random selection of all subjects
random assignment to groups
double-blind
replication,
placebo (if a drug experiment).
This methodology helps to overcome “hindsight bias” and the “overconfidence effect.”
Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research: Guidelines to the APA Requirements
must have: informed consent, no harm to the subjects, debriefing afterward, and confidentiality of results
The use of inferential statistics: Used to measure the dependent variable and as an objective comparison of the experimental and control groups.
Central tendencies: The mean, median, and the mode.
The bell-curve and standard deviations
Correlation co-efficients: -1.0 to +1.0 to show statistical relationships between variables.
Percentile ranks: to show the percentages below a given ranking.
CHAPTER 2: Neurobiology
NEUROTRANSMISSION and THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS: (Neurotransmission is often nicknamed an “all-or-nothing response” to explain the electrical firing of neurons and the chemical release of neurotransmitters.)
Axon, dendrites, synaptic gap, and myelin sheath.
Specific neurotransmitters: Ach (acetylcholine, endorphins, and dopamine.)
Types of Neurons: Sensory (Afferent) and Motor (Efferent) – Remember SAME) – and Interneurons
The two nervous systems of the autonomic system:
Sympathetic (“flight-or-fight) and the parasympathetic (calming)
*(remember sympathy for one in crisis and paramedics to calm one down.)
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
(Involves our major glands such as the adrenal and pituitary glands and hormones such as adrenaline, testosterone, estrogen, and norepinephrine, a stress hormone.)
THE BRAIN:
The three general regions are the Brainstem, the Limbic System, and the Cerebral Cortex:
The Brainstem includes the: medulla (life-support system), the reticular formation (arousal center),
cerebellum (balance), and the thalamus (the “switchboard.)
The Limbic system includes the: Hippocampus (memory), the Hypothalamus (directs the endocrine
system and nicknamed “the pleasure center”), and the Amygdala (emotional responses such as rage
and aggression.)
The Cerebral Cortex is the brain’s neural covering and the brain’s info processing center where
neurons cross and communicate.
The four Lobes include the:
Occipital (vision), Parietal (Sensations), Temporal (hearing) and Frontal (personality and judgments
- remember the Phineas Gage story.)
The two Hemispheres include the:
Right Hemisphere: (Spatial and creative)
Left Hemisphere: (Language, and Logical Math reasoning – remember the L’s)
Language Regions in the Left Hemisphere: (Apashia is language impairment)
Broca’s area: (Making speech – remember Tom Brocaw – makes words for a living).
located in the left frontal regions.
Werniches’ Area: Comprehending words. Located in the left temporal region.
Brain Imaging Techniques:
CAT Scans (computer pictures), EEGs (measures electrical impulses), MRIs (measures magnetic
activity) and PET Scans (measures glucose activity.)
Genetics: Heritability (the nature position – our behavior from our genetic make-up.)
X Chromosomes: (females have two) and Y (found only in males)
Identical Twins (from same fertilized eggs) vs. Fraternal (two separate eggs)
AP Psychology Review Sheet #2, Chapters 3 and 4
CHAPTER 3: THE NATURE AND NURTURE OF BEHAVIOR
GENETICS: (The role of)
Chromosomes: 23 pair (one form the sperm and one from the egg for each)
The 23rd pair determines the child’s gender. (Father’s X = Boy, Y = girl)
DNA = strand of chain on each chromosome. DNA is made up of thousands of genes which affect
our genetic make-up. (Used in support of the nature position)
The sex hormones: Males (Androgen and Testosterone) Females (Estrogen)
The pre-natal stages: Zygote, Embryo, Fetus – Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
INFANCY: (Key Terms)
Imprinting, the rooting reflex, the critical period, habituation, plasticity, and temperament…
Attachment Studies:
Harry Harlow’s monkey studies
Mary Ainsworth’s Social Paradigm
PIAGET: (Key Terms)
Schemas, assimilation, accommodation
His four stages of Cognitive Development:
Sensorimotor: Includes object permanence, stranger anxiety
Pre-conventional: Egocentrism and Pretending
Concrete Operations: Conservation of thought
Formal Operations: Abstract Reasoning
Also Note: The Four Parenting Styles
Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Neglecting
CHAPTER 4: THE DEVELOPING PERSON
KOLBERG’s Moral Ladder:
Pre-Conventional
Conventional
Post-Conventional
ERIKSON’s eight stages of Social Development:
Infancy = Trust vs. Mistrust
Toddler = Autonomy vs. Doubt
Preschooler = Initiative vs. Guilt
Elementary School = Competence vs. Inferiority
Adolescence = Identity vs. Role Confusion
Young Adulthood = Intimacy vs. Isolation
Middle Age = Generativity vs. Stagnation
Late Adulthood = Integrity vs. Despair
Alzheimer’s Disease (Ach) and Parkinson’s Disease (Dopamine)
Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence
The Grief Cycle (KUBLER ROSS)
- denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance
AP Psychology Review Sheet #3, Chapters 5 and 6
CHAPTER 5: SENSATION
Sensation Terms:
Bottom-Up Processing
Signal Detection
Absolute Threshold
Difference Thresholds (Just Noticeable Difference – JND; WEBER’S LAW)
Vision Terms:
Parts of the Eye: Pupil, Lens, Cornea, Retina (Rods and Cones), Fovea,
Bi-Polar Cells, Ganglion Cells, Optic Nerve
Wavelength = color and amplitude = brightness
Color vision Theories:
Trichromatic Theory (3 color) – YOUNG and HELMHOLTZ
Opponent Process Theory
Blind-Spot
Feature Detectors (HUBEL and WEISEL)
Accommodation (Lens)
Audition Terms:
Parts of the Ear: Eardrum, Auditory Canal, Bones of the middle ear, Cochlea,
Hair Cells, Auditory Nerve
Wavelength = frequency (pitch) and Amplitude = loudness
Place Theory vs. Conduction Theory
Nerve Deafness vs. Conduction Deafness
Taste: Primary Taste Sensations are Sweet, Salty, Bitter and Sour. (Tongue and lips have the most
sensitive receptors of any type on the human body.)
Smell: The olfactory senses located near the hippocampus (smells linked with memory)
Touch: The Gate-Control Theory of Pain
Two Additional Senses: Equilibrium and Kinesthesis
CHAPTER 6: PERCEPTION
Perception Terms:
Top-Down Processing
Selective Attention (“Cocktail Party” Effect)
Figure-Ground
Perceptual Set
Visual Capture
Phi Phenomenon
Binocular Cues (Retinal Disparity)
Monocular Cues (examples include relative size, relative height, texture gradient,
interposition (overlap), linear perspective, etc.
Perceptual Grouping: Similarity, Closure, Connectedness, Proximity, Continuity
Extrasensory Perception (ESP) = Examples are Telepathy, clairvoyance, Pre-cognition
All are studied under a branch of Psychology known as Parapsychology
AP Psychology Review Sheet #4, Chapters7and 8
CHAPTER 7: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Sleep and Dreams:
Key Terms: Alpha waves, Delta waves, circadian rhythm, manifest and latent dream content.
The Sleep cycle:
Stage 1: Beginning of Alpha Sleep
Stage 2: Sleeptalking
Stage 3: Beginning of Delta Sleep
Stage 4: Sleep walking
REM: Also known as “paradoxical sleep.” (Deep muscle relaxation but an active
brain – the dream cycle.)
Sleep Disorders: Night terrors, narcolepsy, insomnia, and sleep apnea
Hypnosis: Used for pain relief, stress management, etc.
Key tems: age regression, hidden observer, posthypnotic suggestion.
Drug classifications:
Depressants: (Includes alcohol, tranquilizers, and opiates-heroin, opium, and
morphine.)
Stimulants: (Includes amphetamines such as nicotine, caffeine, and cocaine.)
Hallucinogens: (Includes LSD and marijuana (THC.)
Near-Death Experiences: Monism vs. Dualism
CHAPTER 8: LEARNING
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov):
Conditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Stimulus, conditioned Response
Unconditioned Response
Be able to apply: Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Discrimination
Generalization
Key Experiments: Pavlov’s Dogs and the “Little Albert Experiment.”
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Key Terms: Shaping, Primary Reinforcers, Secondary Reinforcers, Latent Learning,
Cognitive Mapping, and Overjustification.
Be able to apply: Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Discrimination
Generalization
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Variable Interval,
Fixed Interval
Key Experiment: “The Skinner Box”
Observational Learning: (Bandura)
Key Terms: Modeling, Pro-social behavior, Anti-social behavior
Key Experiment: “The Bobo Doll Experiment”
AP Psychology Review Sheet #5, Chapters 9, 10 and 11
CHAPTER 9: MEMORY
Basic Memory Terms:
“Flashbulb Memories”
Episodic Memories
Repression
The Context Effect
Motivated Forgetting
The Three Steps Involved in Memory Processing and Terms Related to Each Step:
1) ENCODING:
Mnemonic Devices
The Spacing Effect
The Serial Position Effect
- The Primacy Effect
- The Recency Effect
2) STORAGE:
Iconic Memories vs. Echoic Memories
The role of the Hippocampus in short-term storage
3) RETRIEVAL:
Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference
The Ebbinghaus Curve
CHAPTER 10: THINKING AND LANGUAGE
Basic Terms: (Thinking)
Concepts
Prototypes
Algorithms
Heuristics
-Representativeness and Availability
Fixation Problems: Mental Sets and Functional Fixedness
Framing
Basic Tems: (Language)
Phonemes vs. Morphemes
Grammar
Semantics
Syntax
Linguistic Relativity (the Whorfian Hypothesis – Benjamin Whorf)
CHAPTER 11: INTELLIGENCE
The traditional IQ Formula: MA divided by CA times 100
Achievement Tests
Examples include AP exams, chapter testes, CAT tests
Aptitude Tests
Examples include SAT tests, IQ tests, CAT tests
Components of good test design:
Standardization
Reliability
Validity
“Special-Needs Children
Autism
Autistic Savants
Down Syndrome
Huntington’s Disease
PKU
Other Terms:
Factor Analysis
“G” factor
Linguistic Relativity (The Whorfian Hypothesis)
AP Psychology Review Sheet #6, Chapters 12 and 13
CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION
Instinct = A complex behavior which has a fixed pattern throughout a species
Homeostasis = the maintenance of a steady internal state.
Maslow ( Hierarchy of needs triangle (physical, safety, love, esteem, self-actualization).
The role of glucose in causing hunger ( increases in the hormone insulin diminishes blood glucose causing it to increase to fat which causes hunger to occur.
The role of the hypothalamus in hunger:
VH = Depresses hunger
LH = Increases hunger
Set Point = our “weight thermostat” – our body’s effort to keep us at a particular weight.
(When we fall below this, hunger occurs to help us maintain this ideal weight).
Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervousa vs. Bulimia Nervousa
The roles of sex hormones:
Estrogen (in women) and Testosterone and Androgen (in men).
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation
Theory X (task leadership) vs. Theory Y (social leadership)
CHAPTER 13: EMOTIONS
Sympathetic (arousal state) vs. Parasympathetic (calming) reactions.
Criticisms of lie detector tests.
The universality of emotions (facial expressions usually interpreted the same way; gestures differently).
Catharsis = Reducing anger by aggressively releasing it.
(Consider an effective but temporary fix).
Theories of Emotional Arousal:
1) James Lange ( emotions are physically felt before we can label them.
2) Cannon-Bard ( one does not cause the other
3) Schachter’s two factor theory: emotions have two ingredients:
(physical arousal and a cognitive label).
AP Psychology Review Sheet #7, Chapters 14 and 15
CHAPTER 14: PERSONALITY
Perspectives on Personality (The Psychoanalytic, Trait Perspective, Humanistic Perspective, Socio-Cognitive).
The Psychoanalytic (Freud)
Key is unlocking the unconscious through:
Free Association
Dream Interpretation
Freud’s personality structures:
Id = Pleasure principle
Ego = Reality principle (gratifies the id at the appropriate time)
Superego = Morality (instilled conscience)
Freud’s stages of Development:
(Oral, Anal, Phallic – Oedipus and Electra complexes, Latency period, Genital stage)
Freud’s defense mechanisms (to cope with anxiety):
Repression
Reaction formation
Projection
Displacement
Sublimation
Neo Freudians:
Horney and Adler (emphasis on social not psychosexual factors in early development)
Jung (the collective unconscious)
Projective tests for psychoanalysis (Rorschach, TAT)
The Trait Perspective (Allport)
Describes rather than explains behavior by:
Stress Reactions (Type A vs. Type B)
Body types
Personality factors (The big five)
Uses tests such as the Myers-Briggs and the Eysenck personality questionnaire, and the MMPI to asses abnormal personality traits.
The Humanistic Perspective (Maslow and Rogergs)
Maslow = Self-actualization (hierarchy of needs)\
Rogers = Unconditional positive regard
Both emphasize the growth potential of the individual and stress a positive, empathetic understanding of human needs.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective (Bandura)
Thinking which directs behavior results from our interaction with our environment. This concept is called reciprocal determinism. (Example – watching violence on TV results in aggressive thinking which in turn produces aggressive behavior.)
The Individual’s thinking results from:
An internal locus of control vs. an external locus. When an individual is faced with repeated traumatic situations or events they may develop learned helplessness. ( (Seligman).
CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Classified according today by the DSM IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders – Fourth Edition). This generally classifies mental illnesses as:
Psychotic - (Dysfunctional and out of touch with reality)
or
Neurotic - (Functional and in touch with reality).
Classifications:
Anxiety Disorders: (Uncontrollable and unexplainable anxiety)
Generalized Anxiety Disorders
Phobias (know agoraphobia; the most crippling)
Obsessive – compulsive behavior
Somatoform: (Physical illness without a physical cause; implying a psychological cause)
Conversion disorders
Hypochondria
Dissociative Disorders: (Loss of conscious awareness)
Amnesia
Fugue
Multiple Personalities
Mood Disorders: (Negative or significant mood changes)
Clinical depression
Bi-polar disorder (Manic-depression)
Schizophrenic Disorders: (Disorganized thinking and disturbed perceptions including
delusions – false beliefs and hallucinations – sensations without sensory input.
Personality Disorders: (Impaired social functioning but reasonably functional in society except
for the anti-social type.
AP Psychology Review Sheet #8, Chapters 16 and 17
CHAPTER 16: THERAPY
Six Models are included in this chapter:
Psychoanalysis (Freud)
Humanistic (Rogers)
Gestalt (combines Psychoanalytic and Humanistic)
Behavior Modification (Skinner)
Cognitive (Beck)
Rational Emotive Therapy or RET (Ellis)
Eclectic Therapy = combines some or all of these models
Some important terms related to each model:
Psychoanalytic (resistance and transference)
Humanistic (Person or client-centered therapy and Unconditional Positive Regard)
Gestalt (“Whole” – healing a fragmented patient)
Behavior Modification (Counterconditioning Techniques – unlearning an unwanted behavior).
Examples of counterconditioning include:
Systematic Desensitization = Gradually progressing through a hierarchy of
progressively demanding scenarios. (Also uses
relaxation techniques such as deep breathing)
Aversive Conditioning = Replaces a positive response to a negative stimulus with
a negative stimulus. (Blowing smoke into the face of a
chain smoker)
Also incorporates operant conditioning programs (such as token economies)
Cognitive (Internal Locus, External Locus, “Learned Helplessness”
Rational-Emotive (Corrects irrational thinking)
Drug Therapies: (Psychopharmacology)
Anti-depressants: Increases the availability of serotonin and/or norepinephrine.
(Examples are Prozac and Zoloft)
or balances levels of norepinephrine. (For Manic-Depression)
Anti-psychotics: Blocks the receptor sites for dopamine (which is too excessive in
schizophrenic patients).
(Examples are Thorazine and Clozapine)
Anti-anxiety: Slows the CNS
(Examples are Librium and Valium)
CHAPTER 17: STRESS AND HEALTH
THE GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (Hans-Selye)
- Alarm
- Resistance
- Exhaustion
TYPE A vs. TYPE B behavior
Stress-related illness:
Coronary heart disease (build-up of plaque on artery walls)
Cancer
Strokes
Chronic Lung Disease
Types of stress-related conflicts:
Approach-Approach
Approach-Avoidance
Avoidance-Avoidance
AP Psychology Review Sheet #9, Chapter 18
CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
GENERAL TERMS:
Roles
Norms
Cultures (Individualistic vs. Collectivistic)
TRAIT ASSIGNMENT
The Attribution Theory
The Fundamental Attribution Error
ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS
The “Foot-in-the-Door” Phenomenon
Cognitive Dissonance
Frustration-Aggression Principle
GROUP INFLUENCE
Conformity
Groupthink
Group Polarization
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR IN GROUPS
Social Facilitation (Co-acting)
De-individuation
Social Loafing
ALTRUISM
The Social Exchange Theory
The Bystander Effect
ETHNIC AND RACIAL DIVERSITY
Prejudice vs. Stereotyping vs. Discrimination
“Just-World” Phenomenon
The Scapegoat Theory
GENDER AND ATTRACTION
Gender Roles and Gender Typing
Companionate vs. Passionate Love
The Social Attraction Theory
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENTS:
The Asch Line Experiment
The Milgram Experiment
The Stanford Prison Experiment
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