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AP Psychology Review Sheet #1, Chapters 1 and 2

Background terms from the book intro:

Nature vs. Nurture

Psychology vs. Psychiatry

Types of research: Basic, Applied, and Clinical

Types of correlational research: case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys

The major psychological perspectives: (to explain human behavior)

CHAPTER 1: The Scientific Method

Understand the difference between:

Correlation research methods (shows only predictability) such as the survey method

Scientific method (shows cause and effect.)

Thesis and Hypothesis

Independent variable (what is tested)

vs.

Dependent variable (what is measured).

Experimental (experimental is tested; receives the independent variable)

vs.

Control groups (control group; basis of comparison; no treatment or a placebo.)

Controls: (to reduce bias): Possibilities include:

random selection of all subjects

random assignment to groups

double-blind

replication,

placebo (if a drug experiment).

This methodology helps to overcome “hindsight bias” and the “overconfidence effect.”

Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research: Guidelines to the APA Requirements

must have: informed consent, no harm to the subjects, debriefing afterward, and confidentiality of results

The use of inferential statistics: Used to measure the dependent variable and as an objective comparison of the experimental and control groups.

Central tendencies: The mean, median, and the mode.

The bell-curve and standard deviations

Correlation co-efficients: -1.0 to +1.0 to show statistical relationships between variables.

Percentile ranks: to show the percentages below a given ranking.

CHAPTER 2: Neurobiology

NEUROTRANSMISSION and THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS: (Neurotransmission is often nicknamed an “all-or-nothing response” to explain the electrical firing of neurons and the chemical release of neurotransmitters.)

Axon, dendrites, synaptic gap, and myelin sheath.

Specific neurotransmitters: Ach (acetylcholine, endorphins, and dopamine.)

Types of Neurons: Sensory (Afferent) and Motor (Efferent) – Remember SAME) – and Interneurons

The two nervous systems of the autonomic system:

Sympathetic (“flight-or-fight) and the parasympathetic (calming)

*(remember sympathy for one in crisis and paramedics to calm one down.)

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:

(Involves our major glands such as the adrenal and pituitary glands and hormones such as adrenaline, testosterone, estrogen, and norepinephrine, a stress hormone.)

THE BRAIN:

The three general regions are the Brainstem, the Limbic System, and the Cerebral Cortex:

The Brainstem includes the: medulla (life-support system), the reticular formation (arousal center),

cerebellum (balance), and the thalamus (the “switchboard.)

The Limbic system includes the: Hippocampus (memory), the Hypothalamus (directs the endocrine

system and nicknamed “the pleasure center”), and the Amygdala (emotional responses such as rage

and aggression.)

The Cerebral Cortex is the brain’s neural covering and the brain’s info processing center where

neurons cross and communicate.

The four Lobes include the:

Occipital (vision), Parietal (Sensations), Temporal (hearing) and Frontal (personality and judgments

- remember the Phineas Gage story.)

The two Hemispheres include the:

Right Hemisphere: (Spatial and creative)

Left Hemisphere: (Language, and Logical Math reasoning – remember the L’s)

Language Regions in the Left Hemisphere: (Apashia is language impairment)

Broca’s area: (Making speech – remember Tom Brocaw – makes words for a living).

located in the left frontal regions.

Werniches’ Area: Comprehending words. Located in the left temporal region.

Brain Imaging Techniques:

CAT Scans (computer pictures), EEGs (measures electrical impulses), MRIs (measures magnetic

activity) and PET Scans (measures glucose activity.)

Genetics: Heritability (the nature position – our behavior from our genetic make-up.)

X Chromosomes: (females have two) and Y (found only in males)

Identical Twins (from same fertilized eggs) vs. Fraternal (two separate eggs)

AP Psychology Review Sheet #2, Chapters 3 and 4

CHAPTER 3: THE NATURE AND NURTURE OF BEHAVIOR

GENETICS: (The role of)

Chromosomes: 23 pair (one form the sperm and one from the egg for each)

The 23rd pair determines the child’s gender. (Father’s X = Boy, Y = girl)

DNA = strand of chain on each chromosome. DNA is made up of thousands of genes which affect

our genetic make-up. (Used in support of the nature position)

The sex hormones: Males (Androgen and Testosterone) Females (Estrogen)

The pre-natal stages: Zygote, Embryo, Fetus – Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

INFANCY: (Key Terms)

Imprinting, the rooting reflex, the critical period, habituation, plasticity, and temperament…

Attachment Studies:

Harry Harlow’s monkey studies

Mary Ainsworth’s Social Paradigm

PIAGET: (Key Terms)

Schemas, assimilation, accommodation

His four stages of Cognitive Development:

Sensorimotor: Includes object permanence, stranger anxiety

Pre-conventional: Egocentrism and Pretending

Concrete Operations: Conservation of thought

Formal Operations: Abstract Reasoning

Also Note: The Four Parenting Styles

Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Neglecting

CHAPTER 4: THE DEVELOPING PERSON

KOLBERG’s Moral Ladder:

Pre-Conventional

Conventional

Post-Conventional

ERIKSON’s eight stages of Social Development:

Infancy = Trust vs. Mistrust

Toddler = Autonomy vs. Doubt

Preschooler = Initiative vs. Guilt

Elementary School = Competence vs. Inferiority

Adolescence = Identity vs. Role Confusion

Young Adulthood = Intimacy vs. Isolation

Middle Age = Generativity vs. Stagnation

Late Adulthood = Integrity vs. Despair

Alzheimer’s Disease (Ach) and Parkinson’s Disease (Dopamine)

Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies

Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

The Grief Cycle (KUBLER ROSS)

- denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance

AP Psychology Review Sheet #3, Chapters 5 and 6

CHAPTER 5: SENSATION

Sensation Terms:

Bottom-Up Processing

Signal Detection

Absolute Threshold

Difference Thresholds (Just Noticeable Difference – JND; WEBER’S LAW)

Vision Terms:

Parts of the Eye: Pupil, Lens, Cornea, Retina (Rods and Cones), Fovea,

Bi-Polar Cells, Ganglion Cells, Optic Nerve

Wavelength = color and amplitude = brightness

Color vision Theories:

Trichromatic Theory (3 color) – YOUNG and HELMHOLTZ

Opponent Process Theory

Blind-Spot

Feature Detectors (HUBEL and WEISEL)

Accommodation (Lens)

Audition Terms:

Parts of the Ear: Eardrum, Auditory Canal, Bones of the middle ear, Cochlea,

Hair Cells, Auditory Nerve

Wavelength = frequency (pitch) and Amplitude = loudness

Place Theory vs. Conduction Theory

Nerve Deafness vs. Conduction Deafness

Taste: Primary Taste Sensations are Sweet, Salty, Bitter and Sour. (Tongue and lips have the most

sensitive receptors of any type on the human body.)

Smell: The olfactory senses located near the hippocampus (smells linked with memory)

Touch: The Gate-Control Theory of Pain

Two Additional Senses: Equilibrium and Kinesthesis

CHAPTER 6: PERCEPTION

Perception Terms:

Top-Down Processing

Selective Attention (“Cocktail Party” Effect)

Figure-Ground

Perceptual Set

Visual Capture

Phi Phenomenon

Binocular Cues (Retinal Disparity)

Monocular Cues (examples include relative size, relative height, texture gradient,

interposition (overlap), linear perspective, etc.

Perceptual Grouping: Similarity, Closure, Connectedness, Proximity, Continuity

Extrasensory Perception (ESP) = Examples are Telepathy, clairvoyance, Pre-cognition

All are studied under a branch of Psychology known as Parapsychology

AP Psychology Review Sheet #4, Chapters7and 8

CHAPTER 7: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Sleep and Dreams:

Key Terms: Alpha waves, Delta waves, circadian rhythm, manifest and latent dream content.

The Sleep cycle:

Stage 1: Beginning of Alpha Sleep

Stage 2: Sleeptalking

Stage 3: Beginning of Delta Sleep

Stage 4: Sleep walking

REM: Also known as “paradoxical sleep.” (Deep muscle relaxation but an active

brain – the dream cycle.)

Sleep Disorders: Night terrors, narcolepsy, insomnia, and sleep apnea

Hypnosis: Used for pain relief, stress management, etc.

Key tems: age regression, hidden observer, posthypnotic suggestion.

Drug classifications:

Depressants: (Includes alcohol, tranquilizers, and opiates-heroin, opium, and

morphine.)

Stimulants: (Includes amphetamines such as nicotine, caffeine, and cocaine.)

Hallucinogens: (Includes LSD and marijuana (THC.)

Near-Death Experiences: Monism vs. Dualism

CHAPTER 8: LEARNING

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov):

Conditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Stimulus, conditioned Response

Unconditioned Response

Be able to apply: Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Discrimination

Generalization

Key Experiments: Pavlov’s Dogs and the “Little Albert Experiment.”

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Key Terms: Shaping, Primary Reinforcers, Secondary Reinforcers, Latent Learning,

Cognitive Mapping, and Overjustification.

Be able to apply: Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Discrimination

Generalization

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Variable Interval,

Fixed Interval

Key Experiment: “The Skinner Box”

Observational Learning: (Bandura)

Key Terms: Modeling, Pro-social behavior, Anti-social behavior

Key Experiment: “The Bobo Doll Experiment”

AP Psychology Review Sheet #5, Chapters 9, 10 and 11

CHAPTER 9: MEMORY

Basic Memory Terms:

“Flashbulb Memories”

Episodic Memories

Repression

The Context Effect

Motivated Forgetting

The Three Steps Involved in Memory Processing and Terms Related to Each Step:

1) ENCODING:

Mnemonic Devices

The Spacing Effect

The Serial Position Effect

- The Primacy Effect

- The Recency Effect

2) STORAGE:

Iconic Memories vs. Echoic Memories

The role of the Hippocampus in short-term storage

3) RETRIEVAL:

Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference

The Ebbinghaus Curve

CHAPTER 10: THINKING AND LANGUAGE

Basic Terms: (Thinking)

Concepts

Prototypes

Algorithms

Heuristics

-Representativeness and Availability

Fixation Problems: Mental Sets and Functional Fixedness

Framing

Basic Tems: (Language)

Phonemes vs. Morphemes

Grammar

Semantics

Syntax

Linguistic Relativity (the Whorfian Hypothesis – Benjamin Whorf)

CHAPTER 11: INTELLIGENCE

The traditional IQ Formula: MA divided by CA times 100

Achievement Tests

Examples include AP exams, chapter testes, CAT tests

Aptitude Tests

Examples include SAT tests, IQ tests, CAT tests

Components of good test design:

Standardization

Reliability

Validity

“Special-Needs Children

Autism

Autistic Savants

Down Syndrome

Huntington’s Disease

PKU

Other Terms:

Factor Analysis

“G” factor

Linguistic Relativity (The Whorfian Hypothesis)

AP Psychology Review Sheet #6, Chapters 12 and 13

CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION

Instinct = A complex behavior which has a fixed pattern throughout a species

Homeostasis = the maintenance of a steady internal state.

Maslow ( Hierarchy of needs triangle (physical, safety, love, esteem, self-actualization).

The role of glucose in causing hunger ( increases in the hormone insulin diminishes blood glucose causing it to increase to fat which causes hunger to occur.

The role of the hypothalamus in hunger:

VH = Depresses hunger

LH = Increases hunger

Set Point = our “weight thermostat” – our body’s effort to keep us at a particular weight.

(When we fall below this, hunger occurs to help us maintain this ideal weight).

Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervousa vs. Bulimia Nervousa

The roles of sex hormones:

Estrogen (in women) and Testosterone and Androgen (in men).

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation

Theory X (task leadership) vs. Theory Y (social leadership)

CHAPTER 13: EMOTIONS

Sympathetic (arousal state) vs. Parasympathetic (calming) reactions.

Criticisms of lie detector tests.

The universality of emotions (facial expressions usually interpreted the same way; gestures differently).

Catharsis = Reducing anger by aggressively releasing it.

(Consider an effective but temporary fix).

Theories of Emotional Arousal:

1) James Lange ( emotions are physically felt before we can label them.

2) Cannon-Bard ( one does not cause the other

3) Schachter’s two factor theory: emotions have two ingredients:

(physical arousal and a cognitive label).

AP Psychology Review Sheet #7, Chapters 14 and 15

CHAPTER 14: PERSONALITY

Perspectives on Personality (The Psychoanalytic, Trait Perspective, Humanistic Perspective, Socio-Cognitive).

The Psychoanalytic (Freud)

Key is unlocking the unconscious through:

Free Association

Dream Interpretation

Freud’s personality structures:

Id = Pleasure principle

Ego = Reality principle (gratifies the id at the appropriate time)

Superego = Morality (instilled conscience)

Freud’s stages of Development:

(Oral, Anal, Phallic – Oedipus and Electra complexes, Latency period, Genital stage)

Freud’s defense mechanisms (to cope with anxiety):

Repression

Reaction formation

Projection

Displacement

Sublimation

Neo Freudians:

Horney and Adler (emphasis on social not psychosexual factors in early development)

Jung (the collective unconscious)

Projective tests for psychoanalysis (Rorschach, TAT)

The Trait Perspective (Allport)

Describes rather than explains behavior by:

Stress Reactions (Type A vs. Type B)

Body types

Personality factors (The big five)

Uses tests such as the Myers-Briggs and the Eysenck personality questionnaire, and the MMPI to asses abnormal personality traits.

The Humanistic Perspective (Maslow and Rogergs)

Maslow = Self-actualization (hierarchy of needs)\

Rogers = Unconditional positive regard

Both emphasize the growth potential of the individual and stress a positive, empathetic understanding of human needs.

The Social-Cognitive Perspective (Bandura)

Thinking which directs behavior results from our interaction with our environment. This concept is called reciprocal determinism. (Example – watching violence on TV results in aggressive thinking which in turn produces aggressive behavior.)

The Individual’s thinking results from:

An internal locus of control vs. an external locus. When an individual is faced with repeated traumatic situations or events they may develop learned helplessness. ( (Seligman).

CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Classified according today by the DSM IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders – Fourth Edition). This generally classifies mental illnesses as:

Psychotic - (Dysfunctional and out of touch with reality)

or

Neurotic - (Functional and in touch with reality).

Classifications:

Anxiety Disorders: (Uncontrollable and unexplainable anxiety)

Generalized Anxiety Disorders

Phobias (know agoraphobia; the most crippling)

Obsessive – compulsive behavior

Somatoform: (Physical illness without a physical cause; implying a psychological cause)

Conversion disorders

Hypochondria

Dissociative Disorders: (Loss of conscious awareness)

Amnesia

Fugue

Multiple Personalities

Mood Disorders: (Negative or significant mood changes)

Clinical depression

Bi-polar disorder (Manic-depression)

Schizophrenic Disorders: (Disorganized thinking and disturbed perceptions including

delusions – false beliefs and hallucinations – sensations without sensory input.

Personality Disorders: (Impaired social functioning but reasonably functional in society except

for the anti-social type.

AP Psychology Review Sheet #8, Chapters 16 and 17

CHAPTER 16: THERAPY

Six Models are included in this chapter:

Psychoanalysis (Freud)

Humanistic (Rogers)

Gestalt (combines Psychoanalytic and Humanistic)

Behavior Modification (Skinner)

Cognitive (Beck)

Rational Emotive Therapy or RET (Ellis)

Eclectic Therapy = combines some or all of these models

Some important terms related to each model:

Psychoanalytic (resistance and transference)

Humanistic (Person or client-centered therapy and Unconditional Positive Regard)

Gestalt (“Whole” – healing a fragmented patient)

Behavior Modification (Counterconditioning Techniques – unlearning an unwanted behavior).

Examples of counterconditioning include:

Systematic Desensitization = Gradually progressing through a hierarchy of

progressively demanding scenarios. (Also uses

relaxation techniques such as deep breathing)

Aversive Conditioning = Replaces a positive response to a negative stimulus with

a negative stimulus. (Blowing smoke into the face of a

chain smoker)

Also incorporates operant conditioning programs (such as token economies)

Cognitive (Internal Locus, External Locus, “Learned Helplessness”

Rational-Emotive (Corrects irrational thinking)

Drug Therapies: (Psychopharmacology)

Anti-depressants: Increases the availability of serotonin and/or norepinephrine.

(Examples are Prozac and Zoloft)

or balances levels of norepinephrine. (For Manic-Depression)

Anti-psychotics: Blocks the receptor sites for dopamine (which is too excessive in

schizophrenic patients).

(Examples are Thorazine and Clozapine)

Anti-anxiety: Slows the CNS

(Examples are Librium and Valium)

CHAPTER 17: STRESS AND HEALTH

THE GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (Hans-Selye)

- Alarm

- Resistance

- Exhaustion

TYPE A vs. TYPE B behavior

Stress-related illness:

Coronary heart disease (build-up of plaque on artery walls)

Cancer

Strokes

Chronic Lung Disease

Types of stress-related conflicts:

Approach-Approach

Approach-Avoidance

Avoidance-Avoidance

AP Psychology Review Sheet #9, Chapter 18

CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

GENERAL TERMS:

Roles

Norms

Cultures (Individualistic vs. Collectivistic)

TRAIT ASSIGNMENT

The Attribution Theory

The Fundamental Attribution Error

ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS

The “Foot-in-the-Door” Phenomenon

Cognitive Dissonance

Frustration-Aggression Principle

GROUP INFLUENCE

Conformity

Groupthink

Group Polarization

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR IN GROUPS

Social Facilitation (Co-acting)

De-individuation

Social Loafing

ALTRUISM

The Social Exchange Theory

The Bystander Effect

ETHNIC AND RACIAL DIVERSITY

Prejudice vs. Stereotyping vs. Discrimination

“Just-World” Phenomenon

The Scapegoat Theory

GENDER AND ATTRACTION

Gender Roles and Gender Typing

Companionate vs. Passionate Love

The Social Attraction Theory

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENTS:

The Asch Line Experiment

The Milgram Experiment

The Stanford Prison Experiment

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