Kinesiology Portfolio



Laura FoxProf. Bob MarleyKINE 3301- Prevention & Treatment of Sport Injuries7 May 2015Foundations of Training: Fatigue and RecoveryStructural and functional adaptations of the human body cannot fully take place when most of the body's energy is directed toward training. For adaptation to occur, training programs must mix work periods with rest, and alternate various levels of intensity throughout the training program, all while avoiding large increments in training load. This practice creates a good work-to-rest balance and prevents the accumulation of residual fatigue in the body. To improve performance, training loads must be high enough to simulate adaptation. However, exposing an athlete to loads beyond on his or her capacity can overall decrease the athlete’s ability to adapt to training and make progress. Failure to adapt triggers biochemical and neural reactions that take the athlete from fatigue to chronic fatigue, and ultimately result in an undesirable state of overtraining. Fortunately, recovery techniques can be implemented to allow the body to adapt more quickly to volume and intensity. Some of these techniques such as massage and contrast showers, can be used year-round. Others can be limited to just the competitive phase, when the athlete most needs full functional restoration and a low level of internal load.Athletes are constantly exposed to various types of training loads, some of which exceed their tolerance thresholds. As a result, adaptation decreases, and overall performance is affected. When athletes drive themselves past their physical limits, they risk an accumulation of fatigue. The greater the fatigue, the greater the negative training effects, such as a low rate of recovery, decreased coordination, and diminishing power output. Fatigue from training can also increase if an athlete experiences personal stresses outside of the training environment. The phenomena commonly associated with exercise-induced fatigue are physiologically and psychologically complex. Fatigue can affect and athletes force generating capacity or cause inability to maintain a required force. Although much research has been devoted to fatigue, neither the exact site nor the exact causes are well known. Still, coaches and instructors should become as informed as possible in this area so they can create better plans to avoid fatigue, overreaching, and overtraining in their athletes. Although fatigue is assumed to originate in the muscles, the central nervous system (CNS) plays a fundamental role because neurotransmitter levels greatly affect neural transmission, hormone levels, and ultimately general fatigue. In fact, it is now well established that the CNS limits performance to a greater extent than once thought (Enoka and Stuart 1992; Schillings et al. 2000; Noakes et al. 2005; Weir at al. 2006).Coaches should watch for symptoms of fatigue. In speed and power sports, fatigue is visible to the experienced eye. Athletes react more slowly to explosive activities and show a slight impairment in coordination and an increase in the duration of the contact phase in sprinting, bounding, rebounding, jumping and plyometrics. These activities rely on activation of fast-twitch muscle fibers, which are more easily affected by fatigue then are slow-twitch muscle fibers. Therefore, even slight inhibition of the CNS affects their recruitment. In endurance events, fatigue is generally expressed through the breakdown of technique and, of course, a gradual decrease in average speed of movement.Signs of overtraining are signals that an athlete is adapting poorly, or not at all, to the training regimen. Overtraining doesn't usually settle in overnight; rather, it is a slow process resulting from a prolonged training program the lacks sessions for recovery and periods of regeneration. Without proper rest, relaxation, and recovery the athlete coasts into a state of chronic fatigue and poor motivation. Classic signs of overtraining include a heart rate that is higher than usual; irritability; trouble sleeping; loss of appetite; and, of course muscles that are fatigued, sore, and tight. At times, signs of overtraining appear during recovery from intense training programs. If these signs persist for a few days after one or two intense bouts, they may indicate overreaching rather than overtraining. In other words, the athlete may be working at a level above his or her physical comfort zone. With proper rest and recovery, the athlete will successfully overcome the fatigue and be ready for the next challenge. However, lack of proper recovery can quickly draw the athlete from a state of overreaching to state of overtraining. One can recognize this by using strategies to help determine whether an athlete is entering a state of overtraining. These strategies include but are not limited too: recording the heart rate, keeping a training log, using a handgrip dynamometer, and using a heart rate variability monitor.?Chronic muscle soreness and joint inflammation may be signals to decrease training volume and intensity. If the response to training seems intolerable hours and days after training the coach can try implementing a few recovery techniques following the work out. For example, stretching provides a good way to restore mobility and decrease susceptibility to injury and to relax the body at the end of a workout. Passive, partner-assisted stretches offer an ideal way to fully stretch the muscles and relax while one’s workout partner or coach does the work. Along with implementing recovery techniques to reduce or eliminate the signs of overtraining, the coach should also alter the training program to facilitate regeneration. Another way to regenerate the body after a workout is to perform 5 to 10 minutes of light aerobic activity, such as jogging or cycling. It also provides an active way to remove some of the substances, such as lactic acid and muscle debris that accumulated during training and can impede recovery. An Athlete can also promote muscle and tendon recovery by doing contrast showers. Alternating between hot and cold water is a great way to increase blood flow from the skin to the organs, and eliminate waste products from the muscles, as well as reduce inflammation. Athletes should alternate 30 to 60 seconds of hot water with 30 to 60 seconds of cold water for two or three sets. Of course, this technique takes a little getting used to, but it's extremely effective (Terjung and Hood 1986). Recovery from short-term overtraining should start with the interruption of training for 3 to 5 days. Following this rest period, the athlete should resume training by alternating each training session with a day off. If overtraining is severe and the athlete needs more recovery time, every week of training missed will require roughly two weeks of work to gain back the previous level of conditioning.Various techniques are available for recovery from fatigue. Understanding how to use these techniques during training is just as important as knowing how to train effectively. Training programs constantly implement new loads and intensity levels, but the recovery methods used often do not keep pace. This gap can produce setbacks for athletes in peaking and regeneration after training. About 50% of athlete’s final performance depends on the ability to recover; if recovery is inadequate, adaptation may not be achieved. No single factor controls recovery; rather, various factors contribute in varying degrees. The main factors include age, training experience, sex, environment, availability of energy substrates, and emotional state. Older athletes will generally take longer to recover then younger athletes. On the other hand, athletes who are better trained and more experienced generally require less time to recuperate then that of less experienced athletes, because of their ability to adapt more quickly to a given training stimulus. Sex can also affect the rate of recovery due to differences in the endocrine system; specifically, female athletes tend to recover more slowly then male athletes do. Environmental factors affecting recovery include time differences, altitude, and climate. Recovery is also affected by the replenishment of nutrients at the cellular level. Specifically, the restoration of protein, fat, carbohydrate, and ATP-CP in working muscle cells is required for cellular metabolism and for the production of energy (Fox, et al. 1989; Jacobs et al. 1987). Finally, recovery can be impeded by fear, indecisiveness, or lack of willpower.The neuroendocrine response to training is an important component in recovery. Immediately after strength training sessions the body is in a negative balance because protein breakdown is greater than protein synthesis. Furthermore, the testosterone-to-cortisol ratio is lower, which places the body in a state of catabolism. The body’s imbalance can be addressed by ingesting a protein and carbohydrate mixture in the form of a shake immediately after high-intensity training. Doing so can return the body to a state of positive balance by lowering the cortisol level, speeding up the refilling of muscle glycogen, and supporting the synthesis of muscle protein, thus kick starting the recovery and regeneration process. Recovery is a slow process that corresponds directly to the training load employed. For the greatest effectiveness, one should use recovery techniques after each training session, and more so during specific preparation and competitive phases (Fry, Morton, and Keast 1991; Kuipers and Keizer 1988). There are various recovery techniques that address modalities that can be used to favor training adaptations and recovery. Examples of these are: active recovery, complete or passive rest, massage, hot and cold therapy, and diet and dietary supplementation. Active recovery involves the rapid elimination of waste products (i.e., lactic acid) during moderate aerobic recovery exercise. For example, 62% of lactic acid is removed during the first 10 minutes of continuous light jogging; an additional 26% is removed in the next 10 minutes. Thus, it is advantageous to implement an active recovery period of 10 to 20 minutes after lactic training sessions (Bonen and Belcastro 1977; Fox et al. 1989). Complete rest, or passive rest, is perhaps the one necessity that all athletes have in common. To function at full capacity, most athletes require about 10 hours of sleep per day, including a portion that usually takes the form of naps. In addition practicing relaxation techniques prior to bedtime can put the athletes mind in a more restful state (Gauron 1984). Massage is another recovery technique that uses the systematic manipulation of soft body tissues for therapeutic purposes. This is the treatment of choice for most athletes (Cinique 1989; Yessis 1990). The psychological effects of massage result from mechanical intrusion, sensory simulation, or both. The mechanical effects of massage include the relief of muscle fatigue and the reduction of excessive swelling. Another recovery technique is relaxation and regeneration, which can also be achieved through heat therapy in the form of steam baths, saunas, and heat packs. Although heat packs primarily heat the skin and not the underlying tissues, this modality still useful. If applied long enough, heat can increase the circulation around a muscle. Cold therapy can provide important physical benefits for recovery. Treatments include 5 to 10 minute ice baths, ice whirlpools, or cold packs for 10 to 15 minutes. Lastly, athletes should maintain a sufficient energy balance each day; that is, their daily energy expenditure should roughly match their energy intake. Athletes can judge rather easily whether their diet is adequate in calories. If they're losing weight while on a rigorous workout schedule, they probably are not consuming enough calories. According to Fahey (1992), diet may also play a part in muscle tissue recovery.In conclusion, Strength training programs for athletes are becoming gradually more physically demanding. So coaches and trainers must make sure fatigue does not become a major issue by preventing overtraining. One can do this by thoroughly implementing the proper recovery time and techniques throughout a specific program.ReferencesBonen, A., and Belcastro, A. 1977. A physiological rationale for active recovery exercise. Canadian Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 2:63-64.Cinique, C. 1989. Massage for cyclists: The winning touch? The Physician and Sportsmedicine 17 (10): 167-70.Enoka, R.M., and Stuart, D.G. 1992. Neurobiology of muscle fatigue. Journal of Applied Physiology 72 (5): 1631-38.Fahey, T.D. 1992. How to cope with muscle soreness, Powerlifting USA. 15(7): 10-11.Fox, E.L., Bowes, R.W., and Foss, M.L. 1989. The physiological basis of physical education and athletics. Dubuque, IA: Brown.Fry, R.W., Morton, R., and Keast, D. 1991. Overtraining in athletics. Sports Medicine 2 (1): 32-65.Gauron, E.F. 1984. Mental training for peak performance. New York: Sports Science Associates.Jacobs, I., Esbornsson, M., Sylven, C., Holm, I., and Jansson, E. 1987. Sprint training effects on muscle myoglobin, enzymes, fibre types, and blood lactate. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19 (4): 368-74.Kuipers, H., and Keizer, H.A. 1988. Overtraining in elite athletes: Review and directions for the future. Sports Medicine 6:79-92.Noakes, T.D., et al. 2005. From catastrophe to complexity: A novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans: Summary and conclusions. British Journal of Sports Sciences 39:120-24. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2003.010330.Schillings, M.L., et al. 2000. Central and peripheral aspects of exercise-induced fatigue. med.uni-jena.de/motorik/pdk/schillings.pdf.Terjung, R.L. and Hood, D.A. 1986. Biomedical adaptions in skeletal muscle induced by exercise training. In Nutrition and aerobic exercise, ed. D.K. Layman, 8-7. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.Weir, J.P., et al. 2006. Is fatigue all in your head? A critical review of the central governor model. British Journal if Sports Medicine 40 (7): 573-86.Yessis, M. 1990. Soviet training methods. New York: Barnes & Noble. ................
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