CHAPTER THREE .in

[Pages:86]CHAPTER THREE

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

THEORY, CRITICISM AND ANALYSIS :

There is an experiment in psychology that one can perform easily in one's own home if one has a child three or four years old. Buy t"wo toys that one is fairly sure will be equally attractive to the child. Show them to him and say :" Here are two nice toys. This one is for you to keep. The other I must give back to the store. " Then hand the child the toy that is his to keep and ask :" Which of the two toys do you like better ?" Studies have shown that in such a situation most children will tell, they prefer the toy they are to keep.

This response of children seems to conflict with the old saying that the grass is always green on the other side of the fence. Do adults respond in the same way under similar circumstances or does the adage become true as we grow older ? The question is of considerable interest as the adult world is filled with choices and alternative courses of action that are often about equally attractive,

When they make a choice of a car or a college or a spouse or a house or a political candidate, do most people remain satisfied with their choice or do they tend to wish they had made a different one ? Naturally, any choice may turn out to be a bad one on the basis of some objective measurement, but the question is : Does some psychological process come into play immediately after the making of a choice that colors one's attitude, either favourable or unfavourable, toward the decision ?

To illuminate this question, there is another experiment one can do at home, this time using an adult as a subject rather than a child. Buy two presents for your wife, again choosing things you are reasonably sure she will find about equally attractive. Find some plausible excuse for having both of them in your possession, show them to your wife and ask her to tell you how attractive is each one to her. Tell her that she can have one of them, whichever she chooses. The other you will return to the store. After she has made her choice, ask her once more to evaluate the attractiveness of each of them. If you

compare the evaluations of a|;tractiveness before and after the choice, you will probably find that the chosen present has increased in attractiveness and the rejected one decreased.

Such behavior can be explained by the theory of .^Cognitive Dissonance'. This theory centre's around the idea that if a person knows various things that are not psychologically consistent with one another, he will, in a variety of ways, try to make them more consistent. Two itetas of information that psychologically do not fit together are said to be in a dissonant relation to each other. The items of information may be about behavior, feelings, opinions, things in the environment. The word ^Cognitive" emphasizes that the theory deals with relations among items of information.

Such items can be changed. A person can change his opinion, he can change his behavior, thereby changing the information he has about it, he can even distort his perception and his information about the world around him. Changes in items of information that produce or restore consistency are referred to as dissonance - reducing changes.(1)

Dr. Leon Festinger,(2) Professor of Social Psychology proposed *A theory of Cognitive Dissonance' in 1957. It is a theory in social psychology. Almost for last three decades, this theory has remained a favourite sources of knowledge, analysis and criticism for behavioural scientists. More than *Three Hundred' studies have been conducted on this theory.

Scholars have appreciated this theory. Some of them have condemned it. Quite a few have advocated its use in Marketing in general and consumer behavior in particular. Specifically, it becomes applicable to the post purchase dissonance in the consumer's mind.

In this chapter of the thesis, the basic theory of Festinger, criticism on it and its analysis are being presented.

1. Loosely based on Dr. Leon Festinger's original contributions, quoted and edited by 11.C. Barksdale : Marketing in Progress, Patterns and Potentials, Holt,Rinehart & Winston Inc. New York : PP 368 - 378.

2. Dr. Leon Festinger, Professor of Social Psychology, Stanford University : A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California : 1957.

3.1 Definition of a few oft-used terras : (3)

Before we go in for a detail study of various criticism on the theory of Cognitive Dissonance, it will be worthwhile to define various terms which will be often used in the context of social psychology, consumer behavior and our forthcoming discussions.

i. Perception :

Gestalt's psychology is based on the premise that perception is paramount in the process leading upto behavior. It shows that human beings appear to see things in patterns which are common to all human beings. These patterns are based on the principle of control and grouping.

Perception of qualities and quantities are interestingly connected. They bear on our understanding of human behavior. Prejudiced persons are usually sensitive to members of groups they like or dislike. Sometimes, we tend not perceive certain things. It is called 'perceptual defence'. Thus perception is a sort of 'understanding'.

ii. Social Psychology :

It deals with how the individual adapts himself to his total environment. It is more than just his reactions to social influences. In one sense it is another learning theory. It is derived from the interaction of the individual with groups of people and their'influences. It examines the relationship between the individuals needs, which are driving forces motivating him to some action. It studies individuals actual behavior evoked by his beliefs, attitudes and values,

In social psychology 'motivation' is the impetus (drive) to current behavior.

'Cognition' determines the form and direction of his behavior,

3. This note is loosely based on the writings of R.W.

Chapman : Marketing

today : Intertext Books

England : PP - 43 - 50.

Altitudes and beliefs are the indicators of probable future behavior.

Comparatively less experimental work has been done in the field of social psychology vis-a-vis classical psychology,

iii. Motivation :

Social psychology believes that an individual's current psychological field is determined by the external physical and psychological environment and also by his internal physiological state. Motivation begins the current psychological state. The goal is seen as action, not just the goal object. When one is hungry, eating is the goal, not just food. Social psychology is concerned with current state, not history. History is more of a concern for classical psycho-analysis.

The various parts of the psychological field are constantly interacting. It results into instability. Instability leads to tensions. Tensions mixed with basic needs lead to action. Action in turn leads to reduction of a particular tension.

iv. Cognition :

Shelby D. Hunt(4) says, "Cognitions are the bits of knowledge one has about himself, about his behavior and his surroundings''.

M. Venkatesan(5) defines cognitions as *any knowledge, opinions or beliefs about the environment, about oneself, about one's behavior.

4. Shelby. D. Hunt's definition reprinted from "Post

Transactions

Communications and

Dissonance

reduction" : Journal of Marketing : VOL.34, July,

1970; PP; 46-51, published by the American Marketing

Association.

5. M. Venkatesan in "Cognitive Dissonance" : Handbook of Marketing Research : Edited by Robert Ferber : McGraw Hill Book Company:New York:PP-3-142-159.

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Webster & Wind(6) put cognition as the process by which the individual receives information from the environment and interprets it. It includes both sensation and perception, thinking and memory.

Kustom Davar(7) states about ''Human Cognition' :- Between the stimulus or 'cue' and the ultimate action which follows lies a filtering systems or image. The image is a construct of relationships, experiences, values and emotions. It is characterised by an internal capacity to grow from within. It also grows from the retention of external experiences. It is related to man's capacity to create, from a series of related/unrelated events. This system or the capacity is Cognition.

Cognition is a normal process of 'knowing' that is perceiving a thing, relating it to all that has gone before and making sense of it to oneself. Cognition is concerned with perception plus previously existing Cognitive structures - (the existing cognitions of all types).

When new information is perceived it is. taken in injunction with the existing cognitive structures to produce a conclusion about some object or events. This conclusion may change the existing cognitive structure itself. Due to this type of change or new situation is formed and similar information leads to a different conclusion.

The stability of cognitive structures varies. Cognitive structures pf cultural references including beliefs, social and moral ideas or attitudes towards events or things are unstable. Cognitions very much give importance to 'Other People'. Sufficient group pressure can influence an individual's perception.

6. Webster and Wind : Organisational Buying Behavior :

Prentice Hall of

India (P) Limited : New'^Delhi :

PP-96.

7. Rustom S. Davar : Executive Decision Making - Modern Concepts and Techniques : Progressive Corporation (P) Ltd, Bombay : Page 62-63.

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V. Beliefs and Altitudes :

A study of the beliefs and altitudes of the consumer is necessary to study his behavior. Beliefs and altitudes form a consumer's cognitive structure.

Beliefs : may be described as a pattern of meanings, raotivationally, neutral around an object which includes knowledge, opinions and faith.

Altitudes are the active pre-dispositions for or against objects, events and people.

vi. Dissonance :

It is a state of mind arising out of a violation of strong expectancies. It is a sort of a dent to one's own self concept due to inconsistent self behavior. - E. Aronson,

vii. Cognitive Consistency(8):

Day says ''cognitive consistency' is of great influence in Marketing and Consumer behavior. It is because an individual strives to achieve consistency among his values, attitudes and perceptions. (These are the various cognitive elements) and his behavior. Cognitions tend to exist in clusters. They are internally consistent and consistent with behavior. The need for consistency is a very powerful motivating force. Fritz^ Heider first discussed ^Cognitive Consistency'. Day and Calder elaborated it.

viii. Cognitive Dissonance :

Calder says *man strive for consistency, but inconsistencies in behavior do exist'.

Inconsistencies in behavior are termed as 'Cognitive Dissonance' - a term later on became synonymous to postdecision conflict.

Kassarjian & Robertson : Perspectives in Consumer Behavior : Scott, Foresman & Company. U.K.

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Festinger proposed that the existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable will motivate the person to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance.

In the forthcoming pages discussion is concentrated on this concept.

3.2 Dr. Leon Festinger's Classical Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (9) & (10)

v\n individual strives towards consistency within himself. His opinions and altitudes tend to exist in clusters. They are internally consistent,

Certainly one may find exceptions. A person may think, Negroes are just as good as whites but would not want any living in his neighbourhood, or someone may think little children should be quiet and unobtrusive. Yet, may be quite proud when his child aggressively captures the attention of his adult guests. When such inconsistencies are found to exist, they may be quite dramatic. They capture our attention primarily because they stand out in sharp contrast against a background of consistency. It is still overwhelmingly true that related opinions or attitudes are consistent with one another.

There is similar consistency between what a person knows or believes and what he does. A person who believes a college education is good will like his children to go to a college. It is so much the rule that we take it for granted. Again sometimes exceptions capture our attention, A person may know that smoking is bad for him and yet continues to smoke,

Consistency is a usual way of life. But inconsistencies whenever found are rationalised by a person involved, Inconsi'stencies mainly occur when some information contrary to one's beliefs reaches him,

9. Dr. Leon Festinger : A theory of cognitive dissonance :

Stanford

University Press : 1957. Stanford, California

: PP 1-31

10, H,C, Barksdale : Marketing in Progress, Patterns and Potential : Holt, Rinehart & Winston Inc, New York,

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The person who continues to smoke, knowing that it is bad for his health may also feel,

a. He enjoys smoking so much, it is worth it. b. The chances of his health suffering are not serious as made

but. c. He cannot always avoid every possible dangerous contingency

and still live. d. Perhaps if he stopped smoking he may put on weight. So

continuing to smpke is consistent with his ideas about smoking.

But persons are not always successful in explaining away or in rationalising inconsistencies to themselves. For one reason or the other, attempts to achieve consistency may fail. The inconsistency then simply continues to exist. Under such circumstances, that is in presence of an inconsistency there is psychological discomfort. Inconsistency means dissonance. Consistency is consonnance.

i. The existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the persons to try to reduce dissonance and achieve consonance.

ii. When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which is likely to increase the dissonance.

The two hypothesis put above provide a starting point for the theory of Cognitive Dissonance. In place of dissonance one can substitute other notions, similar in nature, such as hunger, frustration or disequilibrium and the hypothesis would still make a perfectly good sense.

Dissonance is the existence of non-fitting relations among cognitions and is a motivating force in its own right. Cognition means any knowledge, opinion or belief about oneself, about environments or about one's behavior.

Cognitive Dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition which leads to activities oriented towards dissonance reduction, viz., hunger leads to activity oriented towards Imnger reduction. It is a very different motivation from what psychologists are used to dealing

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